Clinical development and potential of photothermal and photodynamic therapies for cancer

Development of Polar BODIPY-Tetrazines for Rapid Pretargeted Fluorescence Imaging

Polar BODIPY-tetrazine dyes were developed and clicked in vivo to a preaccumulated trans-cyclooctene-modified anti-TAG72 monoclonal antibody CC49 (CC49-TCO). The in vivo click performance was evaluated using an in-house developed ex vivo blocking assay. All tested polar BODIPY structures exhibited excellent in vivo binding, confirming that the turn-on tetrazine dyes successfully clicked in vivo to pretargeted CC49-TCO. Fluorescence imaging showed high tumor-to-muscle ratios of 4:1. This proof-of-concept study indicates that the pretargeting concept based on turn-on probes could be used for cancer treatments, such as photodynamic or -thermal therapy.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymeric Nanocarriers Accelerate On-Demand Drug Release to Combat Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly malignant brain tumor with a poor prognosis and limited treatment options. Drug delivery by stimuli-responsive nanocarriers holds great promise for improving the treatment modalities of GBM. At the beginning of the review, we highlighted the stimuli-active polymeric nanocarriers carrying therapies that potentially boost anti-GBM responses by employing endogenous (pH, redox, hypoxia, enzyme) or exogenous stimuli (light, ultrasonic, magnetic, temperature, radiation) as triggers for controlled drug release mainly via hydrophobic/hydrophilic transition, degradability, ionizability, etc. Modifying these nanocarriers with target ligands further enhanced their capacity to traverse the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and preferentially accumulate in glioma cells. These unique features potentially lead to more effective brain cancer treatment with minimal adverse reactions and superior therapeutic outcomes. Finally, the review summarizes the existing difficulties and future prospects in stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for treating GBM. Overall, this review offers theoretical guidelines for developing intelligent and versatile stimuli-responsive nanocarriers to facilitate precise drug delivery and treatment of GBM in clinical settings.

Glutathione-Depleted Photodynamic Nanoadjuvant for Triggering Nonferrous Ferroptosis to Amplify Radiotherapy of Breast Cancer

Radiotherapy plays a crucial role in the treatment of advanced breast cancer, but the increased antioxidant system, especially the rise in glutathione (GSH), presents a significant obstacle to its effectiveness. To address this challenge, a versatile GSH-depleted photodynamic nanoadjuvant is developed to augment the efficacy of radiotherapy for breast cancer treatment. This nanoadjuvant operates within the tumor microenvironment to effectively deplete intracellular GSH through a sequence of cascaded processes, including GSH exhaustion, biosynthetic inhibition, and photodynamic oxidation. This leads to a notable accumulation of lipid peroxides (LPO) and subsequent suppression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) activity. Consequently, the combined GSH depletion induced by the nanoadjuvant markedly promotes nonferrous ferroptosis, thereby contributing to the augmentation of antitumor efficiency during radiotherapy in breast cancer. This work presents an innovative approach to designing and synthesizing biocompatible nanoadjuvants with the goal of improving the efficacy of radiotherapy for breast cancer in prospective clinical scenarios.

Divergent Syntheses of Near-Infrared Light-Activated Molecular Jackhammers for Cancer Cell Eradication

Aminocyanines incorporating Cy7 and Cy7.5 moieties function as molecular jackhammers (MJH) through vibronic-driven action (VDA). This mechanism, which couples molecular vibrational and electronic modes, results in picosecond-scale concerted stretching of the entire molecule. When cell-associated and activated by near-infrared light, MJH mechanically disrupts cell membranes, causing rapid necrotic cell death. Unlike photodynamic and photothermal therapies, the ultrafast vibrational action of MJH is unhindered by high concentrations of reactive oxygen species scavengers and induces only a minimal temperature increase. Here, the efficient synthesis of a library of MJH is described using a practical approach to access a key intermediate and facilitating the preparation of various Cy7 and Cy7.5 MJH with diverse side chains in moderate to high yields. Photophysical characterization reveals that structural modifications significantly affect molar extinction coefficients and quantum yields while maintaining desirable absorption and emission wavelengths. The most promising compounds, featuring dimethylaminoethyl and dimethylcarbamoyl substitutions, demonstrate up to sevenfold improvement in phototherapeutic index compared to Cy7.5 amine across multiple cancer cell lines. This synthetic strategy provides a valuable platform for developing potent, light-activated therapeutic agents for cancer treatment, with potentially broad applicability across various cancer types.

Dual-activity nanozyme as an oxygen pump to alleviate tumor hypoxia and enhance photodynamic/ NIR-II photothermal therapy for sniping oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common malignant tumor in the head and neck region, and its treatment is limited by hypoxia and inadequate oxygen supply. Continuous oxygen delivery combined with photodynamic therapy (PDT) is the key to addressing this issue. Here, a dual-enzyme activity sea urchin-like Au@Pt-Ce6-HN-1 nanoplatform was designed to serve as an "oxygen pump" to alleviate tumor hypoxia for synergistic photodynamic/photothermal therapy (PTT). In this design, the photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) is covalently linked to the Au@Pt nanozyme for PDT treatment. The Au@Pt nanozyme exhibits catalase-like activity, continuously decomposing H2O2 in the tumor microenvironment to enhance O2 levels, thereby achieving efficient PDT. Furthermore, Au@Pt can perform PTT and increase oxygen levels under NIR-II light to further promote PDT. The Au@Pt nanozyme also exhibits peroxidase-like activity, generating ·OH for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Additionally, HN-1 guides the direction of "sniping" OSCC, and its high specificity benefits Au@Pt-Ce6-HN-1 at the tumor site. Au@Pt-Ce6-HN-1 exhibits bright fluorescence (FL), strong CT signal, and photothermal imaging capabilities, laying the foundation for subsequent guided PDT/PTT. This nanoplatform, which combines advantages such as continuous oxygen production, tumor targeting, and multimodal imaging, is expected to provide valuable insights into the treatment of OSCC. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Accurate clinical diagnosis and treatment of OSCC are challenging. We report a dual-enzyme activity sea urchin-like Au@Pt-Ce6-HN-1 nanoplatform, serving as an "oxygen pump" to guide photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) for OSCC. This nanoplatform targets OSCC for preoperative CT diagnosis and offers fluorescence visualization for surgical navigation, demonstrating potential in clinical cancer detection and surgery guidance. This innovative approach addresses OSCC hypoxia and enhances treatment efficacy through continuous oxygen production, tumor targeting, and multimodal imaging, significantly improving patient outcomes in OSCC treatment.

Supramolecular nanomedicine in the intelligent cancer therapy: recent advances and future

In recent years, the incidence of cancer has been increasing year by year, and the burden of the disease and the economic burden caused by it has been worsening. Although chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy and other therapeutic means continue to progress, they still inevitably have problems such as high toxicity and side effects, susceptibility to drug resistance, and high price. Photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy have demonstrated considerable advantages in cancer imaging and treatment due to their minimally invasive and selective nature. However, their development has been constrained by challenges related to drug delivery. In recent times, drug delivery systems constructed based on supramolecular chemistry have been the subject of considerable interest, particularly in view of their compatibility with the high permeability and long retention effect of tumors. Furthermore, the advantage of dissociating the active ingredient under pH, light and other stimuli makes them unique in cancer therapy. This paper reviews the current status of supramolecular nanomedicines in cancer therapy, elucidating the challenges faced and providing a theoretical basis for the efficient and precise treatment of malignant tumors.

Monoclonal antibodies: From magic bullet to precision weapon

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are used to prevent, detect, and treat a broad spectrum of non-communicable and communicable diseases. Over the past few years, the market for mAbs has grown exponentially with an expected compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.07% from 2024 (237.64 billion USD estimated at the end of 2023) to 2033 (679.03 billion USD expected by the end of 2033). Ever since the advent of hybridoma technology introduced in 1975, antibody-based therapeutics were realized using murine antibodies which further progressed into humanized and fully human antibodies, reducing the risk of immunogenicity. Some benefits of using mAbs over conventional drugs include a drastic reduction in the chances of adverse reactions, interactions between drugs, and targeting specific proteins. While antibodies are very efficient, their higher production costs impede the process of commercialization. However, their cost factor has been improved by developing biosimilar antibodies as affordable versions of therapeutic antibodies. Along with the recent advancements and innovations in antibody engineering have helped and will furtherly help to design bio-better antibodies with improved efficacy than the conventional ones. These novel mAb-based therapeutics are set to revolutionize existing drug therapies targeting a wide spectrum of diseases, thereby meeting several unmet medical needs. This review provides comprehensive insights into the current fundamental landscape of mAbs development and applications and the key factors influencing the future projections, advancement, and incorporation of such promising immunotherapeutic candidates as a confrontation approach against a wide list of diseases, with a rationalistic mentioning of any limitations facing this field.

Plectin-1-targeted recognition for enhancing comprehensive therapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) poses a formidable challenge due to its aggressive nature and poor prognosis. Gemcitabine (Gem), a primary therapeutic option, functions by inhibiting DNA synthesis and promoting apoptosis, thereby impeding the progression of PDAC. However, Gem is hindered by suboptimal pharmacokinetics and efficacy. In response to these challenges, we have developed a nanoparticle (NP) designed for specific recognition of plectin-1 in PDAC cell membranes. The NPs encapsulate Gem while demonstrating pH-responsive drug release characteristics in the acidic tumor microenvironment. This targeted approach enhances local drug delivery while alleviating concerns about systemic toxicity. Furthermore, the NPs are enriched with indocyanine green (ICG), renowned for its strong photothermal effects, thereby further enhancing therapeutic outcomes. This study presents an innovative therapeutic strategy for PDAC based on a plectin-1-targeted recognition delivery approach. The approach is applied to enhance chemotherapy, combined with photothermal therapy (PTT), inducing apoptosis in PDAC cell lines and improving the pharmacokinetics of Gem. In conclusion, the delivery strategy based on plectin-1-targeted recognition shows promising preclinical prospects for enhancing therapeutic efficacy in PDAC, offering valuable insights for future clinical applications.

Precision Photothermal Therapy at Mild Temperature: NIR-II Imaging-Guided, H2O2-Responsive Stealth Nanobomb

The therapeutic efficacy of photothermal therapy (PTT) under mild temperatures (<45 °C) is hindered as cancer cells can activate heat shock proteins (HSPs) to mend fever-type cellular damage swiftly. The previous attempt fabricated first-generation nanobombs (nanobomb1G) by self-assembly of polymeric NIR-II AIEgens and carbon monoxide (CO) carrier polymer mPEG(CO) to inhibit the expression of HSPs after intratumor injection. A new generation nanobomb (Stealth NanoBomb (SNB)) is developed by self-assembling small molecular NIR-II AIEgens with CO carrier polymer PLGA(CO) coated by PEG-lipid. This design allows for intravenous administration, enabling the SNB to circulate safely in the bloodstream and selectively target cancer cells. Upon accumulation in tumors, the SNB releases CO to effectively suppress HSP expression, enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of mild-temperature PTT. Compared to the previous generation, the SNB offers a safer, more stable, and more efficient CO gas/drug co-delivery system for cancer treatment. This work represents a significant advancement in PTT, providing a promising strategy for enhanced antitumor therapy with reduced systemic toxicity.

Strongly quenched activatable theranostic nanogel for precision imaging-guided photodynamic therapy and enhanced immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are innovative immunotherapeutic agents for cancer. However, their low therapeutic efficacy in patients with large or rapidly growing tumors, along with their high cost, represents a notable limitation in their clinical applications. Therefore, new and safe strategies must be developed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of ICIs in clinical settings. In this study, we developed a near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent dye-loaded activatable theranostic nanogel (NATNgel) for precision imaging-guided photodynamic therapy (PDT) and combined immunotherapy for rapidly growing tumors. Although NIR fluorescence and phototoxicity of NATNgel are strongly quenched, these can be selectively activated inside target tumor cells. A high tumor-to-background ratio (7.31 ± 1.40) in NIR fluorescence imaging could be achieved in NATNgel-treated mice, enabling real-time image-guided PDT. The combination of PDT and anti-PD-1 antibody therapy resulted in complete tumor regression. Histopathological evaluation of major organs and blood chemistry analysis revealed no side effects of the combined treatment regimen. In addition, the combination treatment completely suppressed the growth of rechallenged tumors. Overall, NATNgel is a safe and promising theranostic material for precision imaging-guided PDT and enhanced immunotherapy.

Combination of Losartan and Platinum Nanoparticles with Photothermal Therapy Induces Immunogenic Cell Death Effective Against Neuroblastoma

Introduction

Photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising therapeutic procedure with minimal side effects, which can not only kill tumor directly but also cause immunogenic cell death (ICD). However, most solid tumors, including neuroblastoma, are abundant in fibroblasts, which limit the penetration and delivery of nanoparticles. Losartan is an antihypertensive drug approved by the FDA, and it has been proved to have the effect of breaking down excessive ECM network.

Methods

In this study, we investigated the application and potential mechanism of the combination of mesoporous platinum nanoparticles (MPNs) and losartan in the PTT of neuroblastoma by establishing neuroblastoma models in vitro and in vivo.

Results

Compared to the MPNs group without 808 nm laser irradiation, Neuro-2a cells pretreated with PTT and losartan showed lower survival rates, increased surface calreticulin, and higher release of HMGB1 and ATP. The group also exhibited the highest anti-tumor efficacy in vivo, with a tumor suppression ratio of approximately 80%. Meanwhile, we found that CD3+ T cells, CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells from the peripheral blood of experimental group mice were significantly higher than control groups, and CD8+PD-1+ cells were significantly lower than those in MPNs + Los group and Los + laser group. And the expression of PD-1 and α-SMA in Neuro-2a tumors tissue was reduced. Furthermore, losartan could reduce damage of liver function caused by MPNs and laser treatment.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that losartan-induced fibroblasts ablation increased the penetration of MPNs into tumors. Enhanced penetration allowed PTT to kill more tumor cells and synergistically activate immune cells, leading to ICD, indicating the great promise of the strategy for treating neuroblastoma in vivo.

Nanobiotechnology boosts ferroptosis: opportunities and challenges

Ferroptosis, distinct from apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy, is a unique type of cell death driven by iron-dependent phospholipid peroxidation. Since ferroptosis was defined in 2012, it has received widespread attention from researchers worldwide. From a biochemical perspective, the regulation of ferroptosis is strongly associated with cellular metabolism, primarily including iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and redox metabolism. The distinctive regulatory mechanism of ferroptosis holds great potential for overcoming drug resistance-a major challenge in treating cancer. The considerable role of nanobiotechnology in disease treatment has been widely reported, but further and more systematic discussion on how nanobiotechnology enhances the therapeutic efficacy on ferroptosis-associated diseases still needs to be improved. Moreover, while the exciting therapeutic potential of ferroptosis in cancer has been relatively well summarized, its applications in other diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and kidney disease, remain underreported. Consequently, it is necessary to fill these gaps to further complete the applications of nanobiotechnology in ferroptosis. In this review, we provide an extensive introduction to the background of ferroptosis and elaborate its regulatory network. Subsequently, we discuss the various advantages of combining nanobiotechnology with ferroptosis to enhance therapeutic efficacy and reduce the side effects of ferroptosis-associated diseases. Finally, we analyze and discuss the feasibility of nanobiotechnology and ferroptosis in improving clinical treatment outcomes based on clinical needs, as well as the current limitations and future directions of nanobiotechnology in the applications of ferroptosis, which will not only provide significant guidance for the clinical applications of ferroptosis and nanobiotechnology but also accelerate their clinical translations.

Red-Light Triggered H-Abstraction Photoinitiators for the Efficient Oxygen-Independent Therapy of Hypoxic Tumors

The clinical application of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is limited by oxygen-dependence and side effects caused by photosensitizer residues. Photoinitiators based on the H-abstraction reaction can address these challenges because they can generate alkyl radical-killing cells independently of oxygen and undergo rapid bleaching following H-abstraction. Nonetheless, the development of photoinitiators for PDT has been impeded by the absence of effective design strategies. Herein, we have developed aryl-ketone substituted cyanine (ACy-R), the first red-light triggered H-abstraction photoinitiators for hypoxic cancer therapy. These ACy-R molecules inherited the near-infrared absorption of cyanine dye, and aryl-ketone modification imparted H-abstraction capability. Experimental and quantum calculations revealed that modifying the electron-withdrawing groups of the aryl (e.g., ACy-5F) improved the contribution of the O atom to the photon excitation process promoting intersystem crossing and H-abstraction ability. Particularly, ACy-5F rapidly penetrated cells and enriched in the endoplasmic reticulum. Even under severe hypoxia, ACy-5F initiated red-light induced H-abstraction with intracellular biomolecules, inducing necroptosis and ferroptosis. Moreover, ACy-5F was degraded after H-abstraction, thus avoiding the side effects of long-term phototoxicity after therapy. This study not only provides a crucial molecular tool for hypoxic tumors therapy, but also presents a promising strategy for the development of multifunctional photosensitizers and photoinitiators.

A photothermal effect-based chiral sensor for chiral discrimination and sensitive detection

Chiral analysis with simple devices is of great importance for analytical chemistry. Based on the photothermal (PT) effect, a simple chiral sensor with a portable laser device as the light source and a thermometer as the detection tool was developed for the chiral recognition of tryptophan (Trp) isomers and the sensitive sensing of one isomer (L-Trp). Gold nanorods (GNRs), which have outstanding photo-thermal conversion ability due to their localized surface plasma resonance (LSPR) effect, are used as PT reagents, and biomacromolecules bovine serum albumin (BSA) are used as natural chiral sources, and thus, GNRs@BSA was obtained through Au-S bonds. The resultant GNRs@BSA displays higher affinity toward L-Trp than D-Trp owing to the inherent chirality of BSA. Under the irradiation of near-infrared (NIR) light, the temperature of GNRs@BSA//L-Trp is greatly lower than that of GNRs@BSA//D-Trp due to its greatly decreased thermal conductivity, and thus chiral discrimination of Trp isomers can be achieved. In addition, the developed PT effect-based chiral sensor can be used for sensitive detection of L-Trp, and the linear range and limit of detection (LOD) are 1 μM-10 mM and 0.43 μM, respectively.

Analysis and Optimization of Light Absorption and Scattering Properties of Metal Nanocages

Metal nanocages exhibit localized surface plasmon resonance that strongly absorbs and scatters light at specific wavelengths, making them potentially valuable for photothermal therapy and biological imaging applications. However, investigations on metal nanocages are still confined to high-cost and small-scale synthesis. The comprehensive analysis of optical properties and optimal size parameters of metal nanocages is rarely reported. This paper simulates the effects of materials (Ag, Au, and Cu), size parameters, refractive index of the surrounding medium, and orientation on the light absorption and scattering characteristics of the nanocages using the finite-element method and the size-dependent refractive-index model for metal nanoparticles. The results show that the Ag nanocages have excellent light absorption and scattering characteristics and respond significantly to the size parameters, while the refractive index and orientation of the surrounding medium have less effect on them. The Au nanocages also possess superior light absorption properties at specific incident wavelengths. This study also identified the optimized sizes of three metal nanocages at incident light wavelengths commonly used in biomedicine; it was also found that, under deep therapy conditions, Ag nanocages in particular exhibit the highest volume absorption and scattering coefficients of 0.708 nm-1 and 0.583 nm-1, respectively. These findings offer theoretical insights into preparing target nanocage particles for applications in photothermal therapy and biological imaging.

Nanomedicines Targeting Tumor Cells or Tumor-Associated Macrophages for Combinatorial Cancer Photodynamic Therapy and Immunotherapy: Strategies and Influencing Factors

Immunotherapy is a promising cancer treatment because of its ability to sustainably enhance the natural immune response. However, the effects of multiple immunotherapies, including ICIs, are limited by resistance to these agents, immune-related adverse events, and a lack of reasonable therapeutic targets available at the right time and place. The tumor microenvironment (TME), which features tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), plays a significant role in resistance owing to its hypoxic microenvironment and lack of blood vessels, resulting in cancer immune evasion. To enhance immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT) can increase innate and adaptive immune responses through immunogenic cell death (ICD) and improve the TME. Traditional photosensitizers (PSs) also include novel nanomedicines to precisely target tumor cells or TAMs. Here, we reviewed and summarized current strategies and possible influencing factors for nanomedicines for cancer photoimmunotherapy.

Designing nanotheranostics with machine learning

The inherent limits of traditional diagnoses and therapies have driven the development and application of emerging nanotechnologies for more effective and safer management of diseases, herein referred to as 'nanotheranostics'. Although many important technological successes have been achieved in this field, widespread adoption of nanotheranostics as a new paradigm is hindered by specific obstacles, including time-consuming synthesis of nanoparticles, incomplete understanding of nano-bio interactions, and challenges regarding chemistry, manufacturing and the controls required for clinical translation and commercialization. As a key branch of artificial intelligence, machine learning (ML) provides a set of tools capable of performing time-consuming and result-perception tasks, thus offering unique opportunities for nanotheranostics. This Review summarizes the progress and challenges in this emerging field of ML-aided nanotheranostics, and discusses the opportunities in developing next-generation nanotheranostics with reliable datasets and advanced ML models to offer better clinical benefits to patients.

PAD4 Inhibitor-Loaded Layered Double Hydroxide Nanosheets as a Multifunctional Nanoplatform for Photodynamic Therapy-Mediated Tumor Metastasis Treatment

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is demonstrated to be effective in inducing antitumor immune responses for tumor metastasis treatment. However, tumor hypoxia, inferior tissue penetration of light, and low singlet oxygen (1O2) quantum yield significantly hamper the efficacy of PDT, thus weakening its immune function. Moreover, PDT-mediated neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation can further reduce the therapeutic effectiveness. Herein, the use of defect-rich CoMo-layered double hydroxide (DR-CoMo-LDH) nanosheets as a carrier to load a typical peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 inhibitor, i.e., YW4-03, to construct a multifunctional nanoagent (403@DR-LDH) for PDT/immunotherapy, is reported. Specifically, 403@DR-LDH inherits excellent 1O2 generation activity under 1550 nm laser irradiation and improves the half-life of YW4-03. Meanwhile, 403@DR-LDH plus 1550 nm laser irradiation can stimulate immunogenic cell death to promote the maturation of dendric cells and activation/infiltration of T cells and significantly downregulate H3cit protein expression to inhibit NETs formation, synergistically promoting the antitumor metastasis effect. Taken together, 403@DR-LDH can kill cancer cells and inhibit tumor growth/metastasis under 1550 nm laser irradiation. Single-cell analysis indicates that 403@DR-LDH can regulate the ratio of immune cells and immune-related proteins to improve the tumor immune microenvironment, showing strong efficacy to inhibit the tumor growth, metastasis, and recurrence.

2D nanomaterials-based delivery systems and their potentials in anticancer synergistic photo-immunotherapy

As the field of cancer therapeutics evolves, integrating two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials with photo-immunotherapy has emerged as a promising approach with significant potential to augment cancer treatment efficacy. These 2D nanomaterials include graphene-based 2D nanomaterials, 2D MXenes, 2D layered double hydroxides, black phosphorus nanosheets, 2D metal-organic frameworks, and 2D transition metal dichalcogenides. They exhibit high load capacities, multiple functionalization pathways, optimal biocompatibility, and physiological stability. Predominantly, they function as anti-tumor delivery systems, amalgamating diverse therapeutic modalities, most notably phototherapy and immunotherapy, and the former is a recognized non-invasive treatment modality, and the latter represents the most promising anti-cancer strategy presently accessible. Thus, integrating phototherapy and immunotherapy founded on 2D nanomaterials unveils a novel paradigm in the war against cancer. This review delineates the latest developments in 2D nanomaterials as delivery systems for synergistic photo-immunotherapy in cancer treatment. We elaborate on the burgeoning realm of photo-immunotherapy, exploring the interplay between phototherapy and enhanced immune cells, immune response modulation, or immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments. Notably, the strategies to augment photo-immunotherapy have also been discussed. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future perspectives of these 2D nanomaterials in photo-immunotherapy.

Diagnosis and therapy of Alzheimer's disease: Light-driven heterogeneous redox processes

Light-driven heterogeneous processes are promising approaches for diagnosing and treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) by regulating its relevant biomolecules. The molecular understanding of the heterogeneous interface environment and its interaction with target biomolecules is important. This review critically appraises the advances in AD early diagnosis and therapy employing heterogeneous light-driven redox processes, encompassing photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensing, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, PEC therapy, and photoacoustic therapy. The design strategies for heterogeneous interfaces based on target biomolecules and applications are also compiled. Finally, the remaining challenges and future perspectives are discussed. The present review may promote the fundamental understanding of AD diagnosis and therapy and facilitate interdisciplinary studies at the junction of nanotechnology and bioscience.

A complete course of photodynamic therapy reduced the risk of malignant transformation of oral leukoplakia

BACKGROUND

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has shown good short-term efficacy in the treatment of oral leukoplakia (OLK). However, the malignant transformation of OLK was seldom evaluated in most PDT studies. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of PDT on the risk of malignant transformation of OLK.

METHODS

Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, COX regression, and sensitivity analysis were used to evaluate the effects of PDT on the risk of malignant transformation of OLK. Subgroup analyses were performed to explore the role of PDT in OLK patients with different clinical characteristics.

RESULTS

OLK patients with older age (HR=1.032, P = 0.018) and non-homogeneous lesion (HR=2.104, P = 0.044) had higher risk of malignant transformation. Patients who had finished a complete course of PDT (HR=0.305, P = 0.006) had a significant lower risk of malignant transformation, while those who hadn't finished a complete course of PDT (HR=0.692, P = 0.352) cannot be considered to have such a protective effect. In the subgroup analyses, complete PDT course showed a significant protective effect on malignant transformation of OLK in patients with female sex, no smoking or drinking habits, non-homogeneous lesions, lesions on oral mucosa outside the dangerous region, and any grade of epithelial dysplasia.

CONCLUSIONS

A complete course of PDT could significantly reduce the risk of malignant transformation of OLK, especially in those patients with risk factors of malignant transformation.

Bioinspired Nano-Photosensitizer-Activated Caspase-3/GSDME Pathway Induces Pyroptosis in Lung Cancer Cells

Noninflammatory apoptosis is transformed into inflammatory pyroptosis by activating caspase-3 to lyse gasdermin E (GSDME), and this process can be used as an effective therapeutic strategy. Thus, a selective and powerful inducer of activated caspase-3 plays a vital role in pyroptosis-based cancer therapy. Herein, a human cell membrane vesicle-based nanoplatform (HCNP) is designed for photodynamic therapy (PDT). HCNP is modified with vesicular stomatitis virus G-protein (VSVG) to anchor nano-photosensitizers on the tumor cell membrane. Photosensitizers are bonded to HCNP by clicking chemical reaction as pyroptosis inducers. The results show that HCNP effectively disrupts the mitochondrial function of cells by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon laser irradiation; concomitantly, GSDME is cleaved by activated caspase-3 and promotes pyroptosis of lung cancer cells. Here an effective intervention strategy is proposed to induce pyroptosis based on light-activated PDT.

Micelle-encapsulated IR783 for enhanced photothermal therapy in mouse breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Photothermal therapy, an emerging cancer treatment, selectively eliminates lesions using photothermal compounds that convert light into heat. IR783, a near-infrared fluorescent heptamethine cyanine dye, has been used to achieve selective hyperthermic effects in target tissues via near-infrared irradiation. To implement IR783 as a photothermal agent, IR783 biodistribution must be calibrated to achieve a constant and uniform concentration in target cells. Accordingly, we developed micelle-encapsulated IR783 (IR783 micelles) and evaluated their effectiveness as photothermal drugs.

METHODS

In vitro, the photothermic effects of free IR783 and IR783 micelle solutions induced by near-infrared light irradiation were analyzed. Additionally, we investigated the mechanism of cell death mediated by photothermal therapy using free IR783 and IR783 micelles in mouse breast cancer (EMT6) cells. In vivo, the efficacy of photothermal therapy with both free IR783 and IR783 micelles was examined in EMT6-bearing mice.

RESULTS

In vitro, the temperature of free and micelle-encapsulated IR783 solutions increased after near-infrared irradiation. Near-infrared irradiation with free IR783 and IR783 micelles induced cytotoxicity in cancer cells by generating heat. In vivo, IR783 micelles elicited more preferential tumor tissue uptake and enhanced the antitumor effects of photothermal therapy at a lower light dose relative to free IR783.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these results suggest that IR783 micelles could accumulate in mouse breast cancer tissues and exhibit enhanced antitumor effects when used as a photothermal therapy, with superior effects obtained at 2.1 W/cm2 (252 J/cm2) compared with that of free IR783.

Photothermal Catalytic Reduction and Bone Tissue Engineering Towards a Three-in-One Therapy Strategy for Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is one of the most dreadful bone neoplasms in young people, necessitating the development of innovative therapies that can effectively eliminate tumors while minimizing damage to limb function. An ideal therapeutic strategy should possess three essential capabilities: antitumor effects, tissue-protective properties, and the ability to enhance osteogenesis. In this study, self-assembled Ce-substituted molybdenum blue (CMB) nanowheel crystals are synthesized and loaded onto 3D-printed bioactive glass (CMB@BG) scaffolds to develop a unique three-in-one treatment approach for osteosarcoma. The CMB@BG scaffolds exhibit outstanding photothermally derived tumor ablation within the near-infrared-II window due to the surface plasmon resonance properties of the CMB nanowheel crystals. Furthermore, the photothermally synergistic catalytic effect of CMB promotes the rapid scavenging of reactive oxygen species caused by excessive heat, thereby suppressing inflammation and protecting surrounding tissues. The CMB@BG scaffolds possess pro-proliferation and pro-differentiation capabilities that efficiently accelerate bone regeneration within bone defects. Altogether, the CMB@BG scaffolds that combine highly efficient tumor ablation, tissue protection based on anti-inflammatory mechanisms, and enhanced osteogenic ability are likely to be a point-to-point solution for the comprehensive therapeutic needs of osteosarcoma.

Nanotechnology Applications in Breast Cancer Immunotherapy

Next-generation cancer treatments are expected not only to target cancer cells but also to simultaneously train immune cells to combat cancer while modulating the immune-suppressive environment of tumors and hosts to ensure a robust and lasting response. Achieving this requires carriers that can codeliver multiple therapeutics to the right cancer and/or immune cells while ensuring patient safety. Nanotechnology holds great potential for addressing these challenges. This article highlights the recent advances in nanoimmunotherapeutic development, with a focus on breast cancer. While immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have achieved remarkable success and lead to cures in some cancers, their response rate in breast cancer is low. The poor response rate in solid tumors is often associated with the low infiltration of anti-cancer T cells and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). To enhance anti-cancer T-cell responses, nanoparticles are employed to deliver ICIs, bispecific antibodies, cytokines, and agents that induce immunogenic cancer cell death (ICD). Additionally, nanoparticles are used to manipulate various components of the TME, such as immunosuppressive myeloid cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and fibroblasts to improve T-cell activities. Finally, this article discusses the outlook, challenges, and future directions of nanoimmunotherapeutics.

Recent advances in biomaterials based near-infrared mild photothermal therapy for biomedical application: A review

Mild photothermal therapy (MPTT) generates heat therapeutic effect at the temperature below 45 °C under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, which has the advantages of controllable treatment efficacy, lower hyperthermia temperatures, reduced dosage, and minimized damage to surrounding tissues. Despite significant progress has been achieved in MPTT, it remains primarily in the stage of basic and clinical research and has not yet seen widespread clinical adoption. Herein, a comprehensive overview of the recent NIR MPTT development was provided, aiming to emphasize the mechanism and obstacles, summarize the used photothermal agents, and introduce various biomedical applications such as anti-tumor, wound healing, and vascular disease treatment. The challenges of MPTT were proposed with potential solutions, and the future development direction in MPTT was outlooked to enhance the prospects for clinical translation.

Engineering AIEgens-Tethered Gold Nanoparticles with Enzymatic Dual Self-Assembly for Amplified Cancer-Specific Phototheranostics

Accurate imaging and precise treatment are critical to controlling the progression of pancreatic cancer. However, current approaches for pancreatic cancer theranostics suffer from limitations in tumor specificity and invasive surgery. Herein, a pancreatic cancer-specific phototheranostic modulator (AuHQ) dominated by aggregation-induced emission (AIE) luminogens-tethered gold nanoparticles is meticulously designed to facilitate prominent fluorescence-photoacoustic bimodal imaging-guided photothermal immunotherapy. Once reaching the pancreatic tumor microenvironment (TME), the peptide Ala-Gly-Phe-Ser-Leu-Pro-Ala-Gly-Cys (AGFSLPAGC) linkage within AuHQ can be specifically cleaved by the overexpressed enzyme Cathepsin E (CTSE), triggering the dual self-assembly of AuNPs and AIE luminogens. The aggregation of AuNPs mediated by enzymatic cleavage results in potentiated photothermal therapy (PTT) under near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation, induced immunogenic cell death (ICD), and enhanced photoacoustic imaging. Simultaneously, AIE luminogen aggregates formed by hydrophobic interaction can generate AIE fluorescence, enabling real-time and specific fluorescence imaging of pancreatic cancer. Furthermore, coadministration of an indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) inhibitor with AuHQ can address the limitations of PTT efficacy imposed by the immunosuppressive TME and leverage the synergistic potential to activate systemic antitumor immunity. Thus, this well-designed phototheranostic modulator AuHQ facilitates the intelligent enzymatic dual self-assembly of imaging and therapeutic agents, providing an efficient and precise approach for pancreatic cancer theranostics.

Synthesis and evaluation of 5,15-diaryltetrabenzoporphyrins as photosensitizers for photo-diagnosis and photodynamic activity of tumors

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a well-established treatment modality, typically conducted with single-wavelength irradiation, which may not always be optimal for varying tumor locations and sizes. To address this, photosensitizers with absorption wavelengths ranging from 550 to 760 nm are being explored. Herein, a series of 5,15-diaryltetrabenzoporphyrins (Ar2TBPs) were synthesized. All compounds displayed obvious absorption at 550-700 nm (especially at ∼668 nm), intense fluorescence, efficient generation of singlet oxygen and good photodynamic antitumor effects. Notably, compound I3 (5,15-bis[(4-carboxymethoxy)phenyl]tetrabenzoporphyrin) showed excellent cytotoxicity against Eca-109 cell line upon red light irradiation, with an IC50 value of 0.45 μM, and phototherapeutic index of 25.8. Flow cytometry revealed that I3 could induce distinct cell apoptosis. In vivo studies revealed that compound I3 selectively accumulated at tumor site and exhibited outstanding PDT effect with antitumor activity under single-time administration and light irradiation, and revealed more efficiency than the clinical photosensitizer Verteporfin. These findings underscore the considerable promise of I3 as a robust theranostic agent, offering capabilities in real-time fluorescence imaging and serving as a potent photosensitizer for personalized and precise photodynamic therapy of tumors.

Safe Induction of Acute Inflammation with Enhanced Antitumor Immunity by Hydrogel-Mediated Outer Membrane Vesicle Delivery

Acute inflammation has the potential for the recruitment of immune cells, inhibiting tumor angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance thereby overcoming the tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment caused by chronic inflammation. Here, an acute inflammation inducer using bacteria outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) loaded in thermal-sensitive hydrogel (named OMVs-gel) for localized and controlled release of OMVs in tumor sites is proposed. OMVs trigger neutrophil recruitment and amplify acute inflammation inside tumor tissues. The hydrogel ensures drastic inflammation is confined within the tumor, addressing biosafety concerns that the direct administration of free OMVs may cause fatal effects. This strategy eradicated solid tumors safely and rapidly. The study further elucidates one of the possible immune mechanisms of OMVs-gel therapy, which involves the assembly of antitumor neutrophils and elastase release for selective tumor killing. Additionally, tumor vascular destruction induced by OMVs-gel results in tumor darkening, allowing for combinational photothermal therapy. The findings suggest that the use of OMVs-gel can safely induce acute inflammation and enhance antitumor immunity, representing a promising strategy to promote acute inflammation application in tumor immunotherapy.

Effect of oxygen generating nanozymes on indocyanine green and IR 820 mediated phototherapy against oral cancer

The hypoxic environment within a solid tumor is a limitation to the effectiveness of photodynamic therapy. Here, we demonstrate the use of oxygen generating nanozymes (CeO2, Fe3O4, and MnO2) to improve the photodynamic effect. The optimized combination of process parameters for irradiation was obtained using the Box Behnken experimental design. Indocyanine green, IR 820, and their different combinations with oxygen generators were studied for their effect on oral carcinoma. Dynamic light scattering technique showed the average particle size of CeO2, MnO2, and Fe3O4 to be 211 ± 16, and 157 ± 28, 143 ± 19 nm with PDI of 0.23, 0.28 and 0.20 and a zeta potential of -2.6 ± 0.45, -2.4 ± 0.60 and  -6.1 ± 0.23 mV, respectively. The formation of metal oxides was confirmed using UV-visible, FTIR, and X-ray photon spectroscopies. The amount of dissolved oxygen produced by CeO2, MnO2, and Fe3O4 in the presence of H2O2 within 2 min was 1.7 ± 0.15, 1.7 ± 0.16, and 1.4 ± 0.12 mg/l, respectively. Growth inhibition studies in the FaDu oral carcinoma spheroid model showed a significant (P < 0.05) increase in growth reduction from 81 ± 2.9 and 88 ± 2.1% to 97 ± 1.2 and 99 ± 1.0% for ICG and IR 820, respectively, after irradiation (808 nm laser, 1 W/cm2, 5 min) in the presence of CeO2 (25 μg/ml). In conclusion, oxygen-generating nanozymes can improve the photodynamic effect of ICG and IR 820.

A GSH-Responsive Prodrug with Simultaneous Triple-Activation Capacity for Photodynamic/Sonodynamic Combination Therapy with Inhibited Skin Phototoxicity

Herein, a dual-sensitizer prodrug, named pro-THPC, has been designed to function as both a photosensitizer and a sonosensitizer prodrug for precise antitumor combination therapy with minimized skin phototoxicity. Pro-THPC could be activated by glutathione (GSH) to release the dual-sensitizer, THPC, which simultaneously switches on fluorescence emission and combined capabilities of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Pro-THPC is further formulated into nanoparticles (NPs) for water dispersity to enable in vivo applications. In vivo fluorescence imaging shows that the pro-THPC NPs group exhibits a significantly higher tumor-to-normal tissue ratio (T/N) (T/N = 5.2 ± 0.55) compared to the "always on" THPC NPs group (T/N = 2.9 ± 0.47) and the pro-THPC NPs group co-administrated with GSH synthesis inhibitor (buthionine sulfoximine, BSO) (T/N = 3.2 ± 0.63). In addition, the generation of the designed dual-sensitizer's reactive oxygen species (ROS) is effectively confined within the tumor tissues due to the relatively strong correlation between ROS generation and fluorescence emission. In vivo studies further demonstrate the remarkable efficacy of the designed pro-THPC NPs to eradicate tumors through the combination of PDT and SDT while significantly reducing skin phototoxicity.

Harnessing Bacterial Membrane Components for Tumor Vaccines: Strategies and Perspectives

Tumor vaccines stand at the vanguard of tumor immunotherapy, demonstrating significant potential and promise in recent years. While tumor vaccines have achieved breakthroughs in the treatment of cancer, they still encounter numerous challenges, including improving the immunogenicity of vaccines and expanding the scope of vaccine application. As natural immune activators, bacterial components offer inherent advantages in tumor vaccines. Bacterial membrane components, with their safer profile, easy extraction, purification, and engineering, along with their diverse array of immune components, activate the immune system and improve tumor vaccine efficacy. This review systematically summarizes the mechanism of action and therapeutic effects of bacterial membranes and its derivatives (including bacterial membrane vesicles and hybrid membrane biomaterials) in tumor vaccines. Subsequently, the authors delve into the preparation and advantages of tumor vaccines based on bacterial membranes and hybrid membrane biomaterials. Following this, the immune effects of tumor vaccines based on bacterial outer membrane vesicles are elucidated, and their mechanisms are explained. Moreover, their advantages in tumor combination therapy are analyzed. Last, the challenges and trends in this field are discussed. This comprehensive analysis aims to offer a more informed reference and scientific foundation for the design and implementation of bacterial membrane-based tumor vaccines.

A LDH-Derived Metal Sulfide Nanosheet-Functionalized Bioactive Glass Scaffold for Vascularized Osteogenesis and Periprosthetic Infection Prevention/Treatment

Periprosthetic infection and prosthetic loosing stand out as prevalent yet formidable complications following orthopedic implant surgeries. Synchronously addressing the two complications is long-time challenging. Herein, a bioactive glass scaffold (BGS) functionalized with MgCuFe-layered double hydroxide (LDH)-derived sulfide nanosheets (BGS/MCFS) is developed for vascularized osteogenesis and periprosthetic infection prevention/treatment. Apart from the antibacterial cations inhibiting bacterial energy and material metabolism, the exceptional near-infrared-II (NIR-II) photothermal performance empowers BGS/MCFS to eliminate periprosthetic infections, outperforming previously reported functionalized BGS. The rough surface topography and the presence of multi-bioactive metal ions bestow BGS/MCFS with exceptional osteogenic and angiogenic properties, with 8.5-fold and 2.3-fold enhancement in bone mass and neovascularization compared with BGS. Transcriptome sequencing highlights the involvement of the TGF-β signaling pathway in these processes, while single-cell sequencing reveals a significant increase in osteoblasts and endothelial cells around BGS/MCFS compared to BGS.

An Active Self-Mitochondria-Targeting Cyanine Immunomodulator for Near-Infrared II Fluorescence Imaging-Guided Synergistic Photodynamic Immunotherapy

Photodynamic therapy targeting mitochondria represents a promising therapeutic strategy for fighting diverse types of cancers. However, the currently available photosensitizers (PSs) suffer from insufficient therapeutic potency, limited mitochondria delivery efficiency, and the inability to treat invisible metastatic distal cancers. Herein, an active self-mitochondria-targeting heptapeptide cyanine (HCy) immunomodulator (I2HCy-QAP) is reported for near-infrared II (NIR-II) fluorescence imaging-guided photodynamic immunotherapy of primary and distal metastatic cancers. The I2HCy-QAP is designed by introducing a quaternary ammonium salt with a phenethylamine skeleton (QAP) into the iodinated HCy photosensitizer. The I2HCy-QAP can precisely target mitochondria due to the lipophilic cationic QAP unit, present strong NIR-II fluorescence tail emission, and effectively generate singlet oxygen 1O2 under NIR laser irradiation, thereby inducing mitochondria-targeted damages and eliciting strong systemic immunogenic cell death immune responses. The combination of the I2HCy-QAP-mediated photodynamic immunotherapy with anti-programmed death-1 antibody therapy achieves remarkable therapeutic efficacy against both primary and distal metastatic cancers with significant inhibition of lung metastasis in a triple-negative breast cancer model. This work provides a new concept for designing high-performance NIR emissive cyanine immunomodulators for NIR-II fluorescence-guided photodynamic immunotherapy.

Hydroxyethyl starch conjugates co-assembled nanoparticles promote photodynamic therapy and antitumor immunity by inhibiting antioxidant systems

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) can produce high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to kill tumor cells and induce antitumor immunity. However, intracellular antioxidant systems, including glutathione (GSH) system and thioredoxin (Trx) system, limit the accumulation of ROS, resulting in compromised PDT and insufficient immune stimulation. Herein, we designed a nanomedicine PtHPs co-loading photosensitizer pyropheophorbide a (PPa) and cisplatin prodrug Pt-COOH(IV) (Pt (IV)) based on hydroxyethyl starch (HES) to inhibit both GSH and Trx antioxidant systems and achieve potent PDT as well as antitumor immune responses. Specifically, HES-PPa and HES-Pt were obtained by coupling HES with PPa and Pt (IV), and assembled into nanoparticle PtHPs by emulsification method to achieve the purpose of co-delivery of PPa and Pt (IV). PtHPs improved PPa photostability while retaining PPa photodynamic properties. In vitro experiments showed that PtHPs reduced GSH, inhibited Trx system and had better cell-killing effect and ROS generation ability. Subcutaneous tumor models showed that PtHPs had good safety and tumor inhibition effect. Bilateral tumor models suggested that PtHPs promoted the release of damage-associated molecular patterns and the maturation of dendritic cells, induced T cell-mediated immune responses, and thus suppressed the growth of both primary and distal tumors. This study reports a novel platinum-based nanomedicine and provides a new strategy for boosting PDT therapy-mediated antitumor immunity by overcoming intrinsic antioxidant systems.

Injectable Therapeutic Hydrogel with H2O2 Self-Supplying and GSH Consumption for Synergistic Chemodynamic/Low-Temperature Photothermal Inhibition of Postoperative Tumor Recurrence and Wound Infection

Postoperative tumor recurrence and wound infection remain significant clinical challenges in surgery, often requiring adjuvant therapies. The combination treatment of photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) has proven to be effective in cancer treatment and wound infection. However, the hyperthermia during PTT increases the risk of normal tissue damage, severely impeding its application. Moreover, the efficacy of CDT is limited by insufficient hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and excessive glutathione (GSH) levels at tumor or infection sites. Herein, an injectable and multifunctional CuO2@Au hydrogel system (CuO2@Au Gel) is developed for synergistic CDT and low-temperature PTT (LTPTT) to prevent tumor recurrence and bacterial wound infections. CuO2@Au Gel is constructed by embedding therapeutic CuO2@Au into low-melting point agarose hydrogel. In vitro and in vivo experiments confirm that the CuO2@Au in CuO2@Au Gel is capable of self-supplying H2O2 and depleting GSH, exhibiting effective CDT effect in acidic tumor or bacterial infected microenvironment. Additionally, it exhibits favorable photothermal conversion ability, inducing localized temperature elevation and synergistically enhancing CDT efficiency. The prepared CuO2@Au Gel demonstrates efficient tumor ablation capability in post-surgery recurrence mouse models and exhibits promising anti-infective efficiency in bacterial infection wound models, indicating significant potential in adjuvant therapy for post-surgical treatment and recovery.

The Application of Nanoparticle-Based Imaging and Phototherapy for Female Reproductive Organs Diseases

Various female reproductive disorders affect millions of women worldwide and bring many troubles to women's daily life. Let alone, gynecological cancer (such as ovarian cancer and cervical cancer) is a severe threat to most women's lives. Endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, and other chronic diseases-induced pain have significantly harmed women's physical and mental health. Despite recent advances in the female reproductive field, the existing challenges are still enormous such as personalization of disease, difficulty in diagnosing early cancers, antibiotic resistance in infectious diseases, etc. To confront such challenges, nanoparticle-based imaging tools and phototherapies that offer minimally invasive detection and treatment of reproductive tract-associated pathologies are indispensable and innovative. Of late, several clinical trials have also been conducted using nanoparticles for the early detection of female reproductive tract infections and cancers, targeted drug delivery, and cellular therapeutics. However, these nanoparticle trials are still nascent due to the body's delicate and complex female reproductive system. The present review comprehensively focuses on emerging nanoparticle-based imaging and phototherapies applications, which hold enormous promise for improved early diagnosis and effective treatments of various female reproductive organ diseases.

Deep near infrared light-excited stable synergistic photodynamic and photothermal therapies based on P-IR890 nano-photosensitizer constructed via a non-cyanine dye

The cyanine dyes represented by IR780 can achieve synergistic photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) under the stimulation of near-infrared (NIR) light (commonly 808 nm). Unfortunately, the stability of NIR-excited cyanine dyes is not satisfactory. These cyanine dyes can be attacked by self-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) during PDT processes, resulting in structural damage and rapid degradation, which is fatal for phototherapy. To address this issue, a novel non-cyanine dye (IR890) was elaborately designed and synthesized by our team. The maximum absorption wavelength of IR890 was located in the deep NIR region (ca. 890 nm), which was beneficial for further improving tissue penetration depth. Importantly, IR890 exhibited good stability when continuously illuminated by deep NIR light. To improve the hydrophilicity and biocompatibility, the hydrophobic IR890 dye was grafted onto the side chain of hydrophilic polymer (POEGMA-b-PGMA-g-C[bond, triple bond]CH) via click chemistry. Then, the synthesized POEGMA-b-PGMA-g-IR890 amphiphilic polymer was utilized to prepare P-IR890 nano-photosensitizer via self-assembly method. Under irradiation with deep NIR light (850 nm, 0.5 W/cm2, 10 min), the dye degradation rate of P-IR890 was less than 5%. However, IR780 was almost completely degraded with the same light output power density and irradiation duration. In addition, P-IR890 could stably generate a large number of ROS and heat at the same time. It was rarely reported that the stable synergistic combination therapy of PDT and PTT could be efficiently performed by a single photosensitizer via irradiation with deep NIR light. P-IR890 exhibited favorable anti-tumor outcomes through apoptosis pathway. Therefore, the P-IR890 could provide a new insight into the design of photosensitizers and new opportunities for synergistic combination therapy of PDT and PTT.

Advances in Immune Checkpoint Therapy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

The incidence and lethality of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are increasing annually, and traditional treatments have been proven to be ineffective for patients with advanced stages of the disease. In recent years, immune checkpoint therapy has rapidly evolved, demonstrating promising results across a wide range of cancers and offering new hope for cancer treatment. However, the efficacy of immune checkpoint therapy in HCC varies greatly among individuals, with only a small proportion of HCC patients responding positively. A major cause of immune resistance and poor efficacy in HCC patients is immune evasion, which is often due to insufficient infiltration of immune cells. Understanding the mechanisms underlying immune evasion is crucial for enhancing the efficacy of immune therapies. In this review, we aim to summarize the mechanisms of immune evasion observed during immune checkpoint therapy and discuss future directions for this therapeutic approach. Our goal is to provide insights that could help overcome immune evasion, thereby improving the efficacy of immune therapies and extending patient survival time.

Light-Driven Green-Fabricated Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Micro/Nanorobots for Multimodal Phototherapeutic Management of Bladder Cancer

Combination therapy based on precise phototherapies combined with immune modulation provides successful antitumor effects. In this study, a combination therapy is designed based on phototactic, photosynthetic, and phototherapeutic Chlamydomonas Reinhardtii (CHL)-glycol chitosan (GCS)-polypyrrole (PPy) nanoparticle (NP)-enhanced immunity combined with the tumor microenvironment turnover of cytotoxic T cells and M1/M2 macrophages, which is based on photothermal GCS-PPy NPs decorated onto the phototactic and photosynthetic CHL. Phototherapy based on CHL-GCS-PPy NPs alleviates hypoxia and modulates the tumor immune microenvironment, which induces tumor cell death. In particular, the precise antitumor immune response and potent immune memory induced by combining self-navigated phototherapies significantly alleviate the progression of bladder cancer in C57BL/6 mice and effectively inhibit bladder tumor growth. Furthermore, they also potentially prevent tumor recurrence, which provides a promising therapeutic strategy for clinical tumor therapy.

Liposome biodistribution mapping with in vivo X-ray fluorescence imaging

Lipid-based nanoparticles are organic nanostructures constituted of phospholipids and cholesterol, displaying high in vivo biocompatibility. They have been demonstrated as effective nanocarriers for drug delivery and targeting. Mapping liposome distribution is crucial as it enables a precise understanding of delivery kinetics, tissue targeting efficiency, and potential off-target effects. Recently, ruthenium-encapsulated liposomes have shown potential for targeted drug delivery, photodynamic therapy, and optical fluorescence imaging. In the present work, we design Ru(bpy)3-encapsulated liposomes (Ru-Lipo) empowering optical and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) properties for dual mode imaging and demonstrate the passivation role of liposomes over the free Ru(bpy)3 compound. We employ whole-body XRF imaging to map the in vivo biodistribution of Ru-Lipo in mice, enabling tumor detection and longitudinal studies with elemental specificity and resolution down to the sub-millimeter scale. Quantitative XRF computed tomography on extracted organs permits targeting efficiency evaluations. These findings highlight the promising role of XRF imaging in pharmacokinetic studies and theranostic applications for the rapid optimization of drug delivery and assessment of targeting efficiency.

Dual-responsive nanoplatform for integrated cancer diagnosis and therapy: Unleashing the power of tumor microenvironment

Chemodynamic therapy (CDT), designed to trigger a tumor-specific hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) reaction generating highly toxic hydroxyl radicals (·OH), has been investigated for cancer treatment. Unfortunately, the limited Fenton or Fenton-like reaction rate and the significant impact of excessive reducing glutathione (GSH) in the tumor microenvironment (TME) have severely compromised the effectiveness of CDT. To address this issue, we designed a dual-responsive nanoplatform utilizing a metal-polyphenol network (MPN) -coated multi-caged IrOx for efficient anti-tumor therapy in response to the acidic TME and intracellular excess of GSH, in which MPN composed of Fe3+ and tannic acid (TA). Initially, the acidic TME and intracellular excess of GSH lead to the degradation of the MPN shell, resulting in the release of Fe3+ and exposure of the IrOx core, facilitating the efficient dual-pathway CDT. Subsequently, the nanoplatform can mitigate the attenuation of CDT by consuming the excessive GSH within the tumor. Finally, the multi-caged structure of IrOx is advantageous for effectively implementing photothermal therapy (PTT) in coordination with CDT, further enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of tumors. Moreover, the outstanding Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) (T1/T2) multimodal imaging capabilities of IrOx@MPN enable early diagnosis and timely treatment. This work provides a typical example of the construction of a novel multifunctional platform for dual-responsive treatment of tumors.

Leveraging the Photofunctions of Transition Metal Complexes for the Design of Innovative Phototherapeutics

Despite the advent of various medical interventions for cancer treatment, the disease continues to pose a formidable global health challenge, necessitating the development of new therapeutic approaches for more effective treatment outcomes. Photodynamic therapy (PDT), which utilizes light to activate a photosensitizer to produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) for eradicating cancer cells, has emerged as a promising approach for cancer treatment due to its high spatiotemporal precision and minimal invasiveness. However, the widespread clinical use of PDT faces several challenges, including the inefficient production of ROS in the hypoxic tumor microenvironment, the limited penetration depth of light in biological tissues, and the inadequate accumulation of photosensitizers at the tumor site. Over the past decade, there has been increasing interest in the utilization of photofunctional transition metal complexes as photosensitizers for PDT applications due to their intriguing photophysical and photochemical properties. This review provides an overview of the current design strategies used in the development of transition metal complexes as innovative phototherapeutics, aiming to address the limitations associated with PDT and achieve more effective treatment outcomes. The current challenges and future perspectives on the clinical translation of transition metal complexes are also discussed.

Tannic Acid-Based Self-Assembling Nanocarriers with Antiphotobleaching and Controlled Releasing Properties for Collaborative Near-Infrared Photothermal/Photodynamic Therapy

Near-infrared (NIR) organic materials have been widely developed for tumor phototherapy due to their deep tumor penetration, good biodegradability, and high photothermal conversion (PCE). However, most of the NIR organic dyes are easily destroyed by photooxidation due to their big and long conjugated structures, such as cyanine dyes. Under light irradiation, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by these NIR dyes can easily break their conjugated skeleton, resulting in a dramatic decrease in phototherapeutic efficiency. Herein, an NIR organic dye cyanine dye (CyS) and a photosensitizer methylene blue (MB) were chosen to prepare nanocarrier CMTNPs by facile self-assembling with a natural antioxidant, tannic acid (TA). TA can greatly enhance the stability of NIR cyanine dyes by scavenging ROS. Furthermore, CMTNPs have a character of pH/thermal dual response, allowing for controlled release of MB in the slightly acidic tumor environment during photothermal therapy. The released MB can turn on both fluorescence and photodynamic therapy effects. In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated the remarkable tumor ablation ability of CMTNPs. Thus, our study provided an antiphotobleaching and controlled release photosensitizer strategy through the introduction of antioxidant TA into the nanocarrier for efficient collaborative photothermal/photodynamic therapy.

Nanozymes in cancer immunotherapy: metabolic disruption and therapeutic synergy

Over the past decade, there has been a growing emphasis on investigating the role of immunotherapy in cancer treatment. However, it faces challenges such as limited efficacy, a diminished response rate, and serious adverse effects. Nanozymes, a subset of nanomaterials, demonstrate boundless potential in cancer catalytic therapy for their tunable activity, enhanced stability, and cost-effectiveness. By selectively targeting the metabolic vulnerabilities of tumors, they can effectively intensify the destruction of tumor cells and promote the release of antigenic substances, thereby eliciting immune clearance responses and impeding tumor progression. Combined with other therapies, they synergistically enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy. Hence, a large number of metabolism-regulating nanozymes with synergistic immunotherapeutic effects have been developed. This review summarizes recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy facilitated by nanozymes, focusing on engineering nanozymes to potentiate antitumor immune responses by disturbing tumor metabolism and performing synergistic treatment. The challenges and prospects in this field are outlined. We aim to provide guidance for nanozyme-mediated immunotherapy and pave the way for achieving durable tumor eradication.

Targeting superficial cancers with gold nanoparticles: a review of current research

Superficial cancers typically refer to cancers confined to the surface layers of tissue. Low-targeting therapies or side effects prompt exploration of novel therapeutic approaches. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), due to their unique optical properties, serve as effective photosensitizers, enabling tumor ablation through photothermal therapy (PTT). PTT induced by AuNPs can be achieved through light sources externally applied to the skin. Near-infrared radiation is the main light candidate due to its deep tissue penetration capability. This review explores recent advancements in AuNP-based PTT for superficial cancers, specifically breast, head and neck, thyroid, bladder and prostate cancers. Additionally, challenges and future directions in utilizing AuNPs for cancer treatment are discussed, emphasizing the importance of balancing efficacy with safety in clinical applications.

A Mitochondria-Targeted Photosensitizer for Combined Pyroptosis and Apoptosis with NIR-II Imaging/Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Phototherapy

Overcoming tumor apoptosis resistance is a major challenge in enhancing cancer therapy. Pyroptosis, a lytic form of programmed cell death (PCD) involving inflammasomes, Gasdermin family proteins, and cysteine proteases, offers potential in cancer treatment. While photodynamic therapy (PDT) can induce pyroptosis by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the activation of photosensitizers (PSs), many PSs lack specific subcellular targets and are limited to the first near-infrared window, potentially reducing treatment effectiveness. Therefore, developing effective, deep-penetrating, organelle-targeted pyroptosis-mediated phototherapy is essential for cancer treatment strategies. Here, we synthesized four molecules with varying benzene ring numbers in thiopyrylium structures to preliminarily explore their photodynamic properties. The near-infrared-II (NIR-II) PS Z1, with a higher benzene ring count, exhibited superior ROS generation and mitochondria-targeting abilities, and a large Stokes shift. Through nano-precipitation method, Z1 nanoparticles (NPs) also demonstrated high ROS generation (especially type-I ROS) upon 808 nm laser irradiation, leading to efficient mitochondria dysfunction and combined pyroptosis and apoptosis. Moreover, they exhibited exceptional tumor-targeting ability via NIR-II fluorescence imaging (NIR-II FI) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI). Furthermore, Z1 NPs-mediated phototherapy effectively inhibited tumor growth with minimal adverse effects. Our findings offer a promising strategy for cancer therapy, warranting further preclinical investigations in PDT.

Energy-Efficient and Effective MCF-7 Cell Ablation and Electrothermal Therapy Enabled by M13-WS2-PEG Nanostructures

Thermal agents (TAs) have exhibited promise in clinical tests when utilized in cancer thermal therapy (TT). While rapid degradation of TAs may address safety concerns, it limits the thermal stability required for effective treatment. TAs, which possess exceptional thermal stability, experience gradual deterioration. There are few approaches that effectively address the trade-off between improving thermal stability and simultaneously boosting material deterioration. Here, we control the thermal character of tungsten disulfide (WS2)-based 2D materials by utilizing an M13 phage through Joule heating (the M13-WS2-PEG nanostructures were generated and termed a tripartite (T) nanostructure), and developed a T nanostructure-driven TT platform (we called it T-TT) for efficient thermal ablation of clinically relevant MCF-7 cells. A relative cell viability of ~59% was achieved, as well as onset time of degradation of ~0.5 week. The T-TT platform also discloses an energy density of 5.9 J/mL. Furthermore, the phage-conjugated WS2 can be utilized to achieve ultrasound imaging for disease monitoring. Therefore, this research not only presents a thermal agent that overcomes TA limitations, but also demonstrates a practical application of WS2-type material system in ultra-energy efficient and effective cancer therapy.

Full-course NIR-II imaging-navigated fractionated photodynamic therapy of bladder tumours with X-ray-activated nanotransducers

The poor 5-year survival rate for bladder cancers is associated with the lack of efficient diagnostic and treatment techniques. Despite cystoscopy-assisted photomedicine and external radiation being promising modalities to supplement or replace surgery, they remain invasive or fail to provide real-time navigation. Here, we report non-invasive fractionated photodynamic therapy of bladder cancer with full-course real-time near-infrared-II imaging based on engineered X-ray-activated nanotransducers that contain lanthanide-doped nanoscintillators with concurrent emissions in visible and the second near-infrared regions and conjugated photosensitizers. Following intravesical instillation in mice with carcinogen-induced autochthonous bladder tumours, tumour-homing peptide-labelled nanotransducers realize enhanced tumour regression, robust recurrence inhibition, improved survival rates, and restored immune homeostasis under X-ray irradiation with accompanied near-infrared-II imaging. On-demand fractionated photodynamic therapy with customized doses is further achieved based on quantifiable near-infrared-II imaging signal-to-background ratios. Our study presents a promising non-invasive strategy to confront the current bladder cancer dilemma from diagnosis to treatment and prognosis.