51
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Kim MH, Shimomaeda L, Giuliano RJ, Skowron EA. Intergenerational associations in executive function between mothers and children in the context of risk. J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 164:1-15. [PMID: 28759782 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Executive functioning (EF) is critical for school readiness and other important life skills. Previous investigations have often neglected the important influence of parental EF skills in shaping their own children's EF. This study attempted to replicate recent empirical work that has shown that maternal EF is positively related to child EF. An ecological theoretical framework was used to examine the maternal EF-child EF link in family environments characterized by significant risk and socioeconomic adversity. Data from 38 mother-child dyads revealed that larger maternal working memory capacity was associated with greater child accuracy and slower reaction times on a child-friendly Go/No-Go task of response inhibition but not on an Emotional Go/No-Go task. This finding suggests that in contexts of risk and adversity, slower reaction times, instead of reflecting weaker EF skills, might reflect an adaptive skill-that is, exercising appropriate caution and careful responding on a challenging task. Results provide additional evidence of an intergenerational link between maternal EF and child EF and yield new insights into the nature of EF in adverse environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew H Kim
- Educational Policy Improvement Center, Eugene, OR 97403, USA.
| | - Lisa Shimomaeda
- Prevention Science Institute, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
| | - Ryan J Giuliano
- Prevention Science Institute, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
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52
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Brieant A, Holmes CJ, Deater-Deckard K, King-Casas B, Kim-Spoon J. Household chaos as a context for intergenerational transmission of executive functioning. J Adolesc 2017; 58:40-48. [PMID: 28494413 PMCID: PMC5510240 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Executive functioning (EF) may be transmitted across generations such that strengths or deficiencies in parent EF are similarly manifested in the child. The present study examined the contributions of parent EF and impulsivity on adolescent EF, and investigated whether household chaos is an environmental moderator that alters these transmission processes. American adolescents (N = 167, 47% female, 13-14 years old at Time 1) completed behavioral measures of EF and reported household chaos at Time 1 and one year later at Time 2. Parents completed behavioral measures of EF and self-reported impulsivity at Time 1. Results indicated that lower parent EF at Time 1 predicted lower adolescent EF at Time 2 (controlling for adolescent EF and IQ at Time 1), but only in the context of high household chaos. Findings suggest that household chaos may be a risk factor that compounds influences of poor parent EF and compromises adolescent EF development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis Brieant
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Christopher J Holmes
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA; Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Kirby Deater-Deckard
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Brooks King-Casas
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA; Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, USA; Virginia Tech - Wake Forest School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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53
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Jaswal VK. Rethinking Autism’s Past, Present, and Future. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.5406/amerjpsyc.130.2.0243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vikram K. Jaswal
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 400400, 102 Gilmer, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4400, E-mail:
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54
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Impulsivity as a mechanism linking child abuse and neglect with substance use in adolescence and adulthood. Dev Psychopathol 2017; 30:417-435. [DOI: 10.1017/s0954579417000943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
AbstractEmerging developmental perspectives suggest that adverse rearing environments promote neurocognitive adaptations that heighten impulsivity and increase vulnerability to risky behavior. Although studies document links between harsh rearing environments and impulsive behavior on substance use, the developmental hypothesis that impulsivity acts as mechanism linking adverse rearing environments to downstream substance use remains to be investigated. The present study investigated the role of impulsivity in linking child abuse and neglect with adult substance use using data from (a) a longitudinal sample of youth (Study 1, N = 9,421) and (b) a cross-sectional sample of adults (Study 2, N = 1,011). In Study 1, the links between child abuse and neglect and young adult smoking and marijuana use were mediated by increases in adolescent impulsivity. In Study 2, indirect links between child abuse and neglect and substance use were evidenced via delayed reward discounting and impulsivity traits. Among impulsivity subcomponents, robust indirect effects connecting childhood experiences to cigarette use emerged for negative urgency. Negative urgency, positive urgency, and sensation seeking mediated the effect of child abuse and neglect on cannabis and alcohol use. Results suggest that child abuse and neglect increases risk for substance use in part, due to effects on impulsivity. Individuals with adverse childhood experiences may benefit from substance use preventive intervention programs that target impulsive behaviors.
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55
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Kolijn L, Euser S, van den Bulk BG, Huffmeijer R, van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ. Which neural mechanisms mediate the effects of a parenting intervention program on parenting behavior: design of a randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychol 2017; 5:9. [PMID: 28320473 PMCID: PMC5359954 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-017-0177-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Video-feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting and Sensitive Discipline (VIPP-SD) has proven effective in increasing parental sensitivity. However, the mechanisms involved are largely unknown. In a randomized controlled trial we examine parental neurocognitive factors that may mediate the intervention effects on parenting behavior. Our aims are to (1) examine whether the intervention influences parents' neural processing of children's emotional expressions and the neural precursors of response inhibition and to (2) test whether neural changes mediate intervention effects on parenting behavior. METHODS We will test 100 mothers of 4-6 year old same-sex twins. A random half of the mothers will receive the VIPP-SD Twins (i.e. VIPP-SD adapted for twin families), consisting of 5 home visits in a 3-months period; the other half will receive a dummy intervention. Neurocognitive measures are acquired approximately 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after the intervention. Mothers' electroencephalographic (EEG) activity is measured while performing a stop signal task and in response to children's facial expressions. To obtain a complementary behavioral measure, mothers also perform an emotion recognition task. Parenting behavior will be assessed during parent-child interactions at pre and post intervention lab visits. DISCUSSION Our results will shed light on the neurocognitive factors underlying changes in parenting behavior after a parenting support program, which may benefit the development of such programs. TRIAL REGISTRATION Dutch Trial Register: NTR5312 ; Date registered: January 3, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Kolijn
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Consortium on Individual Development, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, P.O. Box 9600, Leiden, 2300 RC Netherlands
| | - Saskia Euser
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Consortium on Individual Development, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, P.O. Box 9600, Leiden, 2300 RC Netherlands
| | - Bianca G. van den Bulk
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Consortium on Individual Development, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, P.O. Box 9600, Leiden, 2300 RC Netherlands
| | - Renske Huffmeijer
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Consortium on Individual Development, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, P.O. Box 9600, Leiden, 2300 RC Netherlands
| | - Marinus H. van IJzendoorn
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Consortium on Individual Development, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, P.O. Box 9600, Leiden, 2300 RC Netherlands
| | - Marian J. Bakermans-Kranenburg
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Consortium on Individual Development, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, Leiden, 2300 RB Netherlands
- Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, P.O. Box 9600, Leiden, 2300 RC Netherlands
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56
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Bridgett DJ, Kanya MJ, Rutherford HJV, Mayes LC. Maternal executive functioning as a mechanism in the intergenerational transmission of parenting: Preliminary evidence. JOURNAL OF FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY : JFP : JOURNAL OF THE DIVISION OF FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (DIVISION 43) 2017; 31:19-29. [PMID: 27929313 PMCID: PMC5293611 DOI: 10.1037/fam0000264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Multiple lines of inquiry, including experimental animal models, have recently converged to suggest that executive functioning (EF) may be one mechanism by which parenting behavior is transmitted across generations. In the current investigation, we empirically test this notion by examining relations between maternal EF and parenting behaviors during mother-infant interactions, and by examining the role of maternal EF in the intergenerational transmission of parenting behavior. Mother-infant dyads (N = 150) in a longitudinal study participated. Mothers were administered measures of EF (working memory and inhibition), reported on the parenting they received from their parents (i.e., the infants' maternal grandparents), and were observed interacting with their 8-month-old infants. SEM findings indicated that the negative parenting mothers received from their own parents was significantly related to poorer maternal EF, and that poorer maternal EF was significantly related to subsequent engagement in more negative parenting practices (e.g., intrusiveness, displays of negativity) with their own infant. A significant indirect effect, through maternal EF, was observed between maternal report of her experiences of negative parenting received while growing up and her own use of negative parenting practices. Our findings make two contributions. First, we add to existing work that has primarily considered relations between parent EF and parenting behavior while interacting with older children by showing that maternal EF affects children, via maternal parenting behavior, beginning very early in life. Second, we provide key evidence of the role of EF in the intergenerational transmission of parenting. Additional implications of these findings, as well as important future directions, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Linda C Mayes
- School of Medicine, Child Study Center, Yale University
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57
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Holzman JB, Bridgett DJ. Heart rate variability indices as bio-markers of top-down self-regulatory mechanisms: A meta-analytic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 74:233-255. [PMID: 28057463 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Theoretical perspectives posit that heart-rate variability (HRV) reflects self-regulatory capacity and therefore can be employed as a bio-marker of top-down self-regulation (the ability to regulate behavioral, cognitive, and emotional processes). However, existing findings of relations between self-regulation and HRV indices are mixed. To clarify the nature of such relations, we conducted a meta-analysis of 123 studies (N=14,347) reporting relations between HRV indices and aspects of top-down self-regulation (e.g., executive functioning, emotion regulation, effortful control). A significant, albeit small, effect was observed (r=0.09) such that greater HRV was related to better top-down self-regulation. Differences in relations were negligible across aspects of self-regulation, self-regulation measurement methods, HRV computational techniques, at-risk compared with healthy samples, and the context of HRV measurement. Stronger relations were observed in older relative to younger samples and in published compared to unpublished studies. These findings generally support the notion that HRV indices can tentatively be employed as bio-markers of top-down self-regulation. Conceptual and theoretical implications, and critical gaps in current knowledge to be addressed by future work, are discussed.
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58
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Montroy JJ, Bowles RP, Skibbe LE, McClelland MM, Morrison FJ. The development of self-regulation across early childhood. Dev Psychol 2016; 52:1744-1762. [PMID: 27709999 PMCID: PMC5123795 DOI: 10.1037/dev0000159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The development of early childhood self-regulation is often considered an early life marker for later life successes. Yet little longitudinal research has evaluated whether there are different trajectories of self-regulation development across children. This study investigates the development of behavioral self-regulation between the ages of 3 and 7 years, with a direct focus on possible heterogeneity in the developmental trajectories, and a set of potential indicators that distinguish unique behavioral self-regulation trajectories. Across 3 diverse samples, 1,386 children were assessed on behavioral self-regulation from preschool through first grade. Results indicated that majority of children develop self-regulation rapidly during early childhood, and that children follow 3 distinct developmental patterns of growth. These 3 trajectories were distinguishable based on timing of rapid gains, as well as child gender, early language skills, and maternal education levels. Findings highlight early developmental differences in how self-regulation unfolds, with implications for offering individualized support across children. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle J. Montroy
- Children’s Learning Institute, Department of Developmental Pediatrics, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, 7000 Fannin Street Suite 2373H, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Ryan P. Bowles
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, 552 W. Circle Drive, 2F Human Ecology, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA
| | - Lori E. Skibbe
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Michigan State University, 552 W. Circle Drive, 2E Human Ecology, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA
| | - Megan M. McClelland
- Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, Oregon State University, 245 Hallie E. Ford Center for Healthy Children and Families, Corvallis, OR 97331
| | - Frederick J. Morrison
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 2030 East Hall, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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59
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Ullsperger JM, Nigg JT, Nikolas MA. Does Child Temperament Play a Role in the Association Between Parenting Practices and Child Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 44:167-78. [PMID: 25684446 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-015-9982-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Ineffective parenting practices may maintain or exacerbate attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and shape subsequent development of disruptive behavior disorders (DBD's) in youth with ADHD. Recent theoretical models have suggested that parenting may exert effects on ADHD via its role in child temperament. The current study aimed to evaluate the indirect effects of parenting dimensions on child ADHD symptoms via child temperament. Youth ages 6-17 years (N = 498; 50.4 % ADHD, 55 % male) completed a multi-stage, multi-informant assessment that included parent, child, and teacher report measures of parenting practices, child temperament, and ADHD symptoms. Statistical models examined the direct and indirect effects of maternal and paternal involvement, poor supervision, and inconsistent discipline on inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity via child temperament and personality traits. Results indicated differential patterns of effect for negative and positive parenting dimensions. First, inconsistent discipline exerted indirect effects on both ADHD symptom dimensions via child conscientiousness, such that higher levels of inconsistency predicted lower levels of conscientiousness, which in turn, predicted greater ADHD symptomatology. Similarly, poor supervision also exerted indirect effects on inattention via child conscientiousness as well as significant indirect effects on hyperactivity-impulsivity via its impact on both child reactive control and conscientiousness. In contrast, primarily direct effects of positive parenting (i.e., involvement) on ADHD emerged. Secondary checks revealed that similar pathways may also emerge for comorbid disruptive behavior disorders. Current findings extend upon past work by examining how parenting practices influence child ADHD via with-in child mechanisms and provide support for multi-pathway models accounting for heterogeneity in the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josie M Ullsperger
- Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Joel T Nigg
- Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Molly A Nikolas
- Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
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60
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Hartman CA, Geurts HM, Franke B, Buitelaar JK, Rommelse NNJ. Changing ASD-ADHD symptom co-occurrence across the lifespan with adolescence as crucial time window: Illustrating the need to go beyond childhood. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 71:529-541. [PMID: 27629802 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Literature on the co-occurrence between Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is strongly biased by a focus on childhood age. A review of the adolescent and adult literature was made on core and related symptoms of ADHD and ASD. In addition, an empirical approach was used including 17,173 ASD-ADHD symptom ratings from participants aged 0 to 84 years. Results indicate that ASD/ADHD constellations peak during adolescence and are lower in early childhood and old age. We hypothesize that on the border of the expected transition to independent adulthood, ASD and ADHD co-occur most because social adaptation and EF skills matter most. Lower correlations in childhood and older age may be due to more diffuse symptoms reflecting respectively still differentiating and de-differentiating EF functions. We plea for a strong research focus in adolescence which may -after early childhood- be a second crucial time window for catching-up pattern explaining more optimal outcomes. We discuss obstacles and oppportunities of a full lifespan approach into old age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharina A Hartman
- Department of Psychiatry, Interdisciplinary Center of Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation (ICPE) & Research School of Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Hilde M Geurts
- Department of Psychology, Brain and Cognition, d'Arc, & Cognitive Science Center Amsterdam, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Dr Leo Kannerhuis, Autism Clinic, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Barbara Franke
- Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Human Genetics, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan K Buitelaar
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Karakter, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Nanda N J Rommelse
- Department of Psychiatry, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Karakter, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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61
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Fisher PA, Frenkel TI, Noll LK, Berry M, Yockelson M. Promoting Healthy Child Development via a Two-Generation Translational Neuroscience Framework: The Filming Interactions to Nurture Development Video Coaching Program. CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES 2016; 10:251-256. [PMID: 28936231 DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In this article, we focus on applying methods of translational neuroscience to two-generation, family-based interventions. In recent years, a small but growing body of evidence has documented the reversibility of some of the neurobiological effects of early adversity in the context of environmental early interventions. Some of these interventions are now being implemented at scale, which may help reduce disparities in the face of early life stress. Further progress may occur by extending these efforts to two-generation models that target caregivers' capabilities to improve children's outcomes. In this article, we describe the content and processes of the Filming Interactions to Nurture Development (FIND) video coaching intervention. We also discuss the two-generation, translational neuroscience framework on which FIND is based, and how similar approaches can be developed and scaled to mitigate the effects of adversity.
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62
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Crandall A, Magnusson BM, Novilla MLB, Novilla LKB, Dyer WJ. Family Financial Stress and Adolescent Sexual Risk-Taking: The Role of Self-Regulation. J Youth Adolesc 2016; 46:45-62. [PMID: 27460827 DOI: 10.1007/s10964-016-0543-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The ability to control one's emotions, thoughts, and behaviors is known as self-regulation. Family stress and low adolescent self-regulation have been linked with increased engagement in risky sexual behaviors, which peak in late adolescence and early adulthood. The purpose of this study was to assess whether adolescent self-regulation, measured by parent and adolescent self-report and respiratory sinus arrhythmia, mediates or moderates the relationship between family financial stress and risky sexual behaviors. We assessed these relationships in a 4-year longitudinal sample of 450 adolescents (52 % female; 70 % white) and their parents using structural equation modeling. Results indicated that high family financial stress predicts engagement in risky sexual behaviors as mediated, but not moderated, by adolescent self-regulation. The results suggest that adolescent self-regulatory capacities are a mechanism through which proximal external forces influence adolescent risk-taking. Promoting adolescent self-regulation, especially in the face of external stressors, may be an important method to reduce risk-taking behaviors as adolescents transition to adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- AliceAnn Crandall
- Department of Health Science, Brigham Young University, 4103 LSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA.
| | - Brianna M Magnusson
- Department of Health Science, Brigham Young University, 4103 LSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - M Lelinneth B Novilla
- Department of Health Science, Brigham Young University, 4103 LSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | | | - W Justin Dyer
- Department of Religious Education, Brigham Young University, 270 N JSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
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63
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Gueron-Sela N, Wagner NJ, Propper CB, Mills-Koonce WR, Moore GA, Cox MJ. The Interaction Between Child Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia and Early Sensitive Parenting in the Prediction of Children's Executive Functions. INFANCY 2016; 22:171-189. [DOI: 10.1111/infa.12152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noa Gueron-Sela
- Center for Developmental Science; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - Nicholas J. Wagner
- Department of Human Development and Quantitative Methodology; University of Maryland
| | - Cathi B. Propper
- Center for Developmental Science; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
| | - W. Roger Mills-Koonce
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies; The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
| | | | - Martha J. Cox
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience; University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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64
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Schriber RA, Guyer AE. Adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2016; 19:1-18. [PMID: 26773514 PMCID: PMC4912893 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Adolescence has been characterized as a period of heightened sensitivity to social contexts. However, adolescents vary in how their social contexts affect them. According to neurobiological susceptibility models, endogenous, biological factors confer some individuals, relative to others, with greater susceptibility to environmental influences, whereby more susceptible individuals fare the best or worst of all individuals, depending on the environment encountered (e.g., high vs. low parental warmth). Until recently, research guided by these theoretical frameworks has not incorporated direct measures of brain structure or function to index this sensitivity. Drawing on prevailing models of adolescent neurodevelopment and a growing number of neuroimaging studies on the interrelations among social contexts, the brain, and developmental outcomes, we review research that supports the idea of adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context for understanding why and how adolescents differ in development and well-being. We propose that adolescent development is shaped by brain-based individual differences in sensitivity to social contexts - be they positive or negative - such as those created through relationships with parents/caregivers and peers. Ultimately, we recommend that future research measure brain function and structure to operationalize susceptibility factors that moderate the influence of social contexts on developmental outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta A Schriber
- Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis, California, United States.
| | - Amanda E Guyer
- Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis, California, United States; Department of Human Ecology, University of California, Davis, California, United States.
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65
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Miller AL. Neurocognitive Processes and Pediatric Obesity Interventions: Review of Current Literature and Suggested Future Directions. Pediatr Clin North Am 2016; 63:447-57. [PMID: 27261544 PMCID: PMC4893962 DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2016.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Childhood obesity is a significant problem in the United States, but current childhood obesity prevention approaches have limited efficacy. Self-regulation processes organize behavior to achieve a goal and may shape health behaviors and health outcomes. Obesity prevention approaches that focus on the cognitive and behavioral mechanisms that underlie self-regulation early in life may therefore lead to better outcomes. This article reviews the development of executive functioning (EF), identifies influences on EF development, discusses aspects of EF relating to increased risk for childhood obesity, and considers how EF-weight associations may change across development. Implications for intervention are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison L Miller
- Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, SPH I, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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66
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Deater-Deckard K. Is Self-Regulation "All in the family"? Testing Environmental Effects using Within-Family Quasi-Experiments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2016; 40:224-233. [PMID: 27110046 PMCID: PMC4836863 DOI: 10.1177/0165025415621971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Most of the individual difference variance in the population is found within families, yet studying the processes causing this variation is difficult due to confounds between genetic and nongenetic influences. Quasi-experiments can be used to test hypotheses regarding environment exposure (e.g., timing, duration) while controlling for genetic confounds. To illustrate, two studies of cognitive self-regulation in childhood (i.e., working memory [WM], effortful control [EC], attention span/persistence [A/P]) are presented. Study 1 utilized an identical twin differences design (N = 85 to 98 pairs) to control for genetic differences while using relative twin birth weight difference to predict relative twin difference in WM and EC. Larger relative twin difference in WM and EF was predicted by the combination of shorter gestation and larger relative birth weight difference. Study 2 utilized an adoptive sibling relative difference design (N = 123 same-sex pairs) to control for genetic similarity while using relative sibling difference in the age at time of adoption to predict relative sibling difference in A/P. Larger relative sibling difference in A/P was predicted by the combination of larger relative difference in time in the adoptive home and age at adoption. Within-family quasi-experimental designs allow stronger inferences about hypothesized environmental influences than between-family designs permit.
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Kahle S, Grady JS, Miller JG, Lopez M, Hastings PD. Maternal Emotion Socialization and the Development of Inhibitory Control in an Emotional Condition. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.1970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Kahle
- University of California, Davis; Davis CA USA
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68
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Schloß S, Schramm M, Christiansen H, Scholz KK, Schuh LC, Döpfner M, Becker K, Pauli-Pott U. [Expressed emotion, mother-child relationship, and ADHD symptoms in preschool- a study on the validity of the German Preschool Five Minute Speech Sample]. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR KINDER-UND JUGENDPSYCHIATRIE UND PSYCHOTHERAPIE 2016; 43:425-31. [PMID: 26602046 DOI: 10.1024/1422-4917/a000384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An inadequate parent-child relationship with hostility, low warmth, and a lack of responsiveness/sensitivity on the part of the primary caregiver often accompanies a child's externalizing disorders and predicts a negative developmental course. The Preschool Five Minute Speech Sample (PFMSS) was developed to enable an economic assessment of components of an inadequate parent-child relationship. In this article we investigate aspects of the validity of the German version of the PFMSS. We analyze whether the PFMSS scales are associated with observed maternal sensitivity, symptoms of attention deficit-/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and maternal depressive symptoms. The sample consists of n = 114 families with 4- to 5-year-old children, whereof n = 65 (57 %) show heightened ADHD-symptoms. The families were recruited from local kindergardens. Maternal sensitivity was assessed by observing the mother-child interaction at home. ADHD, ODD, and maternal depressive ~symptoms were measured by clinical interviews and questionnaires. Most of the PFMSS scales showed the expected associations with maternal sensitivity, ADHD, and ODD symptoms of the child. The German PFMSS thus validly captures significant components of an inadequate mother-child relationship within the context of preschool externalizing behavior problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Schloß
- 1 Fachbereich Medizin, Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie, Philipps-Universität Marburg
| | - Magdalena Schramm
- 1 Fachbereich Medizin, Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie, Philipps-Universität Marburg
| | - Hanna Christiansen
- 2 Fachbereich Psychologie, AG Kinder- und Jugendpsychologie, Philipps-Universität Marburg
| | - Kristin-Katharina Scholz
- 3 Medizinische Fakultät, Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie des Kindes- und Jugendalters, Universität zu Köln
| | - Lioba Carmen Schuh
- 3 Medizinische Fakultät, Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie des Kindes- und Jugendalters, Universität zu Köln
| | - Manfred Döpfner
- 3 Medizinische Fakultät, Klinik für Psychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie des Kindes- und Jugendalters, Universität zu Köln
| | - Katja Becker
- 1 Fachbereich Medizin, Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie, Philipps-Universität Marburg
| | - Ursula Pauli-Pott
- 1 Fachbereich Medizin, Klinik für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapie, Philipps-Universität Marburg
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69
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Vandenbroucke L, Verschueren K, Ceulemans E, De Smedt B, De Roover K, Baeyens D. Family demographic profiles and their relationship with the quality of executive functioning subcomponents in kindergarten. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 34:226-44. [DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Loren Vandenbroucke
- Parenting and Special Education; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; University of Leuven; Belgium
| | - Karine Verschueren
- School Psychology and Child and Adolescent Development; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; University of Leuven; Belgium
| | - Eva Ceulemans
- Methodology of Educational Sciences; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; University of Leuven; Belgium
| | - Bert De Smedt
- Parenting and Special Education; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; University of Leuven; Belgium
| | - Kim De Roover
- Methodology of Educational Sciences; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; University of Leuven; Belgium
| | - Dieter Baeyens
- Parenting and Special Education; Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences; University of Leuven; Belgium
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70
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Zohsel K, Bianchi V, Mascheretti S, Hohm E, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Brandeis D, Banaschewski T, Nobile M, Laucht M. Monoamine oxidase A polymorphism moderates stability of attention problems and susceptibility to life stress during adolescence. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2015; 14:565-72. [PMID: 26449393 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Attention problems affect a substantial number of children and adolescents and are predictive of academic underachievement and lower global adaptive functioning. Considerable variability has been observed with regard to the individual development of attention problems over time. In particular, the period of adolescence is characterized by substantial maturation of executive functioning including attentional processing, with the influence of genetic and environmental factors on individual trajectories not yet well understood. In the present investigation, we evaluated whether the monoamine oxidase A functional promoter polymorphism, MAOA-LPR, plays a role in determining continuity of parent-rated attention problems during adolescence. At the same time, a potential effect of severe life events (SLEs) was taken into account. A multi-group path analysis was used in a sample of 234 adolescents (149 males, 85 females) who took part in an epidemiological cohort study at the ages of 11 and 15 years. Attention problems during early adolescence were found to be a strong predictor of attention problems in middle adolescence. However, in carriers of the MAOA-LPR low-activity variant (MAOA-L), stability was found to be significantly higher than in carriers of the high-activity variant (MAOA-H). Additionally, only in MAOA-L carriers did SLEs during adolescence significantly impact on attention problems at the age of 15 years, implying a possible gene × environment interaction. To conclude, we found evidence that attention problems during adolescence in carriers of the MAOA-L allele are particularly stable and malleable to life stressors. The present results underline the usefulness of applying a more dynamic GxE perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Zohsel
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - V Bianchi
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Scientific Institute 'E. Medea', Bosisio Parini, Italy.,Institute of Molecular Imaging and Physiology, National Research Council, Segrate, Milan, Italy
| | - S Mascheretti
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Scientific Institute 'E. Medea', Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - E Hohm
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - M H Schmidt
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - G Esser
- Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - D Brandeis
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany.,Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Neuroscience Center Zurich, University of Zürich and ETH, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - T Banaschewski
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - M Nobile
- Department of Child Psychiatry, Scientific Institute 'E. Medea', Bosisio Parini, Italy.,Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Hermanas Hospitalarias, FoRiPsi, Albese con Cassano, Italy
| | - M Laucht
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany.,Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
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McCormick EM, Qu Y, Telzer EH. Adolescent neurodevelopment of cognitive control and risk-taking in negative family contexts. Neuroimage 2015; 124:989-996. [PMID: 26434803 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.09.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Adolescents have an increased need to regulate their behavior as they gain access to opportunities for risky behavior; however, cognitive control systems necessary for this regulation remain relatively immature. Parents can impact their adolescent child's abilities to regulate their behavior and engagement in risk taking. Since adolescents undergo significant neural change, negative parent-child relationship quality may impede or alter development in prefrontal regions subserving cognitive control. To test this hypothesis, 20 adolescents completed a Go/NoGo task during two fMRI scans occurring 1year apart. Adolescents reporting greater family conflict and lower family cohesion showed longitudinal increases in risk-taking behavior, which was mediated by longitudinal increases in left VLPFC activation during cognitive control. These results underscore the importance of parent-child relationships during early adolescence, and the neural processes by which cognitive control may be derailed and may lead to increased risk taking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan M McCormick
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, United States
| | - Yang Qu
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, United States
| | - Eva H Telzer
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, United States; Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, United States.
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72
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Finkenauer C, Buyukcan-Tetik A, Baumeister RF, Schoemaker K, Bartels M, Vohs KD. Out of Control. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/0963721415570730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Family violence is common and brings tremendous costs to individuals, relationships, and society. Victims are vulnerable to negative outcomes across a host of dimensions, including cognitive performance, impulse control, emotion regulation, and physical health. Links between family violence and various problems have been established, yet the specific processes underlying these associations are poorly understood, resulting in the stunted development of effective interventions. This article addresses two key questions: How and why does family violence cause these myriad problems? The self-control strength model of family violence provides novel answers. The model integrates components of existing theories, extending them by pinpointing self-control strength as an explanatory and predictive factor, and can serve as a framework for interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catrin Finkenauer
- Department of Clinical Child and Family Studies, VU University Amsterdam
| | | | | | - Kim Schoemaker
- Department of Clinical Child and Family Studies, VU University Amsterdam
| | - Meike Bartels
- Department of Biological Psychology, VU University Amsterdam
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73
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Crandall A, Deater-Deckard K, Riley AW. Maternal emotion and cognitive control capacities and parenting: A conceptual framework. DEVELOPMENTAL REVIEW 2015; 36:105-126. [PMID: 26028796 PMCID: PMC4445866 DOI: 10.1016/j.dr.2015.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Emerging evidence suggests that maternal emotion and cognitive control capacities are critical to the development and maintenance of parenting practices and may be related to parents' ability to seek and use parenting help. The purpose of this paper is to present a cohesive conceptual framework on the intersection of maternal emotion and cognitive control capacities and parenting based on a review of literature. METHODS We conducted a comprehensive literature review of articles published between 2000 and February 2014 that addressed maternal emotion and cognitive control and parenting. The 35 articles identified were assigned a methodological quality score. RESULTS Low maternal emotion and cognitive control capacity is associated with increased risk of engaging in child maltreatment, whereas higher maternal emotion and cognitive regulation is associated with sensitive, involved parenting. Contextual factors, such as SES and household organization, play a complex and not clearly understood role on the association between maternal cognitive control and parenting. A conceptual framework was developed based on the results of the literature review. CONCLUSIONS The conceptual framework developed can be used to inform future research and practice. Longitudinal studies that assess the temporal relationship of maternal emotion and cognitive control and parenting are necessary to establish causality. Research that addresses how maternal emotion regulation and cognitive control capacities are related to mothers' enrollment and participation in parenting and early intervention programs is an important next step to strengthening policy and intervention work.
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Affiliation(s)
- AliceAnn Crandall
- Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Kirby Deater-Deckard
- Department of Psychology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Tech – Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA 24061, USA
| | - Anne W. Riley
- Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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74
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Camerota M, Willoughby MT, Cox M, Greenberg MT. Executive Function in Low Birth Weight Preschoolers: The Moderating Effect of Parenting. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 43:1551-1562. [DOI: 10.1007/s10802-015-0032-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Camerota
- Department of Psychology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 3270, 235 E. Cameron Street, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
| | | | - Martha Cox
- Department of Psychology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 3270, 235 E. Cameron Street, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Mark T Greenberg
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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75
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Bridgett DJ, Burt NM, Edwards ES, Deater-Deckard K. Intergenerational transmission of self-regulation: A multidisciplinary review and integrative conceptual framework. Psychol Bull 2015; 141:602-654. [PMID: 25938878 PMCID: PMC4422221 DOI: 10.1037/a0038662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This review examines mechanisms contributing to the intergenerational transmission of self-regulation. To provide an integrated account of how self-regulation is transmitted across generations, we draw from over 75 years of accumulated evidence, spanning case studies to experimental approaches, in literatures covering developmental, social, and clinical psychology, and criminology, physiology, genetics, and human and animal neuroscience (among others). First, we present a taxonomy of what self-regulation is and then examine how it develops--overviews that guide the main foci of the review. Next, studies supporting an association between parent and child self-regulation are reviewed. Subsequently, literature that considers potential social mechanisms of transmission, specifically parenting behavior, interparental (i.e., marital) relationship behaviors, and broader rearing influences (e.g., household chaos) is considered. Finally, evidence that prenatal programming may be the starting point of the intergenerational transmission of self-regulation is covered, along with key findings from the behavioral and molecular genetics literatures. To integrate these literatures, we introduce the self-regulation intergenerational transmission model, a framework that brings together prenatal, social/contextual, and neurobiological mechanisms (spanning endocrine, neural, and genetic levels, including gene-environment interplay and epigenetic processes) to explain the intergenerational transmission of self-regulation. This model also incorporates potential transactional processes between generations (e.g., children's self-regulation and parent-child interaction dynamics that may affect parents' self-regulation) that further influence intergenerational processes. In pointing the way forward, we note key future directions and ways to address limitations in existing work throughout the review and in closing. We also conclude by noting several implications for intervention work.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole M Burt
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University
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