A novel regulator of macrophage activation: miR-223 in obesity-associated adipose tissue inflammation

Hydroalcoholic extract of dill and aerobic training prevents high-fat diet-induced metabolic risk factors by improving miR-33 and miR-223 expression in rat liver

Exercise training and medicinal herb supplementation may improve microRNAs (miRNAs) expression associated with obesity. This study aimed to assess the effects of 10 weeks of aerobic training (AT) and dill extract (DE) on miR-33 and miR-223 expression of liver in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats. Forty male Wistar rats were fed a defined high-fat (n = 32) and standard (n = 8, nonobese control [NC]) diet. After obesity induction, obese rats were randomly allocated to four groups: AT, DE, AT + DE, and obese control (OC). Rats were euthanized and plasma and liver tissue samples were collected after the intervention. The liver expression of miR-33 was lower in the AT, DE, AT + DE, and NC groups compared with the OC group. Also, the liver miR-223 expression was higher in the AT, DE, AT + DE, and NC groups compared with the OC group. Moreover, the liver expression of miR-223 in the AT + DE group was higher compared with the AT and DE groups. The AT, DE, AT + DE, and NC groups had lower liver TC compared with the OC group. Also, the plasma level of apolipoprotein B (Apo B) was significantly lower, and liver HDL-C was significantly higher in the AT + DE and NC groups compared with the OC group. These findings show that long-term AT combined with the intake of DE may improve the plasma levels of Apo B, and TC and HDL-C levels in the liver, which is probably due to AT and DE positive effects on miR-33 and miR-223 in the liver of obese rats. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Aerobic training reduces overweight and obesity health problems, however, the duration and intensity of the exercise training distinguish between individuals. We used an integrated approach combining pharmacological and non-pharmacological as a medical strategy to prevent HFD-induced metabolic injury in obese rats. The present results discovered that a combination of AT + DE intervention improves the miR-33 and miR-223 in the liver of obese rats.

MicroRNAs as Regulators of Phagocytosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression and thus act as important regulators of cellular phenotype and function. As their expression may be dysregulated in numerous diseases, they are of interest as biomarkers. What is more, attempts of modulation of some microRNAs for therapeutic reasons have been undertaken. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge regarding the influence of microRNAs on phagocytosis, which may be exerted on different levels, such as through macrophages polarization, phagosome maturation, reactive oxygen species production and cytokines synthesis. This phenomenon plays an important role in numerous pathological conditions.

Impact of microRNA Regulated Macrophage Actions on Adipose Tissue Function in Obesity

Obesity-induced adipose tissue dysfunction is bolstered by chronic, low-grade inflammation and impairs systemic metabolic health. Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) perpetuate local inflammation but are crucial to adipose tissue homeostasis, exerting heterogeneous, niche-specific functions. Diversified macrophage actions are shaped through finely regulated factors, including microRNAs, which post-transcriptionally alter macrophage activation. Numerous studies have highlighted microRNAs’ importance to immune function and potential as inflammation-modulatory. This review summarizes current knowledge of regulatory networks governed by microRNAs in ATMs in white adipose tissue under obesity stress.

MiR-223 as a Regulator and Therapeutic Target in Liver Diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous non-coding single-stranded small molecule RNAs consisting of 20–24 nucleotides that are highly conserved in species evolution. Expression of miRNAs is strictly tissue-specific, and it is chronological in fungi and plants, as well as in animals. MiR-223 has been shown to play a key role in innate immunity, and dysregulation of its expression contributes to the pathogenesis of multiple inflammatory diseases, and cancers. In this article the biosynthesis and functions of miR-223 in innate immunity are reviewed, and the role of miR-223 in liver physiopathology and therapeutic prospects are highlighted.

Different expression of miRNA in the subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue of obese subjects

Obesity is a pathology characterized by an excessive accumulation of adipose tissue and it is a condition associated with complex alterations affecting different organs and systems. Obesity has great influences on cardiovascular and respiratory morbidity and mortality and impairs the multiple aspects of metabolism. Since micro-RNAs (miRNAs) are thought to play a role in the regulation of various pathological processes, in this complex framework, the investigation of these classes of noncoding regulatory RNA seems to be promising. Selected group of obese subjects was recruited. We analysed the expression of seven miRNAs from obese adipose tissue supposed to have a role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and respiratory disease related to obesity and we compared it with the expression of the same miRNAs in a group of non-obese controls. In the current study what emerged is miR-27b and miR-483 significant down-regulation in subcutaneous adipose tissue from obese group compared with non-obese ones. For visceral adipose tissue, a significant decrease in miR-27b and miR-223 expression was observed in obese group. Moreover, a different expression of miR-26a and miR-338 in the obese group was found. Those findings could help the individuation of previously unknown key players in the development of different diseases usually associated with obesity, such as cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases.

Role of Exosomal miR-223 in Chronic Skeletal Muscle Inflammation

As skeletal muscle is one of the largest organs in the body, its damage can directly reflect a decline in somatic function, thus, further affecting daily life and health. Inflammation is a prerequisite for the repair of injured skeletal muscles. Chronic inflammation induced by inadequate repair in skeletal muscle aggravates tissue injury. Exosomes regulate inflammatory responses to facilitate the repair of skeletal muscle injury. Moreover, exosomal miR‐223 with high specificity is the most abundant miRNA in peripheral blood and regarded as biomarkers for inflammation post skeletal muscle injury, which warrants further investigation. Available studies have demonstrated that exosomal miR‐223 negatively correlates with TNF‐α levels in serum and regulates the canonical inflammatory NF‐κB signaling pathway. miR‐223 is a negative feedback regulator with great potential for adjusting inflammatory imbalance and promoting skeletal muscle repair. The research on the regulation of negative feedback factors in the inflammatory signaling pathway is essential in biology and medicine. Therefore, this review mainly elaborates the formation, heterogeneity and markers of exosomes and points out exosomal miR‐223 as a beneficial role in chronic skeletal muscle inflammation and can be expected to be a potential therapeutic target for skeletal muscle damage.

Screening and Identification of Putative Long Non-Coding RNA in Childhood Obesity: Evaluation of Their Transcriptional Levels

Background and Methods: Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) and microRNAs are involved in the pathogenesis of obesity, a multifactorial disease that is characterized by inflammation, cardiometabolic complications, and increased cancer risk among other co-morbidities. The up/down regulation of LncRNAs and microRNAs may play an important role in this condition to identify new diagnostic/prognostic markers. The aim of the study was to identify circulating inflammatory LncRNAs in obese adolescents (n = 54) and to evaluate whether their expression behaved differently compared to normal-weight adolescents (n = 26). To have a more complete insight, the expression of some circulating miRNAs that are linked to obesity (miR-33a, miR-223, miR-142, miR-199a, miR-181a, and miR-4454) were also analyzed. Results: LncRNAs and miRNAs were extracted simultaneously from plasma samples and amplified by Real-Time PCR. Among the 86 LncRNAs that were analyzed with custom pre-designed plates, only four (RP11-347E10.1, RP11-10K16.1, LINC00657, and SNHG12) were amplified in both normal-weight and obese adolescents and only SNHG12 showed significantly lower expression compared to the normal-weight adolescents (p = 0.026). Circulating miRNAs showed a tendency to increase in obese subjects, except for miR-181a expression. LncRNAs and miRNAs correlated with some clinical and metabolic parameters. Conclusions: Our results suggest the importance of these new biomarkers to better understand the molecular mechanisms of childhood obesity and its metabolic disorder.

Exosomes in cardiovascular diseases: a blessing or a sin for the mankind

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) comprises disorders of blood vessels and heart. Multiple cells in the heart suggests that hetero-cellular communication, which is an important aspect in heart functioning and there is a need to elucidate the way in which this inter-cellular communication occurs. Now a days, exosomal research has gained much attention. Exosomes, nano-shuttles, are EVs with diameters ranging from 40 to 160 nm (average 100 nm), secreted by body cells. These vesicles act as cell-to-cell communicators and are carriers of important biomolecules such as RNAs, miRNAs, Proteins and lipids. Exosomes can change the gene expression of the recipient cells, thereby, changes the cellular characteristics. Exosomes have known to play an essential role in protection as well as progression of various cardiovascular diseases. In the present review, role of exosomes in various CVDs have been discussed.

The emerging roles and mechanisms of exosomal non-coding RNAs in the mutual regulation between adipose tissue and other related tissues in obesity and metabolic diseases

Exosomes (EXs) are the major types of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of 30-100 nm diameter that can be secreted by most cells to the extracellular environment. EXs transport endogenous cargoes (proteins, lipids, RNAs, etc.) to target cells and thereby triggers the release of these bioactive components, which then play important roles in regulating numerous biological processes under both physiological and pathological conditions. Throughout the studies in recent years, growing evidences have shown that EXs-derived non-coding RNAs (EXs-ncRNAs) are emerging as key players in cell-to-cell communication between adipose tissue and other related tissues in obesity and metabolic diseases. In this review, we will summarize the recent findings about EXs-ncRNAs, especially focus on the following aspects: 1) the biogenesis of EXs and emerging roles of EXs-ncRNAs, 2) the role of EXs-ncRNAs (EXs-miRNAs, EXs-lncRNAs, EXs-circRNAs, etc.) that were secreted by adipose-related tissues in promoting the differentiation of preadipocytes into mature and fully functional adipocytes, and 3) the crosstalk between the adipose tissue derived EXs-ncRNAs and the development of insulin resistance, obesity and various cancers. This review aims to reveal the emerging roles and mechanisms of EXs-ncRNAs in the mutual regulation of adipose tissue and its related tissues in obesity and metabolic diseases, so as to provide references for elucidating the etiology of obesity and related metabolic diseases and screening novel therapeutic targets.

miR-223: An Immune Regulator in Infectious Disorders

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are diminutive noncoding RNAs that can influence disease development and progression by post-transcriptionally regulating gene expression. The anti-inflammatory miRNA, miR-223, was first identified as a regulator of myelopoietic differentiation in 2003. This miR-223 exhibits multiple regulatory functions in the immune response, and abnormal expression of miR-223 is shown to be associated with multiple infectious diseases, including viral hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), and tuberculosis (TB) by influencing neutrophil infiltration, macrophage function, dendritic cell (DC) maturation and inflammasome activation. This review summarizes the current understanding of miR-223 physiopathology and highlights the molecular mechanism by which miR-223 regulates immune responses to infectious diseases and how it may be targeted for diagnosis and treatment.

miRNA-223 Suppresses Mouse Gallstone Formation by Targeting Key Transporters in Hepatobiliary Cholesterol Secretion Pathway

miRNA-223 has been previously reported to play an essential role in hepatic cholesterol homeostasis. However, its role in regulation of biliary cholesterol secretion and gallstone formation remains unknown. Hence, mice with conventional knockout (KO), hepatocyte-specific knockout (ΔHepa) / knockdown (KD) or gain expression of miRNA-223 were included in the study and were subjected to lithogenic diet (LD) for various weeks. The gall bladders and liver tissues were harvested for cholesterol crystal imaging, gallstone mass measurement and molecular analysis. Levels of cholesterol, bile salt, phospholipids, and triglyceride were determined in serum, liver tissues, and bile by enzyme color reactive assays. A 3' UTR reporter gene assay was used to verify the direct target genes for miRNA-223. LD-induced gallstone formation was remarkably accelerated in miRNA-223 KO, ΔHepa, and KD mice with concurrent enhancement in total cholesterol levels in liver tissues and bile. Key biliary cholesterol transporters ABCG5 and ABCG8 were identified as direct targets of miRNA-223. Reversely, AAV-mediated hepatocyte-specific miRNA-223 overexpression prevented gallstone progression with reduced targets expression. Therefore, the present study demonstrates a novel role of miRNA-223 in the gallstone formation by targeting ABCG5 and ABCG8 and elevating miRNA-223 would be a potentially novel approach to overcome the sternness of cholesterol gallstone disease.

MicroRNA-150 and its target ETS-domain transcription factor 1 contribute to inflammation in diabetic photoreceptors

Obesity‐associated type 2 diabetes (T2D) is on the rise in the United States due to the obesity epidemic, and 60% of T2D patients develop diabetic retinopathy (DR) in their lifetime. Chronic inflammation is a hallmark of obesity and T2D and a well‐accepted major contributor to DR, and retinal photoreceptors are a major source of intraocular inflammation and directly contribute to vascular abnormalities in diabetes. However, how diabetic insults cause photoreceptor inflammation is not well known. In this study, we used a high‐fat diet (HFD)‐induced T2D mouse model and cultured photoreceptors treated with palmitic acid (PA) to decipher major players that mediate high‐fat‐induced photoreceptor inflammation. We found that PA‐elicited microRNA‐150 (miR‐150) decreases with a consistent upregulation of ETS‐domain transcription factor 1 (Elk1), a downstream target of miR‐150, in PA‐elicited photoreceptor inflammation. We compared wild‐type (WT) and miR‐150 null (miR‐150^−/−) mice fed with an HFD and found that deletion of miR‐150 exacerbated HFD‐induced photoreceptor inflammation in conjunction with upregulated ELK1. We further delineated the critical cellular localization of phosphorylated ELK1 at serine 383 (pELK1_S383) and found that decreased miR‐150 exacerbated the T2D‐induced inflammation in photoreceptors by upregulating ELK1 and pELK1_S383, and knockdown of ELK1 alleviated PA‐elicited photoreceptor inflammation.

Mechanisms of Action of MiRNAs and LncRNAs in Extracellular Vesicle in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, a complex chronic inflammatory disease, involves multiple alterations of diverse cells, including endothelial cells (ECs), vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), platelets, and even mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Globally, it is a common cause of morbidity as well as mortality. It leads to myocardial infarctions, stroke and disabling peripheral artery disease. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous group of cell-derived membranous structures that secreted by multiple cell types and play a central role in cell-to-cell communication by delivering various bioactive cargos, especially microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Emerging evidence demonstrated that miRNAs and lncRNAs in EVs are tightly associated with the initiation and development of atherosclerosis. In this review, we will outline and compile the cumulative roles of miRNAs and lncRNAs encapsulated in EVs derived from diverse cells in the progression of atherosclerosis. We also discuss intercellular communications via EVs. In addition, we focused on clinical applications and evaluation of miRNAs and lncRNAs in EVs as potential diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for atherosclerosis.

Transcriptional Alterations in Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex and Nucleus Accumbens Implicate Neuroinflammation and Synaptic Remodeling in Opioid Use Disorder

BACKGROUND

Prevalence rates of opioid use disorder (OUD) have increased dramatically, accompanied by a surge of overdose deaths. While opioid dependence has been extensively studied in preclinical models, an understanding of the biological alterations that occur in the brains of people who chronically use opioids and who are diagnosed with OUD remains limited. To address this limitation, RNA sequencing was conducted on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens, regions heavily implicated in OUD, from postmortem brains in subjects with OUD.

METHODS

We performed RNA sequencing on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens from unaffected comparison subjects (n = 20) and subjects diagnosed with OUD (n = 20). Our transcriptomic analyses identified differentially expressed transcripts and investigated the transcriptional coherence between brain regions using rank-rank hypergeometric orderlap. Weighted gene coexpression analyses identified OUD-specific modules and gene networks. Integrative analyses between differentially expressed transcripts and genome-wide association study datasets using linkage disequilibrium scores assessed the genetic liability of psychiatric-related phenotypes in OUD.

RESULTS

Rank-rank hypergeometric overlap analyses revealed extensive overlap in transcripts between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens in OUD, related to synaptic remodeling and neuroinflammation. Identified transcripts were enriched for factors that control proinflammatory cytokine, chondroitin sulfate, and extracellular matrix signaling. Cell-type deconvolution implicated a role for microglia as a potential driver for opioid-induced neuroplasticity. Linkage disequilibrium score analysis suggested genetic liabilities for risky behavior, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and depression in subjects with OUD.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our findings suggest connections between the brain's immune system and opioid dependence in the human brain.

MicroRNA in extracellular vesicles regulates inflammation through macrophages under hypoxia

Extracellular vesicle (EV), critical mediators of cell-cell communication, allow cells to exchange proteins, lipids, and genetic material and therefore profoundly affect the general homeostasis. A hypoxic environment can affect the biogenesis and secrete of EVs, and the cargoes carried can participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. In hypoxia-induced inflammation, microRNA(miRNA) in EV participates in transcriptional regulation through various pathways to promote or reduce the inflammatory response. Meanwhile, as an important factor of immune response, the polarization of macrophages is closely linked to miRNAs, which will eventually affect the inflammatory state. In this review, we outline the possible molecular mechanism of EV changes under hypoxia, focusing on the signaling pathways of several microRNAs involved in inflammation regulation and describing the process and mechanism of EV-miRNAs regulating macrophage polarization in hypoxic diseases.

Rational Design of Immunomodulatory Hydrogels for Chronic Wound Healing

With all the advances in tissue engineering for construction of fully functional skin tissue, complete regeneration of chronic wounds is still challenging. Since immune reaction to the tissue damage is critical in regulating both the quality and duration of chronic wound healing cascade, strategies to modulate the immune system are of importance. Generally, in response to an injury, macrophages switch from pro-inflammatory to an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Therefore, controlling macrophages' polarization has become an appealing approach in regenerative medicine. Recently, hydrogels-based constructs, incorporated with various cellular and molecular signals, have been developed and utilized to adjust immune cell functions in various stages of wound healing. Here, the current state of knowledge on immune cell functions during skin tissue regeneration is first discussed. Recent advanced technologies used to design immunomodulatory hydrogels for controlling macrophages' polarization are then summarized. Rational design of hydrogels for providing controlled immune stimulation via hydrogel chemistry and surface modification, as well as incorporation of cell and molecules, are also dicussed. In addition, the effects of hydrogels' properties on immunogenic features and the wound healing process are summarized. Finally, future directions and upcoming research strategies to control immune responses during chronic wound healing are highlighted.

miRNA-223 as a regulator of inflammation and NLRP3 inflammasome, the main fragments in the puzzle of immunopathogenesis of different inflammatory diseases and COVID-19

Millions of people around the world are involved with COVID-19 due to infection with SARS-CoV-2. Virological features of SARS-CoV-2, including its genomic sequence, have been identified but the mechanisms governing COVID-19 immunopathogenesis have remained uncertain. miR-223 is a hematopoietic cell-derived miRNA that is implicated in regulating monocyte-macrophage differentiation, neutrophil recruitment, and pro-inflammatory responses. The miR-223 controls inflammation by targeting a variety of factors, including TRAF6, IKKα, HSP-70, FOXO1, TLR4, PI3K/AKT, PARP-1, HDAC2, ITGB3, CXCL2, CCL3, IL-6, IFN-I, STMN1, IL-1β, IL-18, Caspase-1, NF-κB, and NLRP3. The key role of miR-223 in regulating the inflammatory process and its antioxidant and antiviral role can suggest this miRNA as a potential regulatory factor in the process of COVID-19 immunopathogenesis.

Effects of living and metabolically inactive mesenchymal stromal cells and their derivatives on monocytes and macrophages

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are multipotent and self-renewing stem cells that have great potential as cell therapy for autoimmune and inflammatory disorders, as well as for other clinical conditions, due to their immunoregulatory and regenerative properties. MSCs modulate the inflammatory milieu by releasing soluble factors and acting through cell-to-cell mechanisms. MSCs switch the classical inflammatory status of monocytes and macrophages towards a non-classical and anti-inflammatory phenotype. This is characterized by an increased secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines, a decreased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and changes in the expression of cell membrane molecules and in metabolic pathways. The MSC modulation of monocyte and macrophage phenotypes seems to be critical for therapy effectiveness in several disease models, since when these cells are depleted, no immunoregulatory effects are observed. Here, we review the effects of living MSCs (metabolically active cells) and metabolically inactive MSCs (dead cells that lost metabolic activity by induced inactivation) and their derivatives (extracellular vesicles, soluble factors, extracts, and microparticles) on the profile of macrophages and monocytes and the implications for immunoregulatory and reparative processes. This review includes mechanisms of action exhibited in these different therapeutic approaches, which induce the anti-inflammatory properties of monocytes and macrophages. Finally, we overview several possibilities of therapeutic applications of these cells and their derivatives, with results regarding monocytes and macrophages in animal model studies and some clinical trials.

XIST Inhibition Attenuates Calcium Oxalate Nephrocalcinosis-Induced Renal Inflammation and Oxidative Injury via the miR-223/NLRP3 Pathway

The roles of the lncRNA X inactive specific transcript (XIST) in many diseases, including cancers and inflammatory sickness, have been previously elucidated. However, renal calculus remained poorly understood. In this study, we revealed the potential effects of XIST on kidney stones that were exerted via inflammatory response and oxidative stress mechanisms. We established a glyoxylate-induced calcium oxalate (CaOx) stone mouse model and exposed HK-2 cells to calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM). The interactions among XIST, miR-223-3p, and NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) and their respective effects were determined by RNAs and protein expression, luciferase activity, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) assays. Cell necrosis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and inflammatory responses were detected after silencing XIST, activating and inhibiting miR-223-3p, and both knocking down XIST and activating miR-223-3p in vitro and in vivo. The XIST, NLRP3, caspase-1, and IL-1β levels were notably increased in kidney samples from glyoxylate-induced CaOx stone model mice. XIST knockdown significantly suppressed the inflammatory damage and ROS production and further attenuated oxalate crystal deposition. miRNA-223-3p mimics also exerted the same effects. Moreover, we verified the interactions among XIST, miRNA-223-3p and NLRP3, and the subsequent effects. Our results suggest that the lncRNA XIST participates in the formation and progression of renal calculus by interacting with miR-223-3p and the NLRP3/Caspase-1/IL-1β pathway to mediate the inflammatory response and ROS production.

Extracellular miRNAs in redox signaling: Health, disease and potential therapies

Extracellular microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as important mediators of cell-to-cell communication and intertissue crosstalk. MiRNAs are produced by virtually all types of eukaryotic cells and can be selectively packaged and released to the extracellular medium, where they may reach distal cells to regulate gene expression cell non-autonomously. By doing so, miRNAs participate in integrative physiology. Oxidative stress affects miRNA expression, while miRNAs control redox signaling. Disruption in miRNA expression, processing or release to the extracellular compartment are associated with aging and a number of chronic diseases, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer, all of them being conditions related to oxidative stress. Here we discuss the interplay between redox balance and miRNA function and secretion as a determinant of health and disease states, reviewing the findings that support this notion and highlighting novel and yet understudied venues of research in the field.

MicroRNA-223 modulates the IL-4-medicated macrophage M2-type polarization to control the progress of sepsis

MicroRNAs play a variety of roles in the progress of inflammation. Herein, we investigated the roles of miR-223 in governing macrophage polarization balance in the progress of sepsis. We firstly observed that miR-223 was down-regulated at the early phase and up-regulated at the late phase of sepsis in macrophages; the levels of miR-223 were positively correlated to the ratio of M2 macrophages during sepsis. In miR-223 knockout mice, we observed that miR-223 was dispensable for efficient pro-inflammatory responses, but was required for efficient M2-associated phenotype and function. miR-223 deletion increased clinical scores of sepsis, leading to increased mortality in septic mice. Furthermore, we found that miR-223 expression in M2-type macrophages was controlled by interleukin (IL)-4, but not IL-10; IL-4 antibodies were able to downregulate the levels of miR-223, increased the expression of targeted genes Nfat5 and Rasa1, reduced the ratio of M2 macrophages, resulting in a decreased survival rate in septic mice. Meanwhile, miR-223 deficient macrophages appeared a markedly decreased M2-type polarization when induced by IL-4, but did not affect macrophages skew to M2 phenotype induced by IL-10. Taken together, our results demonstrate that miR-223 acts as an important regulator to modulate IL-4-meditated M2-type polarization of macrophages via targeting to Nfat5 and Rasa1 to control the progress of sepsis.

The miRNA expression profile directly reflects the energy metabolic differences between slow and fast muscle with nutritional regulation of the Chinese perch (Siniperca chuatsi)

Fish skeletal muscles are composed of two distinct types, slow and fast muscles, and they play important roles in maintaining the body's movement and energy metabolism. The two types of muscle are easy to separate, so they are often used as the model system for studies on their physiological and functional characteristics. In this study, we revealed that the carbohydrate and lipid metabolic KEGG pathways are different between slow and fast muscles of Chinese perch with transcriptome analysis. In fast muscle, glucose metabolism was catabolic with higher glycolysis capacity, while in slow muscle, glucose metabolism was anabolic with more glycogen synthesis. In addition, oxidative metabolism in slow muscle was stronger than that in fast muscle. By analyzing the expression levels of 40 miRNAs involved in metabolism in the muscles of Chinese perch, 18 miRNAs were significantly upregulated and 7 were significantly downregulated in slow muscle compared with fast muscle. Based on functional enrichment analysis of their target genes, the differential expression levels of 17 miRNAs in slow and fast muscles were reflected in their carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Among these, 15 miRNAs were associated with carbohydrate metabolism, and 6 miRNAs were associated with lipid metabolism. After 3 days of starvation, the expression levels of 15 miRNAs involved in glucose metabolism in fast and slow muscles increased. However, after 7 days of starvation, the mRNA levels of miR-22a, miR-23a, miR-133a-3p, miR-139, miR-143, miR-144, miR-181a and miR-206 decreased to basal levels. Our data suggest that the possible reason for the difference in glucose and lipid metabolism is that more miRNAs inhibit the expression of target genes in slow muscle.

Non-coding RNAs in cardiac inflammation: key drivers in the pathophysiology of heart failure

Heart failure is among the most progressive diseases and a leading cause of morbidity. Despite several advances in cardiovascular therapies, pharmacological treatments are limited to relieve symptoms without curing cardiac injury. Multiple observations point to the involvement of immune cells as key drivers in the pathophysiology of heart failure. In particular, there is a growing recognition that heart failure is related to a prolonged and insufficiently repressed inflammatory response leading to molecular, cellular, and functional cardiac alterations. Over the last decades, non-coding RNAs are recognized as prominent mediators of the cardiac inflammation, affecting the function of several immune cells. In the current review, we explore the contribution of the diverse immune cells in the progression of heart failure, revealing mechanistic functions for non-coding RNAs in cardiac immune cells as a new and exciting field of investigation.

miR-223: An Effective Regulator of Immune Cell Differentiation and Inflammation

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in regulating various biological processes, such as cell differentiation and immune modulation by binding to their target genes. miR-223 is a miRNA with important functions and has been widely investigated in recent years. Under certain physiological conditions, miR-223 is regulated by different transcription factors, including sirtuin1 (Sirt1), PU.1 and Mef2c, and its biological functions are mediated through changes in its cellular or tissue expression. This review paper summarizes miR-223 biosynthesis and its regulatory role in the differentiation of granulocytes, dendritic cells (DCs) and lymphocytes, macrophage polarization, and endothelial and epithelial inflammation. In addition, it describes the molecular mechanisms of miR-223 in regulating lung inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, enteritis, neuroinflammation and mastitis to provide insights into the existing molecular regulatory networks and therapies for inflammatory diseases in humans and animals.

The Long Non-coding RNA NEAT1/miR-224-5p/IL-33 Axis Modulates Macrophage M2a Polarization and A1 Astrocyte Activation

To identify potential regulators and investigate the molecular mechanism of macrophage polarization affecting astrocyte activation from the perspective of non-coding RNA regulation, we isolated mouse bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMMNCs)-induced macrophages toward M1 or M2a polarization. Long non-coding RNA NEAT1 and IL-33 expression levels were significantly upregulated in M2a macrophages; NEAT1 knockdown in M2a macrophages markedly reduced the protein levels of IL-33 and M2a markers, IL-4 and IL-13 concentrations, and the bacterial killing capacity of M2a macrophages. NEAT1 acted as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) to regulate IL-33 expression by sponging miR-224-5p in M2a macrophages; NEAT1 knockdown upregulated miR-224-5p expression, while miR-224-5p inhibition increased the protein content and concentration of IL-33. miR-224-5p inhibition exerted the opposite effects on the protein levels of IL-33 and M2a markers, IL-4 and IL-13 concentrations, and the bacterial killing capacity of M2a macrophages compared to NEAT1 knockdown; the effects of NEAT1 knockdown were significantly reversed by miR-224-5p inhibition. M2a macrophage conditioned medium (CM) significantly suppressed the activation of A1 astrocytes. NEAT1 knockdown M2a macrophage CM led to enhanced A1 astrocyte activation while miR-224-5p-silenced M2a macrophage CM led to a blockade of A1 astrocyte activation; the effects of NEAT1 knockdown M2a macrophage CM on A1 astrocyte activation were significantly reversed by miR-224-5p inhibition in M2a macrophages. The NEAT1/miR-224-5p/IL-33 axis modulates macrophage M2a polarization, therefore affecting A1 astrocyte activation.

High fructose exposure modifies the amount of adipocyte-secreted microRNAs into extracellular vesicles in supernatants and plasma

Background

High fructose exposure induces metabolic and endocrine responses in adipose tissue. Recent evidence suggests that microRNAs in extracellular vesicles are endocrine signals secreted by adipocytes. Fructose exposure on the secretion of microRNA by tissues and cells is poorly studied. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of fructose exposure on the secretion of selected microRNAs in extracellular vesicles from 3T3-L1 cells and plasma from Wistar rats.

Methods

3T3-L1 cells were exposed to 550 µM of fructose or standard media for four days, microRNAs levels were determined in extracellular vesicles of supernatants and cells by RT-qPCR. Wistar rats were exposed to either 20% fructose drink or tap water for eight weeks, microRNAs levels were determined in extracellular vesicles of plasma and adipose tissue by RT-qPCR.

Results

This study showed that fructose exposure increased the total number of extracellular vesicles released by 3T3-L1 cells (p = 0.0001). The levels of miR-143-5p were increased in extracellular vesicles of 3T3-L1 cells exposed to fructose (p = 0.0286), whereas miR-223-3p levels were reduced (p = 0.0286). Moreover, in plasma-derived extracellular vesicles, miR-143-5p was higher in fructose-fed rats (p = 0.001), whereas miR-223-3p (p = 0.022), miR-342-3p (p = 0.0011), miR-140-5p (p = 0.0129) and miR-146b-5p (p = 0.0245) were lower.

Conclusion

Fructose exposure modifies the levels of microRNAs in extracellular vesicles in vitro and in vivo. In particular, fructose exposure increases miR-143-5p, while decreases miR-223-3p and miR-342-3p.

HDL-small RNA Export, Transport, and Functional Delivery in Atherosclerosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review highlights recent advances on the mechanisms and impact of HDL-small non-coding RNAs (sRNA) on intercellular communication in atherosclerosis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Studies demonstrate that HDL-microRNAs (miRNA) are significantly altered in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), and are responsive to diet, obesity, and diabetes. Immune cells, pancreatic beta cells, and neurons are shown to export miRNAs to HDL. In turn, HDL can deliver functional miRNAs to recipient hepatocytes and endothelial cells regulating adhesion molecule expression, cytokines, and angiogenesis. With high-throughput sRNA sequencing, we now appreciate the full sRNA signature on circulating HDL, including the transport of rRNA and tRNA-derived fragments. Strikingly, HDL were highly enriched with exogenous microbial sRNAs. HDL transport a diverse set of host and non-host sRNAs that are altered in cardiometabolic diseases. Given the bioactivity of these sRNAs, they likely contribute to cellular communication within atherosclerotic lesions, and are potential disease biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Detection of microRNA in urine to identify patients with endometrial cancer: a feasibility study

OBJECTIVE

To find dysregulated urinary microRNAs associated with endometrial cancer as a first step in finding a non-invasive new diagnostic biomarker. The second objective is to determine the correlation of urinary microRNAs with clinicopathological characteristics.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study of patients presenting with abnormal bleeding between March and November 2019 was performed at the Royal Cornwall Hospital Trust Truro. Urine samples were obtained from women diagnosed with endometrial cancer and benign endometrial sampling. MicroRNA was isolated and quantitative real time PCR was used to detect expression levels of microRNAs.

RESULTS

A total of 61 women were included in this study: 24 endometrial cancer patients, and 37 controls. Median age was 64 years (range 45-94) and median body mass index was 29 kg/m² (range 17-54). MiR-223 was significantly up-regulated in urine of endometrial cancers patients (p=0.003). Furthermore, let7-i, miR-34a, and miR-200c were significantly down-regulated and miR-424 was up-regulated in obese women. In addition, miR-148a and miR-222 were significantly down-regulated in elderly women, and miR-16, miR-26b, and miR-200c were significantly deregulated in women with multiple comorbidities.

CONCLUSION

MicroRNA expression levels in urine can potentially be used as a non-invasive diagnostic test for endometrial cancer. Furthermore, aberrant microRNA expression in urine is associated with patient characteristics. Further research in larger trials is needed to validate the potential utility of urinary microRNAs.

MicroRNA Expression Changes and Integrated Pathways Associated With Poor Outcome in Canine Osteosarcoma

MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small non-coding RNA molecules involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Deregulation of miRNA expression occurs in cancer, and miRNA expression profiles have been associated with diagnosis and prognosis in many cancers. Osteosarcoma (OS), an aggressive primary tumor of bone, affects ~10,000 dogs each year. Though survival has improved with the addition of chemotherapy, up to 80% of canine patients will succumb to metastatic disease. Reliable prognostic markers are lacking for this disease. miRNAs are attractive targets of biomarker discovery efforts due to their increased stability in easily obtained body fluids as well as within fixed tissue. Previous studies in our laboratory demonstrated that dysregulation of genes in aggressive canine OS tumors that participate in miRNA regulatory networks is reportedly disrupted in OS or other cancers. We utilized RT-qPCR in a 384-well-plate system to measure the relative expression of 190 miRNAs in 14 canine tumors from two cohorts of dogs with good or poor outcome (disease-free interval >300 or <100 days, respectively). Differential expression analysis in this subset guided the selection of candidate miRNAs in tumors and serum samples from larger groups of dogs. We ultimately identified a tumor-based three-miR Cox proportional hazards regression model and a serum-based two-miR model, each being able to distinguish patients with good and poor prognosis via Kaplan-Meier analysis with log rank test. Additionally, we integrated miRNA and gene expression data to identify potentially important miRNA-mRNA interactions that are disrupted in canine OS. Integrated analyses of miRNAs in the three-miR predictive model and disrupted genes from previous expression studies suggest the contribution of the primary tumor microenvironment to the metastatic phenotype of aggressive tumors.

MicroRNAs as regulators, biomarkers and therapeutic targets in liver diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate gene expression by binding to specific mRNA targets and promoting their degradation and/or translational inhibition. miRNAs regulate both physiological and pathological liver functions. Altered expression of miRNAs is associated with liver metabolism dysregulation, liver injury, liver fibrosis and tumour development, making miRNAs attractive therapeutic strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of liver diseases. Here, we review recent advances regarding the regulation and function of miRNAs in liver diseases with a major focus on miRNAs that are specifically expressed or enriched in hepatocytes (miR-122, miR-194/192), neutrophils (miR-223), hepatic stellate cells (miR-29), immune cells (miR-155) and in circulation (miR-21). The functions and target genes of these miRNAs are emphasised in alcohol-associated liver disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, drug-induced liver injury, viral hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma, as well liver fibrosis and liver failure. We touch on the roles of miRNAs in intercellular communication between hepatocytes and other types of cells via extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of liver diseases. We provide perspective on the application of miRNAs as biomarkers for early diagnosis, prognosis and assessment of liver diseases and discuss the challenges in miRNA-based therapy for liver diseases. Further investigation of miRNAs in the liver will help us better understand the pathogeneses of liver diseases and may identify biomarkers and therapeutic targets for liver diseases in the future.

A narrative review of tumor-associated macrophages in lung cancer: regulation of macrophage polarization and therapeutic implications

Lung cancer is the deadliest malignancy worldwide. An inflammatory microenvironment is a key factor contributing to lung tumor progression. Tumor-Associated Macrophages (TAMs) are prominent components of the cancer immune microenvironment with diverse supportive and inhibitory effects on growth, progression, and metastasis of lung tumors. Two main macrophage phenotypes with different functions have been identified. They include inflammatory or classically activated (M1) and anti-inflammatory or alternatively activated (M2) macrophages. The contrasting functions of TAMs in relation to lung neoplasm progression stem from the presence of TAMs with varying tumor-promoting or anti-tumor activities. This wide spectrum of functions is governed by a network of cytokines and chemokines, cell-cell interactions, and signaling pathways. TAMs are promising therapeutic targets for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment. There are several strategies for TAM targeting and utilizing them for therapeutic purposes including limiting monocyte recruitment and localization through various pathways such as CCL2-CCR2, CSF1-CSF1R, and CXCL12-CXCR4, targeting the activation of TAMs, genetic and epigenetic reprogramming of TAMs to antitumor phenotype, and utilizing TAMs as the carrier for anti-cancer drugs. In this review, we will outline the role of macrophages in the lung cancer initiation and progression, pathways regulating their function in lung cancer microenvironment as well as the role of these immune cells in the development of future therapeutic strategies.

Modulations of obesity-related microRNAs after exercise intervention: a systematic review and bioinformatics analysis

Obesity is one of the prevalent health-threatening conditions; however, it is preventable by lifestyle interventions such as exercise. The molecular mechanisms underlying physiological adaptation to physical activity are not fully understood. It has been documented that both intracellular and extracellular (circulating) microRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in both obesogenic and exercise adaptation mechanisms. We aimed to conduct a systematic review of publications that examined the effect of exercise on the expression of miRNAs in individuals with obesity. In addition, bioinformatics analysis was performed on most repetitive miRNAs. PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched with relevant keywords. We only included studies that utilized exercise as a modality for the health management of human subjects with obesity to evaluate the changes in expression of obesity-related miRNAs. Through checking of 211 retrieved articles, we reached 12 eligible studies. Some studies reported a statistically significant correlation between the change of miRNAs and clinical parameters such as body mass index and fasting glucose. In silico analysis of most repetitive miRNAs i.e. miR-126, miR-21, miR-146a, miR-221, and miR-223 resulted in the molecular signaling pathways that potentially involve in cellular adaption to exercise in people with obesity. miRNAs partake in health-related benefits of physical activity on obesity-associated cellular and molecular phenomena. However, our understanding of the exact mechanism is still in its infancy. Consistently, the clinicians waiting for the result of more integrated experiments to develop a miRNAs panel as a predictive biomarker of exercise in patients with obesity.

A Comprehensive miRNome Analysis of Macrophages Isolated from db/db Mice and Selected miRNAs Involved in Metabolic Syndrome-Associated Cardiac Remodeling

Cardiac macrophages are known from various activities, therefore we presume that microRNAs (miRNAs) produced or released by macrophages in cardiac tissue have impact on myocardial remodeling in individuals with metabolic syndrome (MetS). We aim to assess the cardiac macrophage miRNA profile by selecting those miRNA molecules that potentially exhibit regulatory functions in MetS-related cardiac remodeling. Cardiac tissue macrophages from control and db/db mice (an animal model of MetS) were counted and sorted with flow cytometry, which yielded two populations: CD45+CD11b+CD64+Ly6Chi and CD45+CD11b+CD64+Ly6Clow. Total RNA was then isolated, and miRNA expression profiles were evaluated with Next Generation Sequencing. We successfully sequenced 1400 miRNAs in both macrophage populations: CD45+CD11b+CD64+Ly6Chi and CD45+CD11b+CD64+Ly6Clow. Among the 1400 miRNAs, about 150 showed different expression levels in control and db/db mice and between these two subpopulations. At least 15 miRNAs are possibly associated with MetS pathology in cardiac tissue due to direct or indirect regulation of the expression of miRNAs for proteins involved in angiogenesis, fibrosis, or inflammation. In this paper, for the first time we describe the miRNA transcription profile in two distinct macrophage populations in MetS-affected cardiac tissue. Although the results are preliminary, the presented data provide a foundation for further studies on intercellular cross-talk/molecular mechanism(s) involved in the regulation of MetS-related cardiac remodeling.

High density lipoprotein-associated miRNA is increased following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery for severe obesity

Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is one of the most commonly performed weight-loss procedures, but how severe obesity and RYGB affect circulating HDL-associated microRNAs (miRNAs) remains unclear. Here, we aim to investigate how HDL-associated miRNAs are regulated in severe obesity and how weight loss after RYGB surgery affects HDL-miRNAs. Plasma HDLs were isolated from patients with severe obesity (n = 53) before and 6 and 12 months after RYGB by immunoprecipitation using goat anti-human apoA-I microbeads. HDLs were also isolated from 18 healthy participants. miRNAs were extracted from isolated HDL and levels of miR-24, miR-126, miR-222, and miR-223 were determined by TaqMan miRNA assays. We found that HDL-associated miR-126, miR-222, and miR-223 levels, but not miR-24 levels, were significantly higher in patients with severe obesity when compared with healthy controls. There were significant increases in HDL-associated miR-24, miR-222, and miR-223 at 12 months after RYGB. Additionally, cholesterol efflux capacity and paraoxonase activity were increased and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) levels decreased. The increases in HDL-associated miR-24 and miR-223 were positively correlated with an increase in cholesterol efflux capacity (r = 0.326, P = 0.027 and r = 0.349, P = 0.017, respectively). An inverse correlation was observed between HDL-associated miR-223 and ICAM-1 at baseline. Together, these findings show that HDL-associated miRNAs are differentially regulated in healthy participants versus patients with severe obesity and are altered after RYGB. These findings provide insights into how miRNAs are regulated in obesity before and after weight reduction and may lead to the development of novel treatment strategies for obesity and related metabolic disorders.

NLRP3 Inflammasome at the Interface of Inflammation, Endothelial Dysfunction, and Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), accounting for 90-95% cases of diabetes, is characterized by chronic inflammation. The mechanisms that control inflammation activation in T2DM are largely unexplored. Inflammasomes represent significant sensors mediating innate immune responses. The aim of this work is to present a review of links between the NLRP3 inflammasome, endothelial dysfunction, and T2DM. The NLRP3 inflammasome activates caspase-1, which leads to the maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin 1β and interleukin 18. In this review, we characterize the structure and functions of NLRP3 inflammasome as well as the most important mechanisms and molecules engaged in its activation. We present evidence of the importance of the endothelial dysfunction as the first key step to activating the inflammasome, which suggests that suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome could be a new approach in depletion hyperglycemic toxicity and in averting the onset of vascular complications in T2DM. We also demonstrate reports showing that the expression of a few microRNAs that are also known to be involved in either NLRP3 inflammasome activation or endothelial dysfunction is deregulated in T2DM. Collectively, this evidence suggests that T2DM is an inflammatory disease stimulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. Finally, studies revealing the role of glucose concentration in the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome are analyzed. The more that is known about inflammasomes, the higher the chances to create new, effective therapies for patients suffering from inflammatory diseases. This may offer potential novel therapeutic perspectives in T2DM prevention and treatment.

Deletion of Mir223 Exacerbates Lupus Nephritis by Targeting S1pr1 in Faslpr/lpr Mice

Objective

The micro RNAs (miRNAs) and their target mRNAs are differentially expressed in various immune-mediated cells. Here, we investigated the role of Mir223 and sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1pr1) in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus.

Methods

We analyzed miRNA and mRNA profiling data of CD4+ splenic T cells derived from MRL/MpJ-Faslpr /J mice. We performed 3' untranslated region (UTR) luciferase reporter gene assay using human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). We generated the B6-Mir223-/-Faslpr/lpr mice and the lupus phenotypes were analyzed.

Results

In CD4+ splenic T cells, we identified upregulation of miR-223-3p and downregulation of the possible target, S1pr1 by RNA sequencing of MRL/MpJ-Faslpr /J mice. The transfection with miR-223-3p mimic significantly suppressed a luciferase activity in HUVEC treated with a Lentivirus vector containing 3' UTR of S1pr1. The mRNA levels of S1pr1 were significantly decreased after miR-223-3p overexpression. In B6-Mir223-/-Faslpr/lpr mice, the proportion of CD3+ T cells, CD3+CD4-CD8- cells, B cells, plasma cells, and S1PR1+CD4+ T cells in the spleen was significantly increased compared with that in B6-Mir223+/+Faslpr/lpr mice by flow cytometry. B6-Mir223-/-Faslpr/lpr mice demonstrated the elevation of glomerular and renal vascular scores associated with enhanced intraglomerular infiltration of S1PR1+CD4+ T cells.

Conclusion

Unexpectedly, the deletion of Mir223 exacerbated the lupus phenotypes associated with increased population of S1PR1+CD4+ T in spleen and the enhanced infiltration of S1PR1+CD4+ T cells in inflamed kidney tissues, suggesting compensatory role of Mir223 in the pathogenesis of lupus nephritis.

miR-223-3p as a potential biomarker and player for adipose tissue dysfunction preceding type 2 diabetes onset

Circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) have been proposed as biomarkers for type 2 diabetes (T2D). Adipose tissue (AT), for which dysfunction is widely associated with T2D development, has been reported as a major source of circulating miRNAs. However, the role of dysfunctional AT in the altered pattern of circulating miRNAs associated with T2D onset remains unexplored. Herein, we investigated the relationship between T2D-associated circulating miRNAs and AT function, as well as the role of preadipocytes and adipocytes as secreting cells of candidate circulating miRNAs. Among the plasma miRNAs related to T2D onset in the CORonary Diet Intervention with Olive oil and cardiovascular PREVention (CORDIOPREV) cohort, baseline miR-223-3p levels (diminished in patients who next developed T2D [incident-T2D]) were significantly related to AT insulin resistance (IR). Baseline serum from incident-T2D participants induced inflammation and IR in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. We demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibited miR-223-3p secretion while enhancing miR-223-3p intracellular accumulation in 3T3-L1 (pre)adipocytes. Overexpression studies showed that an intracellular increase of miR-223-3p impaired glucose and lipid metabolism in these cells. Our findings provide mechanistic insights into the alteration of circulating miRNAs preceding T2D, unveiling both preadipocytes and adipocytes as miR-223-3p-secreting cells and suggesting that inflammation promotes miR-223-3p intracellular accumulation, which might contribute to (pre)adipocyte dysfunction and body metabolic dysregulation.

MiR-223-3p in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Biomarker and Potential Therapeutic Target

Cardiovascular diseases, involving vasculopathy, cardiac dysfunction, or circulatory disturbance, have become the major cause of death globally and brought heavy social burdens. The complexity and diversity of the pathogenic factors add difficulties to diagnosis and treatment, as well as lead to poor prognosis of these diseases. MicroRNAs are short non-coding RNAs to modulate gene expression through directly binding to the 3′-untranslated regions of mRNAs of target genes and thereby to downregulate the protein levels post-transcriptionally. The multiple regulatory effects of microRNAs have been investigated extensively in cardiovascular diseases. MiR-223-3p, expressed in multiple cells such as macrophages, platelets, hepatocytes, and cardiomyocytes to modulate their cellular activities through targeting a variety of genes, is involved in the pathological progression of many cardiovascular diseases. It participates in regulation of several crucial signaling pathways such as phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B, insulin-like growth factor 1, nuclear factor kappa B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 inflammasome, and ribosomal protein S6 kinase B1/hypoxia inducible factor 1 α pathways to affect cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis, hypertrophy, and polarization, as well as electrophysiology, resulting in dysfunction of cardiovascular system. Here, in this review, we will discuss the role of miR-223-3p in cardiovascular diseases, involving its verified targets, influenced signaling pathways, and regulation of cell function. In addition, the potential of miR-223-3p as therapeutic target and biomarker for diagnosis and prediction of cardiovascular diseases will be further discussed, providing clues for clinicians.

Implications for MicroRNA involvement in the prognosis and treatment of atherosclerosis

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are important molecules which implicated in various processes, such as differentiation, development, cell survival, cell apoptosis and also cell metabolism. Investigations over decades have revealed that various genes and signaling pathways are implicated in beginning and development of atherosclerosis, several miRNAs being involved in these dysregulated genes and pathways. miRNAs have provided new molecular vision in the context of atherosclerosis. miRNAs are considered as important regulators of cellular migration, differentiation, proliferation, lipid uptake and efflux, as well as cytokine production. Application of miRNAs as a biomarker in diagnosis, prognosis and even therapy is quiet exciting. Although animal researches showed promising results, still some practical difficulties and technical challenges need to be addressed before translation from researches into clinical practices. In this review, we present important data about three critical cells endothelial cell (EC), vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC), and monocyte/macrophage and regulation of these cells through miRNAs. Furthermore, we discuss about the potential of miRNAs as a prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers, therapeutic opportunities and challenges, and also future perspective.

Role of Neutrophils in the Pathogenesis of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) includes a spectrum of liver disorders, from fatty liver to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Compared with fatty liver, NASH is characterized by increased liver injury and inflammation, in which liver-infiltrating immune cells, with neutrophil infiltration as a hallmark of NASH, play a critical role in promoting the progression of fatty liver to NASH. Neutrophils are the first responders to injury and infection in various tissues, establishing the first line of defense through multiple mechanisms such as phagocytosis, cytokine secretion, reactive oxygen species production, and neutrophil extracellular trap formation; however, their roles in the pathogenesis of NASH remain obscure. The current review summarizes the roles of neutrophils that facilitate the progression of fatty liver to NASH and their involvement in inflammation resolution during NASH pathogenesis. The notion that neutrophils are potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of NASH is also discussed.

How severe RNA virus infections such as SARS-CoV-2 disrupt tissue and organ barriers—Reconstitution by mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes

The host tissue barriers arrange numerous lines of resistance to influx and cell-to-cell spread of pathogenic viruses. However, the highly virulent pathogens are equipped with diverse molecular mechanisms that can subvert the host countermeasures and/or exaggerate the host cell responses to toxic levels leading to severe illnesses. In his review, we discuss the immune-mediated pathogenesis of COVID-19 disease induced by the SARS-Cov-2 coronavirus. SARS-Cov-2 primarily infects type II alveolar epithelial cells. These cells are highly abundant with the ACE2 receptor protein, which occurs to be counterpart of the viral Spike protein and thus facilitates internalization of the virus. Following infection onset, the rapid clinical deterioration occurs about in a week suggesting that the respiratory failure in COVID-19 could result from a unique pattern of immune impairment characterized by severe Cytokine Release Syndrome (known as cytokine storm) leading to macrophage activation syndrome. In addition, the SARS-Cov-2 infection can induce a profound depletion of CD4 lymphocytes, CD19 lymphocytes, and natural killer cells, i.e., all major guardians cell components of the host immune barrier. However, while the numbers of that cells decline in the sequelae of the disease, the presence of persistent hyper-inflammation driving progressive tissue injury, suggests that the deteriorating impact of the systemic reactive responses can be more significant than the virus-induced cytopathic effects on the immunocompetent cells. In this respect, the authors discuss the emerging evidence of beneficial effects of administration of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells—another sentinel-type cells—in management of the hyper-inflammatory response to SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, they also discuss the exosomes-originated mechanisms, which sustain regeneration of the damaged pulmonary lining cells and the vascular endothelial cells in various organs, including the brain.

Progressive Control of Streptococcus agalactiae-Induced Innate Inflammatory Response Is Associated with Time Course Expression of MicroRNA-223 by Neutrophils

Group B streptococcus (GBS) is a human-pathogenic bacterium inducing a strong inflammatory response that may be detrimental for host tissues if not finely regulated. The inflammatory response can be modulated by different molecular mechanisms, among which growing evidence points toward the crucial role of microRNAs (miRNAs). Regarding innate inflammatory response, studies have reported that miR-223 is essential for the control of granulocyte proliferation and activation. Moreover, a number of investigations on miRNA expression profiling performed in various inflammatory settings have revealed that miR-223 is among the top differentially expressed miRNAs. Yet the dynamic pattern of expression of miR-223 in vivo with respect to the evolution of the inflammatory process, especially in microbial infection, remains elusive. In this study, we analyzed the kinetic expression of miR-223 in an inflammatory model of GBS-induced murine pneumonia and looked for correlates with inflammatory markers, including innate cell infiltrates. We found that miR-223 expression is rapidly induced at very early time points (3 to 6 h postinfection [p.i.]) mainly by lung-infiltrating neutrophils. Interestingly, the level of miR-223 accumulating in the lungs remains higher at later stages of infection (24 h and 48 h p.i.), and this correlates with reduced expression of primary inflammatory cytokines and chemokines and with a shift in infiltrating monocyte and macrophage subtypes toward a regulatory phenotype. Transient inhibition of miR-223 by an antagomir resulted in significant increase of CXCL2 expression and partial enhancement of infiltrating neutrophils in GBS-infected lung tissues. This suggests the potential contribution of miR-223 to the resolution phase of GBS-induced acute inflammation.

Circulating microRNAs associated with C-type natriuretic peptide in childhood obesity

Circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) are potential biomarkers of metabolic disease implicated in the pathogenesis of obesity and at present, no data are available on a possible contribution of C-type natriuretic peptides (CNP)-linked miRNAs to childhood obesity. Our aims were to 1) perform an in silico-analysis to identify miRNAs targeting CNP gene; 2) recognize CNP-linked miRNAs associated with obesity; 3) characterize their circulating profiling in normal-weight (N) and obese adolescents (O). A clinical examination was performed in 25 N and 52 O adolescents. CNP plasma levels were detected by immunometric assay while miRNA expression was carried out on peripheral blood using Real-Time PCR. Plasma CNP resulted significantly lower in O than in N (5.58 ± 0.62 vs.14.78 ± 1.35 pg/mL, p < 0.0001). In silico-analysis disclosed several specific circulating CNP-linked miRNAs among which miR-33a-3p, miR-223-5p and miR-142-5p also associated with obesity. MiR-199-5p and miR-4454, known to be associated with obesity but not with CNP, were also studied. miR-223-5p and miR-33a-3p resulted significantly (p = 0.05) higher in O (0.97 ± 0.1; 0.85 ± 0.1, respectively) than in N (0.66 ± 0.11; 0.51 ± 0.08, respectively). Plasma CNP correlated inversely with miR-33a-3p (p = 0.036), miR-223-5p (p = 0.004), miR-199-5p (p = 0.003) and miR-4454 (p < 0.0001). Significantly positive correlations were observed between miR-33a-3p and miR-223-5p (p = 0.002) and between miR-199-5p and miR-4454 (p = 0.0001). Applying a multiple linear regression model, miR-142-5p, miR-199a-5p, miR-223-5p, miR33a-3p, diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and age were independent determinants of CNP. Our results underline the concept that expanding our knowledge on the behaviour of circulating miRNA profile may have a promising role for early identification of obese children at increased risk of cardiometabolic alterations.

Potential for Targeting Myeloid Cells in Controlling CNS Inflammation

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is characterized by immune cell infiltration to the central nervous system (CNS) as well as loss of myelin. Characterization of the cells in lesions of MS patients revealed an important accumulation of myeloid cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). Data from the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS supports the importance of peripheral myeloid cells in the disease pathology. However, the majority of MS therapies focus on lymphocytes. As we will discuss in this review, multiple strategies are now in place to target myeloid cells in clinical trials. These strategies have emerged from data in both human and mouse studies. We discuss strategies targeting myeloid cell migration, growth factors and cytokines, biological functions (with a focus on miRNAs), and immunological activities (with a focus on nanoparticles).

The Impact of Adipose Tissue-Derived miRNAs in Metabolic Syndrome, Obesity, and Cancer

Obesity is a multifactorial and complex condition that is characterized by abnormal and excessive white adipose tissue accumulation, which can lead to the development of metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, cardiovascular diseases, and several types of cancer. Obesity is characterized by excessive adipose tissue accumulation and associated with alterations in immunity, displaying a chronic low-grade inflammation profile. Adipose tissue is a dynamic and complex endocrine organ composed not only by adipocytes, but several immunological cells, which can secrete hormones, cytokines and many other factors capable of regulating metabolic homeostasis and several critical biological pathways. Remarkably, adipose tissue is a major source of circulating microRNAs (miRNAs), recently described as a novel form of adipokines. Several adipose tissue-derived miRNAs are deeply associated with adipocytes differentiation and have been identified with an essential role in obesity-associated inflammation, insulin resistance, and tumor microenvironment. During obesity, adipose tissue can completely change the profile of the secreted miRNAs, influencing circulating miRNAs and impacting the development of different pathological conditions, such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cancer. In this review, we discuss how miRNAs can act as epigenetic regulators affecting adipogenesis, adipocyte differentiation, lipid metabolism, browning of the white adipose tissue, glucose homeostasis, and insulin resistance, impacting deeply obesity and metabolic diseases. Moreover, we characterize how miRNAs can often act as oncogenic and tumor suppressor molecules, significantly modulating cancer establishment and progression. Furthermore, we highlight in this manuscript how adipose tissue-derived miRNAs can function as important new therapeutic targets.

Non-hematopoietic erythropoietin-derived peptides for atheroprotection and treatment of cardiovascular diseases

Relevance: Cardiovascular diseases continue to be the leading cause of premature adult death.

Lipid profile and atherogenesis: Dislipidaemia leads to subsequent lipid accumulation and migration of immunocompetent cells into the vessel intima. Macrophages accumulate cholesterol forming foam cells – the morphological substrate of atherosclerosis in its initial stage.

Inflammation and atherogenesis: Pro-inflammatory factors provoke oxidative stress, vascular wall damage and foam cells formation.

Endothelial and mitochondrial dysfunction in the development of atherosclerosis: Endothelial mitochondria are some of the organelles most sensitive to oxidative stress. Damaged mitochondria produce excess superoxide and H2O2, which are the main factors of intracellular damage, further increasing endothelial dysfunction.

Short non-hematopoietic erythropoietin-based peptides as innovative atheroprotectors: Research in recent decades has shown that erythropoietin has a high cytoprotective activity, which is mainly associated with exposure to the mitochondrial link and has been confirmed in various experimental models. There is also a short-chain derivative, the 11-amino acid pyroglutamate helix B surface peptide (PHBSP), which selectively binds to the erythropoietin heterodymic receptor and reproduces its cytoprotective properties. This indicates the promising use of short-chain derivatives of erythropoietin for the treatment and prevention of atherosclerotic vascular injury. In the future, it is planned to study the PHBSP derivatives, the modification of which consists in adding RGD and PGP tripeptides with antiaggregant properties to the original 11-member peptide.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles alter disease outcomes via endorsement of macrophage polarization

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are adult stromal cells that reside in virtually all postnatal tissues. Due to their regenerative and immunomodulatory capacities, MSCs have attracted growing attention during the past two decades. MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) are able to duplicate the effects of their parental cells by transferring functional proteins and genetic materials to recipient cells without cell-to-cell contact. MSC-EVs also target macrophages, which play an essential role in innate immunity, adaptive immunity, and homeostasis. Recent studies have demonstrated that MSC-EVs reduce M1 polarization and/or promote M2 polarization in a variety of settings. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of macrophage polarization and roles of MSC-EV-induced macrophage polarization in the outcomes of cardiovascular, pulmonary, digestive, renal, and central nervous system diseases. In conclusion, MSC-EVs may become a viable alternative to MSCs for the treatment of diseases in which inflammation and immunity play a critical role.

MicroRNAs As Master Regulators of Atherosclerosis: From Pathogenesis to Novel Therapeutic Options

Significance: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Accumulating evidence indicates that atherosclerosis and its sequelae, coronary artery disease, contribute to the majority of cardiovascular deaths. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the arteries in which atherosclerotic plaques form within the vessel wall. Epidemiological studies have identified various risk factors for atherosclerosis, such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, smoking, genetic predisposition, and sedentary lifestyle. Recent Advances: Through the advancement of genetic manipulation techniques and their use in cardiovascular biology, it was shown that small RNAs, especially microRNAs (miRNAs), are dynamic regulators of disease pathogenesis. They are considered to be central during the regulation of gene expression through numerous mechanisms and provide a means to develop biomarkers and therapeutic tools for the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerosis. Circulating miRNAs encapsulated within membrane-surrounded vesicles, which originate from diverse subcellular compartments, are now emerging as novel regulators of intercellular communication. The miRNAs, in both freely circulating and vesicle-bound forms, represent a valuable tool for diagnosing and monitoring CVD, recently termed as "liquid biopsy." Critical Issues: However, despite the recent advancements in miRNA-based diagnostics and therapeutics, understanding how miRNAs can regulate atherosclerosis is still crucial to achieving an effective intervention and reducing the disease burden. Future Directions: We provide a landscape of the current developmental progression of RNA therapeutics as a holistic approach for treating CVD in different animal models and clinical trials. Future interrogations are warranted for the development of miRNA-based therapeutics to overcome challenges for the treatment of the disease.