Developmental Changes in Executive Functioning

The Directionality of the Relationship Between Executive Functions and Language Skills: A Literature Review

It has been demonstrated that executive functions play a significant role in different aspects of the development of children. Development of language is also one of the most important accomplishments of the preschool years, and it has been linked to many outcomes in life. Despite substantial research demonstrating the association between executive function and language development in childhood, only a handful of studies have examined the direction of the developmental pathways between EF skills and language skills, therefore little is known about how these two constructs are connected. In this review paper, we discuss three possible directional relationships between EFs and language development throughout childhood. First, we discuss how EF might affect language functioning. Next, we discuss how language functioning might affect EF. Lastly, we consider other possible relationships between EF and language. Given that children with better EF and language skills are more likely to succeed in educational settings and demonstrate greater social–emotional competencies, investigating the relationship between EF and language in the preschool period provides insight into mechanisms that have not been extensively studied. Furthermore, it could create new opportunities for designing effective and efficient interventions aimed at addressing EF and language deficits during the preschool period which could in turn influence later development.

Associations between Physical Activity, Motor Skills, Executive Functions and Early Numeracy in Preschoolers

ABSTRACTWe investigated direct and indirect cross-sectional associations of physical activity, fundamental motor skills, executive functions, and early numeracy in preschoolers. The participants were 214 preschoolers aged three to five years. Time spent in moderate and vigorous physical activity was measured by hip-worn accelerometers and fundamental motor skills using the tasks assessing locomotor, object control, and stability skills. Inhibition/switching and working memory/updating, as components of executive functions, were assessed by computerized tests and a standardized test was used to assess early numeracy. Path analyses were used to examine direct and indirect associations between the constructs. Our results showed that stability skills were indirectly positively associated with early numeracy through inhibition/switching (β = 0.07, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.02, 0.14]) and locomotor skills through working memory/updating (β = 0.13, p = 0.001, 95% CI [0.06, 0.20]). Vigorous physical activity was positively associated with early numeracy through locomotor skills and working memory/updating (β = 0.04, p = 0.01, 95% CI [0.01, 0.07]) and negatively associated with early numeracy through inhibition/switching (β = -0.06, p < 0.05, 95% CI [-0.11, -0.02]).

The structure of executive functioning in 11 to 14 year olds with and without special educational needs

The structure and development of executive functioning (EF) have been intensively studied in typically developing populations, with little attention given to those with Special Educational Needs (SEN). This study addresses this by comparing the EF structure of 132 adolescents (11-14 years-old) with SEN and 138 adolescents not requiring additional support (Non-SEN peers). Participants completed verbal and non-verbal assessments of key components of EF: inhibition, working memory and switching. Confirmatory Factor Analysis on each group tested one-, two- and three-factor models of EF. In both groups, there was statistical support for the fit of one- and two-factor models with no model being clearly better than the others; there was little support for three-factor models. Parsimony suggests that the one-factor model best represents the structure of EF. In light of our results, the implications for the nature of EF in early adolescence in both SEN and Non-SEN groups are discussed.

The Multivariate Physical Activity Signatures Associated With Self-Regulation, Executive Function, and Early Academic Learning in 3-5-Year-Old Children

The evidence regarding associations between intensity-specific physical activity and cognitive and learning outcomes in preschoolers is inconsistent and limited by low sample sizes and analytical approaches that cannot handle the multicollinearity among multiple physical activity intensity variables. We aimed to determine the multivariate physical activity intensity signatures associated with self-regulation, executive function, and early academic learning in preschool children aged 3–5 years. A 711 Norwegian preschool children (mean age 4.6 years, 52% boys) provided valid data on physical activity (ActiGraph GT3X+), self-regulation, executive function, and early academic learning during 2019–2020. Multivariate pattern analysis was used to determine associations between uniaxial and triaxial intensity spectra (time spent in intensities from 0–99 to ≥15,000 counts per minute) and the outcomes in the total sample and in subgroups split by sex and age (median split). Uniaxial data led to the highest explained variances (R²) and were reported as the primary findings. We found significant association patterns between physical activity and numeracy (R² = 4.28%) and inhibition (R² = 1.48%) in the total sample. The associations with numeracy were negative for time spent sedentary (0–99 counts per minute) and positive for time spent in moderate to vigorous intensities (≥ 1,000 counts per minute). The associations with inhibition were positive for time spent sedentary (0–99 counts per minute) and in vigorous intensities (≥ 8,500 counts per minute) and negative for time spent in low to moderate intensities (100–3,499 counts per minute). Associations with numeracy were stronger in boys (R² = 5.58%) and older children (R² = 7.27%), and associations with inhibition were stronger in girls (R² = 3.12%) and older children (R² = 3.33%). In conclusion, we found weak associations with numeracy and inhibition across the physical activity intensity spectrum in preschool children.

Longitudinal associations between executive control and body mass index across childhood

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity remains a prevalent public health concern. Executive control, a set of higher-order cognitive abilities for directing attention and behaviour, has been identified as a malleable factor potentially related to weight outcomes in youth. However, the directionality of this relationship remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined reciprocal associations between three executive control components-inhibitory control, working memory and flexible shifting-and BMI (body mass index) percentile during childhood.

METHODS

At four points throughout elementary school, a community sample (N = 294) completed executive control tasks and had their height and weight objectively measured. Controlling for sex and socioeconomic risk status, random intercept cross-lagged panel models were tested.

RESULTS

Better inhibitory control performance predicted lower subsequent BMI at each timepoint, and better working memory and flexible shifting performance in grade three both predicted lower subsequent BMI in grade 4. However, BMI did not predict subsequent executive control performance at any timepoint.

CONCLUSIONS

Executive control abilities, including automatic response modulation, being able to hold and manipulate mental information, and being able to make flexible mental transitions, may be protective against weight problems, particularly in middle childhood when these abilities have had more time to mature and children begin to gain more independence.

Task-general efficiency of evidence accumulation as a computationally-defined neurocognitive trait: Implications for clinical neuroscience

Quantifying individual differences in higher-order cognitive functions is a foundational area of cognitive science that also has profound implications for research on psychopathology. For the last two decades, the dominant approach in these fields has been to attempt to fractionate higher-order functions into hypothesized components (e.g., "inhibition", "updating") through a combination of experimental manipulation and factor analysis. However, the putative constructs obtained through this paradigm have recently been met with substantial criticism on both theoretical and empirical grounds. Concurrently, an alternative approach has emerged focusing on parameters of formal computational models of cognition that have been developed in mathematical psychology. These models posit biologically plausible and experimentally validated explanations of the data-generating process for cognitive tasks, allowing them to be used to measure the latent mechanisms that underlie performance. One of the primary insights provided by recent applications of such models is that individual and clinical differences in performance on a wide variety of cognitive tasks, ranging from simple choice tasks to complex executive paradigms, are largely driven by efficiency of evidence accumulation (EEA), a computational mechanism defined by sequential sampling models. This review assembles evidence for the hypothesis that EEA is a central individual difference dimension that explains neurocognitive deficits in multiple clinical disorders and identifies ways in which in this insight can advance clinical neuroscience research. We propose that recognition of EEA as a major driver of neurocognitive differences will allow the field to make clearer inferences about cognitive abnormalities in psychopathology and their links to neurobiology.

The relationship between executive function, processing speed, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in middle childhood

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous disorder that is highly impairing. Early, accurate diagnosis maximizes long-term positive outcomes for youth with ADHD. Tests of executive functioning (EF) are potential tools for screening and differential diagnosis of ADHD subtypes. However, previous research has been inconsistent regarding the specificity and magnitude of EF deficits across ADHD subtypes. Here, we advance knowledge of the EF-ADHD relationship by using: (1) dimensional latent factor models of ADHD that captures the heterogeneity of expression, and (2) a comprehensive, reliable battery of EF tasks and modeling relationships with a general factor of EF ability. We tested 1548 children and adolescents (ages 7-15 years) from the Texas Twin Project, a population-based cohort with a diverse socioeconomic and ethnic composition. We show that EF deficits were specific to the inattention domain of ADHD. Moreover, we found that the association between EF task performance and inattention was stable across sociodemographic groups. Our results demonstrate that failures of executive control are selectively manifested as covert inattentive symptoms, such as trouble with organization, forgetfulness, and distractedness, rather than overt symptoms, such as inappropriate talkativeness and interruption. Future research, utilizing a bifactor characterization of ADHD in clinical samples, is needed to further refine understanding of the nature of cognitive deficits in ADHD across the full range of symptom variation.

Development of inhibition and working memory in school-age Moroccan children

Studies regarding executive functions (EFs) in children rarely focus on populations of North Africa countries. In this context, this research aimed to adapt EFs tests to the Moroccan context and provide preliminary normative data on the development of inhibitory control and working memory (WM). In addition, the executive performance of school-age Moroccan children was examined, as well as the effects of gender, parents' education level and multilingualism. The sample included 115 children at age 7 to 12 from Fes city. Results showed that the translation and adaptation steps were sufficient for the cross-cultural adaptation of the tasks. In addition, an overall effect of age on inhibition and WM performances was found, whereas gender and parents' education level showed non-significant effects. Multilingualism effects had a partial positive influence on EFs, with improved scores on a few executive tasks for multilingual children compared to their bilingual peers. Overall, results suggest that EFs in school-age Moroccan children operate on relatively homogeneous development trajectories, marked by improvements that differ according to tasks. As neuropsychological tools and normative data are still lacking in Morocco, this study helps better understand EFs development of children in this country.

Developmental Trajectories of Executive Functions from Preschool to Kindergarten

Executive functions (EF) are key predictors of long‐term success that develop rapidly in early childhood. However, EF's developmental trajectory from preschool to kindergarten is not fully understood due to conceptual ambiguity (e.g., whether it is a single construct or multiple related constructs) and methodological limitations (e.g., previous work has primarily examined linear growth). Whether and how this trajectory differs based on characteristics of children and their families also remains to be characterized. In a primarily low‐income, racially and ethnically diverse, typically developing, urban sample, the present study employed confirmatory factor analyses to examine the construct of EF and latent growth curve modeling to examine nonlinear growth across five time points. Results indicated that the development of a single EF construct with partial measurement invariance across time points was best characterized as nonlinear, with disproportionately more growth during the preschool year. There was individual variability in EF trajectories, such that children with higher EF at preschool entry showed relatively steeper growth during preschool compared to low‐EF peers. However, children with less EF growth in preschool had steeper growth in kindergarten, attenuating the gains of high‐EF preschoolers and resulting in some convergence in EF by the end of kindergarten. Findings have implications for (1) examining EF development in early childhood with more specificity in future studies, (2) informing the timing of EF interventions in early childhood, and (3) identifying children for whom such interventions might be especially beneficial.

Does preschool children's self-regulation moderate the impacts of instructional activities? Evidence from a randomized intervention study

There is strong evidence linking children's self-regulation with their academic and behavioral outcomes. These relations have led to the development of interventions aimed at improving academic outcomes by promoting self-regulation, based in part on the idea that self-regulation promotes the development of academic skills. Although a considerable number of studies have examined the degree to which interventions designed to improve aspects of self-regulation have a positive impact on academic outcomes, only a few studies have examined the degree to which children's self-regulation moderates the effects of academic interventions. The goal of this study was to examine whether self-regulation, indexed by a direct assessment of executive function and teacher-rated attention, moderated the uptake of early literacy interventions for 184 children (average age = 58 months, SD = 3.38; 66% Black/African American, 28% White; 59% male) at risk for reading difficulties who participated in a randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of Tier 2 interventions in preschool. Multilevel models were used to examine the degree to which children's self-regulation moderated the impacts of the interventions. The results of this study provided little evidence that self-regulation moderated the impacts of the interventions and call into question the likelihood of a causal relation between self-regulation and academic achievement.

Emergent Bilinguals With Specific Reading Comprehension Deficits: A Comparative and Longitudinal Analysis

This study centered on emergent bilingual (EB) students with specific reading comprehension deficits (S-RCD), that is, with poor reading comprehension despite solid word identification skills. The participants were 209 students in Grades 2 to 4, including both EBs and English monolinguals (EMs) with and without S-RCD. Mean comparisons indicated that EBs and EMs with S-RCD showed weaknesses relative to typically developing (TD) readers in oral language, word identification, inference making, and reading engagement, but not in executive functioning. Longitudinal analyses indicated that across two academic years S-RCD persisted for 41% of EBs and EMs alike. Altogether, the study extends research on EBs with S-RCD by identifying variables beyond oral language that may account for their reading comprehension difficulties and providing insight into the extent to which their reading comprehension and word identification performance levels evolve during elementary school. Furthermore, the findings point to the importance of early identification and intervention for weaknesses in reading comprehension and its component elements in both EBs and EMS.

Neuropsychological Features of Children and Adolescents With Mitochondrial Disorders: A Descriptive Case Series

BACKGROUND

Mitochondrial disorders (MD) are metabolic diseases related to genetic mutations in mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA that cause dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Cognitive impairment and psychiatric symptoms are frequently associated with MD in the adult population. The aim of this study is to describe the neuropsychological profile in children and adolescents with MD.

METHODS

We prospectively recruited a sample of 12 children and adolescents between February 2019 and February 2020 in the Reference Center for Mitochondrial Disorders of Angers (France). Participants and their parents completed an anamnestic form describing socio-demographic data and completed the WISC-V (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 5th edition) and the Parent and Teacher forms of the BRIEF (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function).

RESULTS

In our sample, the mean IQ (Intellectual Quotient) score was 87.3 ± 25.3. The score ranged from 52 to 120. Concerning executive functions, a significant global clinical complaint was found for parents (six times more than normal) and to a lesser extent, for teachers (among 3 to 4 times more). Levels of intelligence and executive functioning were globally linked in our cohort but dissociation remains a possibility.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that MD can be associated to neuropsychological disorders in children and adolescents, especially regarding the intelligence quotient and the executive function. Our study also highlights the need for regular neuropsychological assessments in individuals with MD and developing brains, such as children and adolescents.

Executive functions and their relationship with intellectual capacity and age in schoolchildren with intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

There is certain empirical evidence of, on the one hand, a positive correlation between executive functions (EFs) and intelligence in people with intellectual disability (ID) and, on the other hand, a slower rate of development of EFs in these people relative to people without ID. This evidence is not, however, unequivocal, and further studies are required.

METHODS

We analysed the relationship between development of EFs and both age and intellectual capacity, in a sample of 106 students with either ID or borderline intellectual functioning (BIF) at a special education centre [63 boys and 43 girls, 11-18 years old, mean total intelligence quotient (TIQ) of 59.6]. We applied nine instruments to evaluate both neuropsychological development (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, planning, processing speed and verbal fluency) and behavioural development [teachers' perceptions of the EFs of their students by Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Second Edition (BRIEF-2) School]. ID and BIF groups were statistically compared in terms of mean performance measures in EF tests. We looked at the correlation between EFs and age, and correlations between EFs and intelligence: TIQ, fluid intelligence [measured by the perceptual reasoning (PR) sub-index of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)] and crystallised intelligence (measured by the verbal comprehension (VC) sub-index of WISC-IV). Regression models were built for variables with strong correlation.

RESULTS

In most of the tests used to evaluate EFs, the ID subgroup performed significantly worse than the subgroup with BIF. In general, teachers' thought that participants had 'medium-low' levels of EFs. TIQ, by WISC-IV scale, correlated significantly with scores in all tests for all EFs. The PR sub-index correlated significantly with 14 of the tests for EFs; 35% of the variation in PR can be explained by variation in performance in Picture Span (working memory) and Mazes (planning). The VC sub-index correlated weakly with seven of the EF tests. We found significant correlations in the ID group between age and scores in all tests of working memory and inhibitory control. Age - considering all participants - did not correlate with any of the variables of teachers' perception except for working memory, and this correlation was not strong.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our study are consistent with descriptions of the typical population: (1) fluid intelligence is more related to EFs than crystallised intelligence is; and (2) working memory capacity is the EF most strongly related with general, fluid and crystallised forms of intelligence. The results suggest that as children and adolescents with ID/BIF get older, their capacities for working memory and inhibitory control increase; development of the other EFs studied was less evident. Teachers' perceptions of the EFs of children with ID or BIF were independent of intellectual capacity and age. More research is needed to delve further into the development of EFs in people with ID/BIF.

Variation in Auditory Experience Affects Language and Executive Function Skills in Children Who Are Hard of Hearing

OBJECTIVE

Children who are hard of hearing (CHH) experience delays in spoken language and executive function, but the mechanisms for these deficits remain unresolved. Differences in auditory experience and language skills have been examined as contributing factors to deficits in executive function, primarily with children who are deaf and children with cochlear implants. The theoretical model of cumulative auditory experience quantifies auditory dosage as how much speech is audible and how often children wear their hearing aids. CHH with higher auditory dosage have better language outcomes than peers with less auditory dosage. However, the effects of auditory experience on executive function have not been studied in CHH. The goal of this study was to examine the influences of auditory experience and language skills on the development of executive function in CHH.

DESIGN

We collected measures of aided speech audibility, hearing aid use, executive function, and receptive vocabulary in 177 CHH and 86 children with typical hearing who were 5- to 10 years old and matched for socioeconomic status and nonverbal intelligence. Auditory dosage was calculated by combining each child's average hours of hearing aid use with their audibility for speech to create a variable that quantifies individual differences in auditory access.

RESULTS

CHH had lower receptive vocabulary and deficits in executive function related to working memory and selective attention compared to peers with typical hearing. CHH with greater auditory dosage had higher receptive vocabulary than CHH with lower auditory dosage. Better receptive vocabulary was associated with better scores on executive function measures related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was also directly associated with measures of verbal working memory.

CONCLUSIONS

CHH have deficits in language and some, but not all, areas of executive function related to working memory and attention. Auditory dosage was associated with language abilities and verbal working memory. Language was associated with individual differences in executive function skills related to attention and working memory. These results provide support for systems theories regarding the development of executive function in CHH. Interventions that improve auditory access and language may be effective for improving executive function related to working memory and attention in CHH.

Maternal education and Siblings: Agents of cognitive development in kindergarten

In this study (n = 1000, M_{age at K1entry} = 53.4 months, SD = 3.4; 53% females), we investigated the contributions of the family socioeconomic status (SES; maternal education and an income-related measure) and number and age of siblings to the development of children's math, reading, and working memory (WM) updating skills over the kindergarten years. Results from a multivariate multilevel growth curve model showed that children from more disadvantaged SES backgrounds already had a multifaceted developmental lag at kindergarten entry. Maternal education was the aspect of SES that more clearly affected the child's cognitive development; the mother's education predicted children's math, reading, and WM-Updating skills at kindergarten entry as well as the rate of development of reading skills over the kindergarten years. Independently of SES status, children with more siblings also showed poorer reading and math skills than those in one-child families at kindergarten entry. We also found that both older and younger siblings affected, negatively, children's reading skills before they attended kindergarten-which suggests that the development of reading skills is more responsive to environmental factors during the first years than other aspects of the child development. The findings underscore the independent role of siblings upon entry to kindergarten, and the enduring role of maternal education even after children are exposed to formal schooling. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Self-Reported Sleep and Executive Function in Early Primary School Children

The study investigated the associations between children’s self-reported habitual sleep disturbance and multidimensional executive function (EF). Two hundred and four 7–9-year-old typically developing children completed the Sleep Self-Report and finished the Red-Blue Test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, and Backward Digit Span Test, indexing different EF components including inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. Results revealed that all the three EF components were significantly correlated with sleep. However, cognitive flexibility was no longer significantly related to sleep when the other EF components – inhibitory control and working memory – were controlled for. Meanwhile, inhibitory control, as well as working memory, was still significantly related to sleep after controlling for the other EF components. Results suggest that children’s self-reported sleep might be associated directly with inhibitory control and working memory, but indirectly with cognitive flexibility.

The development of uncertainty monitoring during kindergarten: Change and longitudinal relations with executive function and vocabulary in children from low-income backgrounds

Children's ability to monitor subjective feelings of uncertainty (i.e., engage in uncertainty monitoring) is a central metacognitive skill. In the current study, we examined the development of uncertainty monitoring as well as its relations with vocabulary and executive function development in children (N = 137, 52% female) from predominately White and Latinx/Hispanic backgrounds when they were 4-6 years old and enrolled in a Head Start preschool and kindergarten between 2018 and 2019. We found that children's uncertainty monitoring improved during the kindergarten year. Children's executive function and vocabulary in preschool and vocabulary growth from preschool to kindergarten predicted uncertainty monitoring at the end of kindergarten, which sheds new light on potential mechanisms supporting children's metacognitive development.

Factor structure of the BRIEF-P teacher version in a sample of Bosnian preschool children with intellectual disability

Executive functions (EF) play a key role in child's development as they are necessary prerequisites for everyday functioning and later academic success. Much research has been directed at examining whether EF are unidimensional or multidimensional construct. In this study, we tested two theoretically driven models and one mathematically driven EF model based on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions - Preschool Edition (BRIEF-P). The sample for this study consisted of 102 children with intellectual disability (77 boys, 25 girls), aged 40-71 months (mean age- 62.1 months, SD- 7.6 months). Early childhood special education teachers completed the BRIEF-P Teacher Version. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to assess the validity of different EF models. The original BRIEF-P, with a second-order, three-factor model and one-factor model were not a good fit to the data. Mathematically driven one-factor model, with the addition of correlated errors between the scales of working memory and shift, and working memory and plan/organize was a good model fit. The current study indicates that EF differentiation begins to emerge at preschool age in children with intellectual disabilities. Understanding EF structure in children with intellectual disability will help create better intervention programs for this population.

Childhood ADHD and Executive Functioning: Unique Predictions of Early Adolescent Depression

Given the increasing prevalence of adolescent depression, identification of its early predictors and elucidation of the mechanisms underlying its individual differences is imperative. Controlling for baseline executive functioning (EF), we tested separate ADHD dimensions (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity-impulsivity) as independent predictors of early adolescent depression, including temporally-ordered causal mediation by academic functioning and social problems, using structural equation modeling. At baseline, participants consisted of 216 children (67% male) ages 6–9 years old with (n = 112) and without (n = 104) ADHD who subsequently completed Wave 2 and 3 follow-ups approximately two and four years later, respectively. Predictors consisted of separate parent and teacher ratings of childhood ADHD and laboratory-based assessments of key EF domains. At Wave 2, parents and teachers completed normed rating scales of youth academic and social functioning; youth completed standardized assessments of academic achievement. At Wave 3, youth self-reported depression. Baseline inattention positively predicted early adolescent depression whereas childhood hyperactivity-impulsivity and EF did not. Neither academic nor social functioning significantly mediated predictions of depression from baseline ADHD and EF. We consider prediction of early adolescent depression from inattention, including directions for future intervention and prevention research.

Executive functions in 7-year-old children of parents with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder compared with controls: The Danish High Risk and Resilience Study-VIA 7, a population-based cohort study

Cognitive impairments are strongly associated with schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BP) with executive functions (EF) impairments as a likely key feature. Studies of everyday behavior rated EF in young children at familial high risk of SZ (FHR-SZ) are scarce and, to our knowledge, non-existent in young children at familial high risk of BP (FHR-BP). We aimed to compare everyday behavior-rated EF of FHR-SZ, FHR-BP, and control children. A nationwide population-based cohort of 522 7-year-old children with parents diagnosed with either SZ (N = 202) or BP (N = 120) and matched controls (N = 200) were recruited using the Danish national registries. The children's EF were assessed with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functions questionnaire rated by primary caregivers and teachers. According to primary caregiver assessments, FHR-SZ children displayed widespread EF impairments and had an odds ratio of 3.7 (2.0-6.9) of having clinically significant global EF impairments compared to controls. FHR-BP children were most severely impaired regarding EF related to emotional control and had an odds ratio of 2.5 (1.2-5.1) of clinically significant global EF impairments compared to controls. Teacher assessments were overall comparable to primary caregiver assessments but teachers rated more difficulties in the FHR-SZ group than primary caregivers. Already at age 7, children with a parental history of SZ or BP displayed significant impairments of EF in everyday-life situations. FHR-SZ children displayed widespread significant impairments of EF, whereas FHR-BP children were most severely impaired on emotional control. Clinicians should be aware of potential EF impairments in FHR children.

Culturally relevant stressors as moderators of intergenerational transmission of mother-adolescent executive function in Mexican immigrant families

The intergenerational transmission of executive function may be enhanced or interrupted by culturally salient environmental stressors that shape the practice of executive function in the family. Building upon past research, the current study tests whether culturally relevant stressors such as economic stress and foreigner stress have a direct effect on adolescent executive function, as well as whether they modify the intergenerational transmission of mother–child executive function (i.e., working memory, inhibitory control, and shifting) in low-income Mexican immigrant families. The sample consists of 179 Mexican American adolescents (M_age = 17.03 years; SD_age = 0.83; 58% females) and their Mexico-born mothers (M_age = 43.25 years; SD_age = 5.90). Results show that mothers’ perceived economic stress is associated with poor inhibitory control in adolescents. Low levels of mothers’ perceived foreigner stress related to a stronger association between mothers’ and adolescents’ working memory, while high levels of mothers’ perceived foreigner stress related to enhanced intergenerational transmission of poor shifting ability. Study findings demonstrate the prominence of perceived foreigner stress as a contextually relevant factor moderating the intergenerational transmission of mother–child executive function in low-income Mexican immigrant families.

Preschool Executive Functioning and Child Behavior: Association with Learning Prerequisites?

Preschool age is a golden period for the emergence of executive functions (EFs) that, in turn, predict learning and adaptive behavior throughout all life. The study was aimed to identify which EFs measures significantly explained the learning prerequisites and the mediation role of self-regulatory and executive behavior recorded in structured or free settings. One hundred and twenty-seven preschoolers were remotely assessed by standardized tests of response inhibition, working memory, control of interference, and cognitive flexibility. Teachers provided a global measure of learning prerequisites by an observational questionnaire. Self-regulatory behavior during the assessment was evaluated by a rating scale filled by the examiners. Executive function behavior in daily life was measured by a questionnaire filled by parents. Accuracy in tasks of response inhibition and working memory explained about 48% of the variability in learning prerequisites while response speed and accuracy in the control of interference and in cognitive flexibility were not significant. EFs also had indirect effects, mediated by the child’s self-regulatory behavior evaluated during the assessment but not in daily life. The results are interpreted with respect to the contribution of the main EF components to school readiness and the mediation of the child behavior as measured in structure contexts.

Feasibility of Remote Performance Assessment Using the Free Research Executive Evaluation Test Battery in Adolescents

Lockdowns and other preventive measures taken to curb the spread of diseases such as COVID-19 have restricted the use of face-to-face cognitive assessment. Remote testing may be an alternative, but it should first be shown to be comparable to in-person assessment before being used more widely, during and after the pandemic. Our aim was to evaluate the suitability of online, examiner-mediated administration of an open-access battery of executive function tests (the Free Research Executive Evaluation battery, or FREE) that can be adapted considering various characteristics of diverse populations and therefore used worldwide. A total of 96 9-15-year olds (42 girls) were tested, half of whom online through video calls mediated by an examiner. Their performance was compared to that of the other 48 individuals tested face-to-face, who were matched against the online-tested participants for age, pubertal status, sex, and parental schooling. The battery consists of two tests of the following executive domains: Updating (2-Back and Number Memory tests), Inhibition (Stroop Victoria and Stroop Happy-Sad), and Switching (Color Shape and Category Switch). Answers were vocal and self-paced, and the examiner recorded accuracy and time taken to complete in-person and online tasks. Only free software is needed for the assessment. Executive measures obtained from the tasks did not differ statistically between online and in-person tested participants and effects sizes of group effects were small, thus showing that the FREE test battery holds promise for online cognitive assessment, pending confirmation in different samples and further validation studies.

Development of white matter microstructure and executive functions during childhood and adolescence: a review of diffusion MRI studies

Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) provides indirect measures of white matter microstructure that can be used to make inferences about structural connectivity within the brain. Over the last decade, a growing literature of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have documented relationships between dMRI indices and cognitive development. In this review, we provide a brief overview of dMRI methods and how they can be used to study white matter and connectivity and review the extant literature examining the links between dMRI indices and executive functions during development. We explore the links between white matter microstructure and specific executive functions: inhibition, working memory and cognitive shifting, as well as performance on complex executive function tasks. Concordance in findings across studies are highlighted, and potential explanations for discrepancies between results, together with challenges with using dMRI in child and adolescent populations, are discussed. Finally, we explore future directions that are necessary to better understand the links between child and adolescent development of structural connectivity of the brain and executive functions.

The roles of different executive functioning skills in young children's mental computation and applied mathematical problem-solving

This study investigated the relationships of four executive functioning skills (including verbal working memory, spatial working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility) with young children's mental computation and applied mathematical problem-solving. Two hundred and twenty-five Chinese kindergarteners were tested with a battery of general cognitive, executive functioning and mathematics skills. Results showed that when children's age, gender, non-verbal intelligence, and listening comprehension skills were controlled, verbal working memory and cognitive flexibility were significant correlates of mental computation, whereas verbal working memory, spatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility were significant correlates of applied mathematical problem-solving. Inhibitory control was not significantly associated with the two domains of mathematics under investigation. The findings highlight the differential roles of different executive functioning skills in early mathematical skills and offer practical implication for helping young children in learning complex mathematical skills.

Unity or diversity of executive functioning in children and adolescents with post-traumatic stress symptoms? A systematic review and meta-analysis

For some children, psychological reactions to a traumatic event develop into severe or persistent post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) or the clinical condition of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cognitive problems in children with PTSS have been reported, but it is not clear which specific functions are affected. Executive functions is a domain of particular interest, given its importance for academic performance and social and emotional functioning. A systematic literature search was performed, and 12 studies with 55 comparisons of executive functions in children with PTSS and healthy controls were eligible for meta-analysis. A subset of the studies also included a comparison group of children with traumatic experienced but without PTSS. Overall, across all tasks and measures, children with PTSS showed lower executive functioning than healthy controls (SMD = -0.57). The effect sizes between the subdomains complex tasks, verbal fluency, inhibition, shifting and working memory were not significantly different from each other, but was largest for verbal fluency (SMD = -1.45). Analyses comparing children with traumatic experiences with and without PTSS similarly showed overall lower executive functioning in the PTSS group (SMD = -0.34) and no significant differences in effect sizes between subdomains. The results have implications for assessment and clinical work with youth exposed to traumatic events. We should be aware of the poor executive functioning that may be an issue for some children with a history of trauma and subsequent development of PTSS, and the impact this could have on everyday functioning.

Internalising and externalising in early adolescence predict later executive function, not the other way around: a cross-lagged panel analysis

Developmental changes in the brain networks involved in emotion regulation are thought to contribute to vulnerability to mental health problems during adolescence. Executive control is often viewed as allowing top-down regulation of emotional responses. However, while associations between executive control and mental health are commonly observed in both clinical and non-clinical populations, the direction of these associations remains unclear. Low, or immature, cognitive control could limit emotion regulation. Reversely, high emotionality could impede cognitive functioning. The scarcity of longitudinal studies testing for bi-directional effects, particularly in adolescence, has made it difficult to draw conclusions. This study analysed data from 1,445 participants of a longitudinal cohort in a cross-lagged panel design to understand bi-directional longitudinal associations between executive function and emotional behaviours across adolescence. Executive function was assessed using experimental working memory and inhibitory control tasks, emotional behaviours through parental report of internalising and externalising behaviours. Cross-sectional associations were replicated. Controlling for cross-sectional associations, early executive functions were not found to predict later emotional behaviours. Instead, early emotional behaviours predicted later executive function, with the strongest link observed between early externalising and later working memory. These results suggest that emotional well-being may affect the maturation of executive function during adolescence.

Executive Function, Language Dominance and Literacy Skills in Spanish-speaking Language-minority Children: A Longitudinal Study

In the U.S., children whose home language is Spanish are at increased risk for the development of reading difficulties. Studies have reported a link between executive function (EF) and reading; few studies have examined this linkage in Spanish-speaking language-minority (LM) children. This longitudinal study examined the association between preschool EF and kindergarten reading-related skills in 241 Spanish-speaking LM children (M-age in preschool = 54.23 months, SD = 6.17). In preschool, children completed measures of inhibitory control (IC) and working memory (WM) in their dominant language, and early literacy skills in Spanish and English. In the fall of their kindergarten year, children completed code- and language-related literacy measures in both languages. A two-factor model (IC and WM) accounted for children's preschool EF. Most zero-order correlations between EF factors and kindergarten outcomes in Spanish (rs = .03-.40) and English (rs = .05-.35) were statistically significant. For English-language outcomes, WM was more strongly associated with code-related skills and IC with language-related skills; for Spanish-language outcomes, WM was more strongly related to both code- and language- related skills than IC. There was little difference in the associations between EF and reading outcomes based on the language in which EF was measured (i.e., the child's dominant language). When controlling for early literacy skills in the same language as the kindergarten outcomes, EF contributed significant unique variance to kindergarten skills in English but not in Spanish. For Spanish language outcomes, early literacy skills appear to mediate the role of preschool EF. The results suggest that children's development in cognitive domains, such as EF, may have an important role in the acquisition of core early reading skills for Spanish-speaking LM children.

Domain-general and domain-specific influences on emerging numerical cognition: Contrasting uni-and bidirectional prediction models

Domain-general skills such as executive functions (EFs), and domain-specific skills such as non-symbolic number sense and symbolic understanding are often pitted against each other as predictors of emerging maths. Here we aimed to investigate early childhood relations between these foundational skills with a balanced, longitudinal design. One hundred and seventy 3- and 4-year-old-children were tested at two time points, 5 months apart, on four domain-general executive and five domain-specific numeracy tasks. A latent EF factor was a strong predictor of symbolic maths and of their growth. In addition, stronger symbolic maths at Time 1 was correlated with later stronger EF, but symbolic maths did not predict EF growth. Our findings provide novel insights into dynamic interplay between general and specific cognitive skills contributing to preschool maths.

Age-related changes of cognitive flexibility and planning skills in school-age Moroccan children

North African countries such as Morocco are scarcely the focus of neuropsychological studies, although the role of culture in cognition processes is widely recognized. Currently, studies on flexibility and planning skills in the Moroccan context are still lacking and there are no adapted tools to assess these functions in the country. In this scenario, this study aimed to adapt the Child Executive Functions Battery (CEF-B) tasks and the playing cards task of the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome for Children (BADS-C) to Morocco and provide preliminary normative data on the development of flexibility and planning. In addition, this study proposed to examine the effects of gender, parents' education level and multilingualism on executive development. To this end, six tasks of the CEF-B were adapted through a translation and back-translation process and administered to 115 children aged 7-12 years. Results showed that the adopted procedure was sufficient for the cross-cultural adaptation of the tasks. Analyses showed a continuous increase with age on executive performance in most of the variables. However, gender and parents' level of education showed mostly non-significant effects. On the other hand, a significant effect of multilingualism was found on the two analyzed functions, with better results for multilingual children if compared to their bilingual peers. In general, results suggest that the identified pattern of development is consistent with international studies. Although normative data on executive functions are still lacking in Morocco, this unprecedented study will help better understand their development in this context.

Similar Theory of Mind Deficits in Community Dwelling Older Adults with Vascular Risk Profile and Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment: The Case of Paradoxical Sarcasm Comprehension

Recent studies deal with disorders and deficits caused by vascular syndrome in efforts for prediction and prevention. Cardiovascular health declines with age due to vascular risk factors, and this leads to an increasing risk of cognitive decline. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is defined as the negative cognitive changes beyond what is expected in normal aging. The purpose of the study was to compare older adults with vascular risk factors (VRF), MCI patients, and healthy controls (HC) in social cognition and especially in theory of mind ability (ToM). The sample comprised a total of 109 adults, aged 50 to 85 years (M = 66.09, SD = 9.02). They were divided into three groups: (a) older adults with VRF, (b) MCI patients, and (c) healthy controls (HC). VRF and MCI did not differ significantly in age, educational level or gender as was the case with HC. Specifically, for assessing ToM, a social inference test was used, which was designed to measure sarcasm comprehension. Results showed that the performance of the VRF group and MCI patients is not differentiated, while HC performed higher compared to the other two groups. The findings may imply that the development of a vascular disorder affecting vessels of the brain is associated from its “first steps” to ToM decline, at least regarding specific aspects of it, such as paradoxical sarcasm understanding.

Attentional shifting in children with developmental language disorder: A meta-analysis

PURPOSE

A meta-analysis investigating attentional shifting in children with developmental language disorder (DLD) was conducted. Task type, participant age, and dependent variable metric were examined as significant moderators.

METHOD

A systematic literature review identified 20 studies that met the following inclusionary criteria:(a) were published between 1994-2018; (b) included children with DLD aged 3;00 to 17;11 years; and (c) used behavioral performance-based measures of attentional shifting.

RESULTS

Children with DLD performed poorer than age-matched peers with typically developing language (TL) by 0.42 SD across attentional shifting studies. Moderator analyses showed an effect of task type, as children with DLD performed comparatively poorer on set-shifting (g = -.52) but not alternating tasks (g = -.18). Neither age nor dependent variable used to measure attentional shifting were significant moderators.

DISCUSSION

Children with DLD exhibit deficits in attentional shifting relative to same-age peers. Results of moderator analyses reveal that deficits were found on set-shifting but not alternating tasks and that these deficits remained consistent whether researchers measure accuracy or response time switch costs to ascertain attentional shifting ability. In addition, moderator analysis results suggest that attentional shifting deficits are consistent in preschool-age and school-age children with DLD.

Cognition across the Lifespan: Investigating Age, Sex, and Other Sociodemographic Influences

Maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan has been the focus of a multi-billion-dollar industry. In order to guide treatment and interventions, a clear understanding of the way that proficiency in different cognitive domains develops and declines in both sexes across the lifespan is necessary. Additionally, there are sex differences in a range of other factors, including psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety, depression, and substance use, that are also known to affect cognition, although the scale of this interaction is unknown. Our objective was to assess differences in cognitive function across the lifespan in men and women in a large, representative sample. Leveraging online cognitive testing, a sample of 9451 men and 9451 women ranging in age from 12 to 69 (M = 28.21) matched on socio-demographic factors were studied. Segmented regression was used to model three cognitive domains—working memory, verbal abilities, and reasoning. Sex differences in all three domains were minimal; however, after broadening the sample in terms of socio-demographic factors, sex differences appeared. These results suggest that cognition across the lifespan differs for men and women, but is greatly influenced by environmental factors. We discuss these findings within a framework that describes sex differences in cognition as likely guided by a complex interplay between biology and environment.

Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis

The primary goal of this study was to examine developmental patterns among the relations between components of executive function (EF; working memory [WM], inhibitory control, shifting), and academic outcomes (reading, mathematics, language) in elementary school-age children. These relations were examined within the context of the development of EF and of academic skills utilizing an extension of the unity and diversity, intrinsic cognitive load, and dual process theories. Using meta-analytic methods, we summarized results from 299 studies from 293 articles/dissertations, representing 65,605 elementary school-age children (42-191 months old [M = 101 months, SD = 24.49 months]). Results indicated that accounting for general EF (by including the correlations among EF tasks in meta-analytic path models and accounting for effects between all three EF components and academic outcomes simultaneously) produced weaker relations between EF and academic skills than the bivariate relations which have been reported in prior meta-analytic reviews. However, although reduced, all relations between EF and academic outcomes remained significant throughout elementary school. Whereas WM was consistently moderately associated with reading, math, and oral language across development, the developmental trends for the relations between inhibitory control and shifting with academic outcomes varied based upon the academic skill examined. On the academic side, whereas the relations between reading and language skills with EF components varied throughout elementary school, few developmental changes were found in the relations between EF components and math skills across elementary school. Future directions and implications of findings for the conceptualization of the impact of EF on academics are discussed within the context of relevant theoretical models. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

An Adaptable, Open-Access Test Battery to Study the Fractionation of Executive-Functions in Diverse Populations

The umbrella-term 'executive functions' (EF) includes various domain-general, goal-directed cognitive abilities responsible for behavioral self-regulation. The influential unity and diversity model of EF posits the existence of three correlated yet separable executive domains: inhibition, shifting and updating. These domains may be influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status (SES) and culture, possibly due to the way EF tasks are devised and to biased choice of stimuli, focusing on first-world testees. Here, we propose a FREE (Free Research Executive Function Evaluation) test battery that includes two open-access tasks for each of the three abovementioned executive domains to allow latent variables to be obtained. The tasks were selected from those that have been shown to be representative of each domain, that are not copyrighted and do not require special hardware/software to be administered. These tasks were adapted for use in populations with varying SES/schooling levels by simplifying tasks/instructions and using easily recognized stimuli such as pictures. Items are answered verbally and tasks are self-paced to minimize interference from individual differences in psychomotor and perceptual speed, to better isolate executive from other cognitive abilities. We tested these tasks on 146 early adolescents (aged 9-15 years) of both sexes and varying SES, because this is the age group in which the executive domains of interest become distinguishable and in order to confirm that SES effects were minimized. Performance was determined by Rate Correct Scores (correct answers divided by total time taken to complete blocks/trial), which consider speed-accuracy trade-offs. Scores were sensitive to the expected improvement in performance with age and rarely/inconsistently affected by sex and SES, as expected, with no floor or ceiling effects, or skewed distribution, thus suggesting their adequacy for diverse populations in these respects. Using structural equation modeling, evidence based on internal structure was obtained by replicating the three correlated-factor solution proposed by the authors of the model. We conclude that the FREE test battery, which is open access and described in detail, holds promise as a tool for research that can be adapted for a wide range of populations, as well as altered and/or complemented in coming studies.

Development of executive functions in Lebanese children

The current study focused on adapting EF tests for children to the Arabic language and examine the developmental trajectories of a sample of school-aged Lebanese children in four domains of EF (inhibition, flexibility, working memory, and planning). It also focused on examining the effects of gender and parental education level on EF performance. The study population included 100 Lebanese children aged from 6 to 12-years old who were grouped and comparable for age, gender, and parental level of education. Results revealed a main effect of age and level of education of parents while the effect of gender was non-significant.

Executive functions in preschool-aged children with neurofibromatosis type 1: Value for early assessment

Introduction: Executive functions (EFs) impairment is common in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), and could be a significant vulnerability associated with this medical disorder. However, we still know little about EFs in preschool NF1. Our study assessed EFs in NF1 children using performance-based tests and daily life questionnaires, which combined the views of parents and teachers.Method: Seven classic experimental tasks were used to evaluate EFs in 33 NF1 children aged 3 to 5 years old, and BRIEF-P questionnaires were completed by their parents and teachers. These children's performance was compared with a control group of 52 healthy children matched in age, gender and socio-cultural status.Results: NF1 children have significantly lower scores for 5 out of 7 executive tasks than control children and significantly higher levels of EF concerns in the parent and teacher BRIEF-P ratings. The correlations between performance-based tests and questionnaires are weak.Conclusions: Our results support an early executive dysfunction in NF1 children and call for early and systematic assessment of EFs. Both performance-based tests and questionnaires are complementary tools to investigate early EFs dysfunction in children with NF1.

Cerebellar-Subcortical-Cortical Systems as Modulators of Cognitive Functions

Over the past few decades, research has established that the cerebellum is involved in executive functions; however, its specific role remains unclear. There are numerous theories of cerebellar function and numerous cognitive processes falling under the umbrella of executive function, making investigations of the cerebellum's role in executive functioning challenging. In this review, we explored the role of the cerebellum in executive functioning through clinical and cognitive neuroscience frameworks. We reviewed the neuroanatomical systems and theoretical models of cerebellar functions and the multifaceted nature of executive functions. Using attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and cerebellar tumor as clinical developmental models of cerebellar dysfunction, and the functional magnetic resonance imaging literature, we reviewed evidence for cerebellar involvement in specific components of executive function in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. There is evidence for posterior cerebellar contributions to working memory, planning, inhibition, and flexibility, but the heterogeneous literature that largely was not designed to study the cerebellum makes it difficult to determine specific functions of the cerebellum or cerebellar regions. In addition, while it is clear that cerebellar insult in childhood affects executive function performance later in life, more work is needed to elucidate the mechanisms by which executive dysfunction occurs and its developmental course. The limitations of the current literature are discussed and potential directions for future research are provided.

Executive Function in High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Meta-analysis of fMRI Studies

Abnormalities in executive function (EF) are clinical markers for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, the neural mechanisms underlying abnormal EF in ASD remain unclear. This meta-analysis investigated the construct, abnormalities, and age-related changes of EF in ASD. Thirty-three fMRI studies of inhibition, updating, and switching in individuals with high-functioning ASD were included (n = 1114; age range 7-57 years). The results revealed that the EF construct in ASD could be unitary (i.e., common EF) in children/adolescents, but unitary and diverse (i.e., common EF and inhibition) in adults. Abnormalities in this EF construct were found across development in individuals with ASD in comparison with typically developing individuals. Implications and recommendations are discussed for EF theory and for practice in ASD.

The dimensionality of early executive functions in young preschoolers: Comparing unidimensional versus bidimensional models and their ecological validity

The study analyses the dimensionality of executive functions (EF) and its relationship with behavior in typically developing 3- and 4-year-old children. In study 1, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to investigate the validity of a one-factor model in 117 preschoolers. Since this model was not confirmed, a two-factor model was identified through exploratory factor analysis. In study 2, the validity of the new two-factor versus one-factor model was tested on a new sample of 128 children through a series of CFAs. The relationship between the models and specific behavioral aspects of the children was investigated. The results suggest that a bidimensional structure showed a better fit to the data and more ecological validity than a unitary structure.