The clinical relevance of omega-3 fatty acids in the management of hypertriglyceridemia

Supplementation of Enriched Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and CLA Cheese on High Fat Diet: Effects on Lipid Metabolism and Fat Profile

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between dietary fat intake and the onset of several metabolic diseases. This association is particularly evident in a diet rich in saturated fatty acids, typical of animal foods, such as dairy products. However, these foods are the main source of fatty acids with a proven nutraceutical effect, such as the ω-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid (ALA) and the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which have demonstrated important roles in the prevention of various diseases. In the present study, the effect of a supplementation with cheese enriched with ω-3 fatty acids and CLA on the metabolism and lipid profiles of C57bl/6 mice was evaluated. In particular, the analyses were conducted on different tissues, such as liver, muscle, adipose tissue and brain, known for their susceptibility to the effects of dietary fats. Supplementing cheese enriched in CLA and ω-3 fats reduced the level of saturated fat and increased the content of CLA and ALA in all tissues considered, except for the brain. Furthermore, the consumption of this cheese resulted in a tissue-specific response in the expression levels of genes involved in lipid and mitochondrial metabolism. As regards genes involved in the inflammatory response, the consumption of enriched cheese resulted in a reduction in the expression of inflammatory genes in all tissues analyzed. Considering the effects that chronic inflammation associated with a high-calorie and high-fat diet (meta-inflammation) or aging (inflammaging) has on the onset of chronic degenerative diseases, these data could be of great interest as they indicate the feasibility of modulating inflammation (thus avoiding/delaying these pathologies) with a nutritional and non-pharmacological intervention.

Multimodality Imaging Trials Evaluating the Impact of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Coronary Artery Plaque Characteristics and Burden

Treatment of established risk factors, especially low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, is the cornerstone of preventing atherosclerotic coronary artery disease. Despite reducing LDL cholesterol, there remains a significant risk of cardiovascular disease. Inflammatory and metabolic pathways contribute to recurrence of cardiovascular events, and are often missed in clinical practice. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) may play a crucial role in reducing residual risk of cardiovascular disease. In this review we discuss the clinical applications of omega-3 fatty acids (OM3FAs), their mechanism of action, the difference between pure EPA and docosahexaenoic acid components, and the latest cardiovascular outcome trials and imaging trials evaluating coronary plaque. PubMed and EMBASE were searched to include all the remarkable clinical trials investigating OM3FAs and cardiovascular disease. Beyond statins, additional medications are required to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. EPA has shown cardiovascular benefit in addition to statins in large outcome trials. Additionally, multiple serial-imaging studies have demonstrated benefits on plaque progression and stabilization. Due to its pleotropic properties, icosapent ethyl outperforms other OM3FAs in decreasing cardiovascular disease risk in both patients with and without high triglycerides, and is currently recommended as an adjunct to statins. To further strengthen the current evidence, additional research is required to elucidate the inconsistencies between the effects of pure EPA and EPA plus docosahexaenoic acid.

From Life in the Sea to the Clinic: The Marine Drugs Approved and under Clinical Trial

In the last decades Blue Growth policy in european and non-european countries produced a great impulse in applied marine sciences, comprehending the research of new bioactive molecules in marine organisms. These organisms are a great source of natural compounds with unique features resulting from the huge variability of marine habitats and species living in them. Most of the marine compounds in use and in clinical trials are drugs for cancer therapy and many of them are conjugated to antibody to form antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs). Severe pain, viral infections, hypertriglyceridemia, obesity, Alzheimer's and other CNS diseases are further target conditions for these pharmaceuticals. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art marine drugs focusing on the most successful results in the fast expanding field of marine pharmacology.

Omega-3 supplementation during unilateral resistance exercise training in older women: A within subject and double-blind placebo-controlled trial

Background & aims

The skeletal muscle anabolic effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) appear favoured towards women; a property that could be exploited in older women who typically exhibit poor muscle growth responses to resistance exercise training (RET). Here we sought to generate novel insights into the efficacy and mechanisms of n-3 PUFA alongside short-term RET in older women.

Methods

We recruited 16 healthy older women (Placebo n = 8 (PLA): 67±1y, n-3 PUFA n = 8: 64±1y) to a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial (n-3 PUFA; 3680 mg/day versus PLA) of 6 weeks fully-supervised progressive unilateral RET (i.e. 6 × 8 reps, 75% 1-RM, 3/wk⁻¹). Strength was assessed by knee extensor 1-RM and isokinetic dynamometry ∼ every 10 d. Thigh fat free mass (TFFM) was measured by DXA at 0/3/6 weeks. Bilateral vastus lateralis (VL) biopsies at 0/2/4/6 weeks with deuterium oxide (D₂O) dosing were used to determine MPS responses for 0–2 and 4–6 weeks. Further, fibre cross sectional area (CSA), myonuclei number and satellite cell (SC) number were assessed, alongside muscle anabolic/catabolic signalling via immunoblotting.

Results

RET increased 1-RM equally in the trained leg of both groups (+23 ± 5% n-3 PUFA vs. +25 ± 5% PLA (both P < 0.01)) with no significant increase in maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) (+10 ± 6% n-3 PUFA vs. +13 ± 5% PLA). Only the n-3 PUFA group increased TFFM (3774 ± 158 g to 3961 ± 151 g n-3 PUFA (P < 0.05) vs. 3406 ± 201 g to 3561 ± 170 PLA) and type II fibre CSA (3097 ± 339 μm² to 4329 ± 264 μm² n-3 PUFA (P < 0.05) vs. 2520 ± 316 μm² to 3467 ± 303 μm² in PL) with RET. Myonuclei number increased equally in n-3 PUFA and PLA in both type I and type II fibres, with no change in SC number. N-3 PUFA had no added benefit on muscle protein synthesis (MPS), however, during weeks 4–6 of RET, absolute synthesis rates (ASR) displayed a trend to increase with n-3 PUFA only (5.6 ± 0.3 g d⁻¹ to 7.1 ± 0.5 g d⁻¹ n-3 PUFA (P = 0.09) vs. 5.5 ± 0.5 g d⁻¹ to 6.5 ± 0.5 g d⁻¹ PLA). Further, the n-3 PUFA group displayed greater 4EBP1 activation after acute RE at 6 weeks.

Conclusion

n3-PUFA enhanced RET gains in muscle mass through type II fibre hypertrophy, with data suggesting a role for MPS rather than via SC recruitment. As such, the present study adds to a literature base illustrating the apparent enhancement of muscle hypertrophy with RET in older women fed adjuvant n3-PUFA.

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.): An emerging source of nutrients, omega-3 fatty acid and phytochemicals

Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis) (SI) is an oleaginous plant producing oil and protein-rich seeds. It has been cultivated for centuries and is native to the tropical rainforest of the Amazon region of South America including parts of Peru and northwestern Brazil. At present, SI seeds are emerging as a potential source of macro- and micronutrients, α-linolenic acid and phytochemicals. This review attempts to elucidate the nutrients, phytonutrients, safety, toxicity, health benefits and food applications of SI seed. Recent scientific studies have associated the consumption of SI seed/oil with reduced risk of chronic inflammatory diseases. However, lack of awareness and in-depth understanding has resulted in it being neglected both at the consumer and industrial level. In all, SI is an underutilized and undervalued oleaginous crop which not only has the potential to mitigate food and nutritional insecurity but also offers humongous opportunities for the development of novel value-added food products.

Treatment of Chinese Patients with Hypertriglyceridemia with a Pharmaceutical-Grade Preparation of Highly Purified Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Ethyl Esters: Main Results of a Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial

Introduction

The lipid-modifying potential of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in Chinese patients is under-researched. We conducted a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel-group study of twice-daily treatment with OMACOR (OM3EE), a prescription-only formulation of highly purified ethyl esters of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in Chinese adult patients (≥18 years) who had elevated baseline fasting serum triglycerides (TG).

Methods

Patients were stratified according to the severity of their hypertriglyceridemia (severe HTG, with baseline TG ≥500 and <1000 mg/dL or moderate HTG, with baseline TG >200 and <500 mg/dL) or use of statins. Patients randomized to OM3EE therapy received 2 g/day for 4 weeks, then 4 g/day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy endpoint was the percentage change in fasting serum TG between baseline and the end of treatment in patients with severe HTG. The study was concluded after a planned interim analysis demonstrated a significant TG-lowering effect of OM3EE in that contingent (p=0.0019).

Results

The mean TG end-of-treatment effect of OM3EE was -29.46% (standard deviation 40.60%) in the severe HTG contingent compared with +0.26% (standard deviation 54.68%) in the placebo group. Corresponding changes were -12.12% and -23.25% in the moderate HTG and combination cohorts (vs +55.45% and +6.24% in relevant placebo groups). A dose-dependent reduction in TG was evident in all patient contingents. Safety and tolerability of OM3EE were in line with previous experience.

Discussion

These data indicate that OMACOR therapy at a dose of 2-4 g/day is an effective treatment for Chinese patients with raised TG levels and is well tolerated.

Maternal DHA Supplementation during Pregnancy and Lactation in the Rat Protects the Offspring against High-Calorie Diet-Induced Hepatic Steatosis

Maternal supplementation during pregnancy with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is internationally recommended to avoid postpartum maternal depression in the mother and improve cognitive and neurological outcomes in the offspring. This study was aimed at determining whether this nutritional intervention, in the rat, protects the offspring against the development of obesity and its associated metabolic disorders. Pregnant Wistar rats received an extract of fish oil enriched in DHA or saline (SAL) as placebo by mouth from the beginning of gestation to the end of lactation. At weaning, pups were fed standard chow or a free-choice, high-fat, high-sugar (fc-HFHS) diet. Compared to animals fed standard chow, rats exposed to the fc-HFHS diet exhibited increased body weight, liver weight, body fat and leptin in serum independently of saline or DHA maternal supplementation. Nevertheless, maternal DHA supplementation prevented both the glucose intolerance and the rise in serum insulin resulting from consumption of the fc-HFHS diet. In addition, animals from the DHA-fc-HFHS diet group showed decreased hepatic triglyceride accumulation compared to SAL-fc-HFHS rats. The beneficial effects on glucose homeostasis declined with age in male rats. Yet, the preventive action against hepatic steatosis was still present in 6-month-old animals of both sexes and was associated with decreased hepatic expression of lipogenic genes. The results of the present work show that maternal DHA supplementation during pregnancy programs a healthy phenotype into the offspring that was protective against the deleterious effects of an obesogenic diet.

Discovery of metabolic biomarkers for gestational diabetes mellitus in a Chinese population

Background

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), one of the most common pregnancy complications, can lead to morbidity and mortality in both the mother and the infant. Metabolomics has provided new insights into the pathology of GDM and systemic analysis of GDM with metabolites is required for providing more clues for GDM diagnosis and mechanism research. This study aims to reveal metabolic differences between normal pregnant women and GDM patients in the second- and third-trimester stages and to confirm the clinical relevance of these new findings.

Methods

Metabolites were quantitated with the serum samples of 200 healthy pregnant women and 200 GDM women in the second trimester, 199 normal controls, and 199 GDM patients in the third trimester. Both function and pathway analyses were applied to explore biological roles involved in the two sets of metabolites. Then the trimester stage-specific GDM metabolite biomarkers were identified by combining machine learning approaches, and the logistic regression models were constructed to evaluate predictive efficiency. Finally, the weighted gene co-expression network analysis method was used to further capture the associations between metabolite modules with biomarkers and clinical indices.

Results

This study revealed that 57 differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) were discovered in the second-trimester group, among which the most significant one was 3-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid. Similarly, 72 DEMs were found in the third-trimester group, and the most significant metabolites were ketoleucine and alpha-ketoisovaleric acid. These DEMs were mainly involved in the metabolism pathway of amino acids, fatty acids and bile acids. The logistic regression models for selected metabolite biomarkers achieved the area under the curve values of 0.807 and 0.81 for the second- and third-trimester groups. Furthermore, significant associations were found between DEMs/biomarkers and GDM-related indices.

Conclusions

Metabolic differences between healthy pregnant women and GDM patients were found. Associations between biomarkers and clinical indices were also investigated, which may provide insights into pathology of GDM.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12986-021-00606-8.

Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoic Acid Inhibit the Contractile Responses of the Guinea Pig Lower Gastrointestinal Tract

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and are abundant in fish oil. These n-3 PUFAs have been reported to improve the lower gastrointestinal (LGI) disorders such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease through their anti-inflammatory effects. However, there are few studies on the effect of n-3 PUFAs on motility of the LGI tract, such as the ileum and colon, the parts frequently affected by these inflammatory disorders. To elucidate the effects of DHA and EPA on the LGI tract motility, we performed comparative evaluation of their effects and linoleic acid (LA), an n-6 PUFA, on contractions in the ileal and colonic longitudinal smooth muscles (LSMs) isolated from guinea pigs. In the ileal and colonic LSMs, DHA and EPA (3 × 10^-5 M each) significantly inhibited contractions induced by acetylcholine (ACh), histamine, and prostaglandin (PG) F_2α (vs. control), and these effects are stronger than that of LA (3 × 10^-5 M). In the colonic LSMs, DHA and EPA also significantly inhibited contractions induced by PGD₂ (vs. control). In addition, DHA and EPA significantly inhibited CaCl₂-induced ileal and colonic LSM contractions in Ca²⁺-free 80 mM-KCl solution (vs. control). Any ileal and colonic LSM contractions induced by ACh, histamine, PGF_2α, and CaCl₂ were completely suppressed by verapamil (10^-5 M), a voltage-gated/dependent Ca²⁺ channel (VGCC/VDCC) inhibitor. These findings suggest that DHA and EPA could improve the abnormal contractile functions of the LGI tract associated with inflammatory diseases, partly through inhibition of VGCC/VDCC-dependent ileal and colonic LSM contractions.

Nutritional adjuvants with antioxidant properties in the treatment of canine leishmaniasis

Clinical improvement of dogs treated for canine leishmaniasis (CanL) requires reducing Leishmania infantum loads, which depend on intracellular oxidant compounds to destroy the parasite. However, oxidative species' excess and antioxidants consumption can culminate in oxidative stress, resulting in increased, widespread inflammation. We aimed to evaluate if early or late addition of nutritional adjuvants (NAs) - omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and B vitamins - to anti-Leishmania drugs (ALDs) in the treatment of CanL would be clinically beneficial. For that, serum biomarkers including oxidative stress parameters were analyzed during 12 months in dogs allocated to two treatment groups: (G1) NAs administered from 30 days prior to the beginning of ALDs; and (G2) NAs administered from 61 days after the beginning of ALDs. Both G1 and G2 continued to receive NAs until the 12th month. The ALDs administered were metronidazole associated with ketoconazole (40 days), followed by allopurinol from day 41 until the 12th month. G1 exhibited superior inflammation control, with reduced globulins (p = 0.025), specific anti-Leishmania immunoglobulins (p = 0.016), total protein (p = 0.031), and an increased serum albumin/globulin ratio (p = 0.033), compared to G2. The early use of NAs associated with ALDs is clinically beneficial in treating dogs with CanL.

Acute Pancreatitis in the Transgender Population

Hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is an uncommon but well-established etiology of acute pancreatitis (AP) leading to significant morbidity and mortality. Hormone replacement therapy in the transgender population is an underrecognized cause of elevated triglyceride (TG) levels and may put this group at a higher risk for severe pancreatitis. We present a case of AP in a genetically male patient receiving hormone therapy for female gender transformation.A 51-year-old with a past medical history of type 2 diabetes mellitus presented with severe epigastric abdominal pain associated with nonbilious, nonbloody vomiting and anorexia for two days. The patient was diagnosed with hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis (HTG-AP) in the setting of elevated lipase levels of 2,083 u/L and TGs of >5,000 mg/dL. In addition, a computerized tomography scan of the abdomen showed pancreatitis without evidence of necrosis. The patient was admitted to the medical intensive care unit for the management of AP in the setting of elevated TG levels. She was treated with intravenous fluids and an insulin drip. Her home medications including estradiol and Aldactone were held. Once the TG levels were reduced to <500 mg/dL, she was taken off the Insulin drip and transitioned to a subcutaneous insulin regimen along with gemfibrozil and omega-3 fatty acid over the next three days, and then discharged to home. HTG accounts for only about 7% of pancreatitis cases and increases in severity as TG levels increase. The clinical presentation of patients suffering from HTG-AP is similar to patients with AP from other etiologies and presents in a relatively younger population compared to AP from other causes. Treatment options for HTG-AP usually utilize insulin and heparin; however, plasma exchange and venovenous filtration may be used for severe cases of HTG-AP. The goal of treatment is to lower the TG levels. Physicians should be aware of such complications and should counsel patients while utilizing hormone replacement therapy, especially in patients with a prior family history of dyslipidemia.

Plasma glycerophospholipid profile, erythrocyte n-3 PUFAs, and metabolic syndrome incidence: a prospective study in Chinese men and women

BACKGROUND

Animal studies have highlighted critical roles of glycerophospholipid (GP) metabolism in various metabolic syndrome (MetS)-related features such as dyslipidemia, obesity, and insulin resistance. However, human prospective studies of associations between circulating GPs and risks of MetS are scarce.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to investigate whether GPs are associated with incidence of MetS in a well-established cohort.

METHODS

A total of 1243 community-dwelling Chinese aged 50-70 y without MetS at baseline and followed up for 6 y were included in current analyses. A total of 145 plasma GPs were quantified by high-throughput targeted lipidomics. MetS was defined using the updated National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria for Asian Americans.

RESULTS

After 6 y, 429 participants developed MetS. Eleven GPs, especially those with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) or very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (VLCPUFAs) at the sn-2 position, including 1 phosphatidylcholine (PC) [PC(18:0/22:6)], 9 phosphatidylethanolamines (PEs) [PE(16:0/22:6), PE(18:0/14:0), PE(18:0/18:1), PE(18:0/18:2), PE(18:0/20:3), PE(18:0/22:5), PE(18:0/22:6), PE(18:1/22:6), and PE(18:2/22:6)], and 1 phosphatidylserine (PS) [PS(18:0/18:0)], were positively associated with incident MetS (RRs: 1.16-1.30 per SD change; Bonferroni-corrected P < 0.05). In network analysis, the strongest positive association for MetS incidence was evidenced in a module mainly composed of PEs containing C22:6 and PSs [RR: 1.21; 95% CI: 1.12, 1.31 per SD change; Bonferroni-corrected P < 0.05]. This association was more pronounced in participants with lower erythrocyte total n-3 PUFA concentrations [Bonferroni-corrected Pinter(P value for the interaction)< 0.05].

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated plasma concentrations of GPs, especially PEs with LCPUFAs or VLCPUFAs at the sn-2 position, are associated with higher risk of incident MetS. Future studies are merited to confirm our findings.

A large-scale observational study linking various kinds of physical exercise to lipoprotein-lipid profile

Background

Being a major cardiovascular risk factor, dyslipidemia is a critical problem in public health. Recommendations in performing regular physical exercise are important to prevent dyslipidemia.

Methods

Based on a discovery cohort with 27,735 subjects and a replication cohort with 67,512 subjects, we evaluated the associations of regularly performing 23 exercises with 4 dyslipidemia indices measured from serum, including triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and TG/HDL-C ratio. Regular exercise was defined as performing 30 min of “exercise” three times a week. “Exercise” includes leisure-time activities such as jogging, swimming, etc. Sex, age, body mass index, alcohol drinking, cigarette smoking, and education level were adjusted in all statistical analyses.

Results

Among the 23 exercises, only jogging was associated with a decreased level of TG (95% confidence interval [C.I.] = 5.9–14.5 mg/dL) and TG/HDL-C ratio (95% C.I. = 0.22–0.49). A total of 5 exercises were associated with an increased level of HDL-C, including jogging (95% C.I. = 2.1–3.3 mg/dL), swimming (95% C.I. = 1.6–3.3 mg/dL), dance dance revolution (95% C.I. = 1.5–3.4 mg/dL), international standard dancing (95% C.I. = 1.0–2.7 mg/dL), and cycling (95% C.I. = 0.6–1.8 mg/dL). These significant findings were further well replicated in the cohort of 67,512 subjects.

Conclusion

Regular jogging was not only associated with an increased level of HDL-C, but also the only one exercise associated with a decreased level of TG and TG/HDL-C ratio. Nonetheless, jogging may be difficult to engage in for subjects with limited exercise capacity. We here found that swimming, dancing, and cycling are also significantly associated with an increased level of HDL-C. People who are seeking exercise to improve their lipoprotein-lipid profiles can have other choices now.

Whole Alga, Algal Extracts, and Compounds as Ingredients of Functional Foods: Composition and Action Mechanism Relationships in the Prevention and Treatment of Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus

Type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major systemic disease which involves impaired pancreatic function and currently affects half a billion people worldwide. Diet is considered the cornerstone to reduce incidence and prevalence of this disease. Algae contains fiber, polyphenols, ω-3 PUFAs, and bioactive molecules with potential antidiabetic activity. This review delves into the applications of algae and their components in T2DM, as well as to ascertain the mechanism involved (e.g., glucose absorption, lipids metabolism, antioxidant properties, etc.). PubMed, and Google Scholar databases were used. Papers in which whole alga, algal extracts, or their isolated compounds were studied in in vitro conditions, T2DM experimental models, and humans were selected and discussed. This review also focuses on meat matrices or protein concentrate-based products in which different types of alga were included, aimed to modulate carbohydrate digestion and absorption, blood glucose, gastrointestinal neurohormones secretion, glycosylation products, and insulin resistance. As microbiota dysbiosis in T2DM and metabolic alterations in different organs are related, the review also delves on the effects of several bioactive algal compounds on the colon/microbiota-liver-pancreas-brain axis. As the responses to therapeutic diets vary dramatically among individuals due to genetic components, it seems a priority to identify major gene polymorphisms affecting potential positive effects of algal compounds on T2DM treatment.

Negative Regulation of SIRT1 by IRF9 Involved in Hyperlipidemia Acute Pancreatitis Associated with Kidney Injury

BACKGROUND

Interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) acts as a negative regulator of sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) to participate in many diseases. However, the role of SIRT1 and IRF9 in hyperlipidemia acute pancreatitis associated with kidney injury is unclear.

AIMS

To explore the function of SIRT1 and IRF9 in hyperlipidemia acute pancreatitis associated with kidney injury and provide theoretical guidance for disease diagnosis and treatment.

METHODS

Model rats were established by intraperitoneal injection of 20% L-arginine. Apoptosis of kidney tissue was determined by TUNEL staining. Expressions of IRF9, SIRT1, p53, and acetylated p53 were detected by qRT-PCR and Western blot. Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay was carried out to validate the regulation of IRF9 on SIRT1.

RESULTS

Pancreatic and renal injury was more serious, and apoptosis of kidney epithelial cells increased in acute pancreatitis (AP) and hyperlipidemia acute pancreatitis (HLAP) group. IRF9, p53, and acetylated p53 were up-regulated, and SIRT1 was down-regulated in AP and HLAP group (p < 0.05). Down-regulation of SIRT1 was negatively correlated with up-regulation of IRF9 in AP and HLAP group (p < 0.05). Pancreatic and renal injury and kidney epithelial cells apoptosis in HLAP group were more obvious than AP group (p < 0.05). The up-regulation of IRF9 and down-regulation of SIRT1 in HLAP group were more than AP group (p < 0.05). The promoter activity of SIRT1 was repressed by IRF9.

CONCLUSION

In pancreatitis associated with kidney injury, IRF9 was a negative regulator of SIRT1, down-regulated the expression of SIRT1, increased acetylated p53, and promoted renal cell apoptosis. Hyperlipidemia further aggravated pancreatic and renal injury and renal cell apoptosis.

Pharmacokinetics of Supplemental Omega-3 Fatty Acids Esterified in Monoglycerides, Ethyl Esters, or Triglycerides in Adults in a Randomized Crossover Trial

BACKGROUND

Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid (FA) supplements increase blood concentrations of EPA and DHA. Most of the supplements on the market are esterified in triglycerides (TGs) or ethyl esters (EEs), which limits their absorption and may cause gastrointestinal side effects.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the 24-h AUC of the plasma concentrations of EPA, DHA, and EPA+DHA when provided esterified in monoglycerides (MAGs), EEs, or TGs, (primary outcomes) and evaluate their side effects over 24 h (secondary outcome).

METHODS

This was a randomized, triple-blind, crossover, controlled clinical trial. Eleven women and 11 men between 18 and 50 y of age ingested, in random order, a single oral dose of ∼1.2 g of EPA and DHA esterified in MAGs, EEs, and TGs with low-fat meals provided during the 24-h follow-up. Eleven blood samples over 24 h were collected from each participant, and the plasma n-3 FAs were quantified. Friedman's paired ANOVA statistical rank test was used for the pharmacokinetic parameters and a chi-square statistical test was used for the side effects.

RESULTS

The 24-h AUC of plasma EPA was ∼2 times and ∼1 time higher after the MAG compared with the EE and TG forms of n-3 FAs, respectively (P ≤ 0.0027). Effects of the EE and TG treatments did not differ. The 3 supplements had similar eructation, dysgeusia, abdominal discomfort, nausea, and bloating side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The plasma n-3 FA concentration in adults is greater after acute supplementation with n-3 FAs esterified in MAGs rather than in EEs or TGs, suggesting that with a lower dose of MAG n-3 FAs, the plasma n-3 FA concentrations attained are similar to those after higher doses of n-3 FAs esterified in EEs or TGs. This trial is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03897660.

Bioavailability of Orally Administered Active Lipid Compounds from four Different Greenshell™ Mussel Formats

Greenshell™ mussel (GSM, Perna canaliculus) is New Zealand's most important aquaculture species. They are a good source of long chain-polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC PUFA). Beyond a traditional food product, GSMs are also sold as mussel powders and oil extract formats in the nutraceutical markets. In this study, a four-sequence, single dose, randomized crossover human trial with eight evaluable healthy male participants was undertaken to determine the bioavailability of the n-3 LC PUFA in four different GSM formats (oil, powder, food ingredient and half-shell unprocessed whole mussel) by measuring area under the curve (AUC) and maximal concentration (C_Max). Blood samples were collected at baseline and up to 48 h after initiation of product consumption in each administration period. There were minor differences between the bioavailability of FA (fatty acid) between the different GSM formats. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) peak concentrations and plasma exposures were significantly lower with GSM oil compared to GSM half-shell and GSM powder formats, which resulted in AUC_0-48 for the intake of GSM half-shell mussel and GSM powder being significantly higher than that for GSM oil (p = 0.013, f= 4.84). This equated to a 20.6% and 24.3% increase in the amount of EPA present in the plasma after consumption of half-shell mussels and mussel powder respectively compared to GSM oil. GSM oil produced the shortest median time to maximal plasma n-3 LC PUFA concentration of all evaluated products demonstrated by a shorter maximum measured plasma concentration (T_Max = 5 h). Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and n-3 LC PUFA plasma exposure parameters were statistically comparable across the four GSM products evaluated.

Associations of Dietary Bioactive Compounds with Maternal Adiposity and Inflammation in Gestational Diabetes: An Update on Observational and Clinical Studies

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common complication of pregnancy that adversely affects maternal and offspring health. Maternal obesity, oxidative stress, and inflammation have been implicated in GDM. In non-pregnant adults, intakes of dietary bioactive compounds inversely associate with insulin resistance and inflammation. However, associations of dietary bioactive compounds with biomarkers of adiposity, antioxidant vitamin and mineral status, oxidative stress, and inflammation in GDM have not been fully elucidated. We addressed this gap by conducting a semi-quantitative review of observational studies and randomized controlled trials published between 2010 and 2020 and retrieved from Google Scholar, Medline, and PubMed. Our analysis revealed that women with GDM are more likely to consume a pro-inflammatory diet before pregnancy and tend to consume fewer antioxidant vitamins and minerals during pregnancy than healthy pregnant women. Women with GDM also have lower blood levels of vitamins A, C, and D and certain adipokines. Several dietary bioactive compounds were noted to improve antioxidant status and biomarkers of inflammation. The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet and soybean oligosaccharides increased antioxidant enzyme levels. Supplementing n-3 fatty acids, probiotics, synbiotics, and trace elements increased antioxidant enzymes and reduced hs-CRP and MDA. Improvements in inflammation by vitamin D may be contingent upon co-supplementation with other dietary bioactive compounds.

Beyond Fish Oil Supplementation: The Effects of Alternative Plant Sources of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids upon Lipid Indexes and Cardiometabolic Biomarkers-An Overview

Cardiovascular diseases remain a global challenge, and lipid-associated biomarkers can predict cardiovascular events. Extensive research on cardiovascular benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n3-PUFAs) is geared towards fish oil supplementation and fish-rich diets. Nevertheless, vegetarianism and veganism are becoming more popular across all segments of society, due to reasons as varied as personal, ethical and religious values, individual preferences and environment-related principles, amongst others. Due to the essentiality of PUFAs, plant sources of n3-PUFAs warrant further consideration. In this review, we have critically appraised the efficacy of plant-derived n3-PUFAs from foodstuffs and supplements upon lipid profile and selected cardiometabolic markers. Walnuts and flaxseed are the most common plant sources of n3-PUFAs, mainly alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), and feature the strongest scientific rationale for applicability into clinical practice. Furthermore, walnuts and flaxseed are sources of fibre, potassium, magnesium, and non-essential substances, including polyphenols and sterols, which in conjunction are known to ameliorate cardiovascular metabolism. ALA levels in rapeseed and soybean oils are only slight when compared to flaxseed oil. Spirulina and Chlorella, biomasses of cyanobacteria and green algae, are important sources of n3-PUFAs; however, their benefits upon cardiometabolic markers are plausibly driven by their antioxidant potential combined with their n3-PUFA content. In humans, ALA is not sufficiently bioconverted into eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. However, evidence suggests that plant sources of ALA are associated with favourable cardiometabolic status. ALA supplementation, or increased consumption of ALA-rich foodstuffs, combined with reduced omega-6 (n6) PUFAs intake, could improve the n3/n6 ratio and improve cardiometabolic and lipid profile.

Nutritional Enhancement of Farmed Salmon Meat via Non-GMO Nannochloropsis Gaditana: Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3), Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA, 22:5 n-3) and Vitamin D3 for Human Health

Omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC PUFAs) and vitamin D3 are essential components of human nutrition. A regular human diet is highly deficient in n-3 LC PUFAs. Fish like salmon are highly recommended in the human diet as they are a major source of high-value n-3 LC PUFAs and vitamin D3. The levels of these nutrients have been decreasing over the last few years in farmed salmon, whose production urgently needs sustainable sources of these nutrients. The microalga Nannochloropsis gaditana (NG) is known for its naturally high potential for the production of eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5 n-3) fatty acid. A commercial diet for Atlantic salmon was supplemented with 1% and 10% of spray-dried NG grown under controlled conditions for a high EPA content. Salmon were harvested on day 49, following which, boneless and skinless salmon meat was recovered from fish and analyzed for the fatty acid profile, total fat, and vitamin D3. Vitamin D3, EPA, and docosapentaenoic fatty acid (DPA, 22:5 n-3) levels were significantly increased (p < 0.05) by supplementing the basal diet with 10% NG, thus, NG represents a novel, functional, natural ingredient and a sustainable source of n-3 LC-PUFAs that can raise the levels of healthy fats and vitamin D3 in farmed salmon meat.

Current Research Landscape of Marine-Derived Anti-Atherosclerotic Substances

Atherosclerosis is a chronic disease characterized by lipid accumulation and chronic inflammation of the arterial wall, which is the pathological basis for coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease and thromboembolic disease. Currently, there is a lack of low-cost therapeutic agents that effectively slow the progression of atherosclerosis. Therefore, the development of new drugs is urgently needed. The research and development of marine-derived drugs have gained increasing interest from researchers across the world. Many marine organisms provide a rich material basis for the development of atherosclerotic drugs. This review focuses on the latest technological advances in the structures and mechanisms of action of marine-derived anti-atherosclerotic substances and the challenges of the application of these substances including marine polysaccharides, proteins and peptides, polyunsaturated fatty acids and small molecule compounds. Here, we describe the theoretical basis of marine biological resources in the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Effect of Fish Oil Supplementation on Hyperlipidemia during Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment - A Pilot Study

Hyperlipidemia is common during contemporary treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and may increase risk of osteonecrosis, thrombosis, and possibly acute pancreatitis. Marine fatty acids found in fish oil decrease levels of triglycerides and possibly total cholesterol in hyperlipidemic patients. This prospective pilot study provided fish oil for 83 days to seven children undergoing acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment. On average fish oil was consumed 74% of the intervention period. Further, we found significant lower levels of triglycerides (P = 0.016) and total cholesterol (P = 0.027) compared to 22 historical controls, although correction for one extra PEG-asparaginase dose reduced the level of significance. However, the findings indicate that fish oil may alleviate development of hyperlipidemia during acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment. Randomized controlled trials are warranted to confirm these findings and to investigate the potential effect of fish oil supplements on development of severe adverse events, including osteonecrosis, thrombosis, and acute pancreatitis.

The Short Overview on the Relevance of Fatty Acids for Human Cardiovascular Disorders

This review presents existing evidence of the influence of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids on cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Data are discussed regarding the roles of the most relevant fatty acids, such as myristic (C14:0), palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), palmitoleic (C16:1), oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2), α-linolenic (C18:3, ω-3), γ-linolenic (C18:3, ω-6), arachidonic (C20:4), eicosapentaenoic (C20:5), docosahexaenoic (C22:6), and docosapentaenoic (C22:5) acid. The accumulated knowledge has expanded the understanding of the involvement of fatty acids in metabolic processes, thereby enabling the transition from basic exploratory studies to practical issues of application of these biomolecules to CVD treatment. In the future, these findings are expected to facilitate the interpretation and prognosis of changes in metabolic lipid aberrations in CVD.

Diet and Nutraceutical Supplementation in Dyslipidemic Patients: First Results of an Italian Single Center Real-World Retrospective Analysis

BACKGROUND

Dyslipidemias are a heterogeneous group of metabolic disorders mainly characterized by an increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) or other conditions, such as acute pancreatitis in hypertriglyceridemia. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of diet treatment and nutraceutical (NUTs) supplementation on the plasma lipid profile in outpatient dyslipidemic subjects, considering the influence of several factors (i.e., gender, age, body mass index, alcohol consumption, and smoking habits).

METHODS

487 dyslipidemic patients spanning from 2015 to 2019 were treated with a Mediterranean diet or NUTs in a real-word setting and were retrospectively analyzed. General characteristics and lipid profile at baseline and after the follow-up period were evaluated.

RESULTS

Diet alone reduced total cholesterol (-19 mg/dL, -7.7%), LDL cholesterol (-18 mg/dL, -10.1%), and triglycerides (-20 mg/dL, -16.7%). Triglycerides (TG) decreased more in men, while women were associated with higher reduction of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C). Different types of NUTs further ameliorate lipid profiles when associated with diet. Nevertheless, most patients at low ASCVD risk (222 out of 262, 81.6%) did not achieve the 2019 ESC/EAS guidelines recommended LDL-C goals (i.e., LDL-C < 116 mg/dL).

CONCLUSION

Lipid-lowering diet improves lipid profile, and NUTs can boost its efficacy, but taken together they are mainly unsatisfactory with respect to the targets imposed by 2019 EAS/ESC guidelines.

Metabolic alterations in spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy

Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is a rare, X-linked neuromuscular disease characterised by lower motor neurons degeneration, slowly progressive myopathy and multisystem involvement. SBMA is caused by trinucleotide repeat expansion in the first exon of the androgen receptor (AR) gene on chromosome X that encodes a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract in the AR protein. Disease onset occurs between 30-60 years of age with easy fatigability, muscle cramps, and weakness in the limbs. In addition to neuromuscular involvement, in SBMA phenotype, many non-neural manifestations are present. Recently, some studies have reported a high prevalence of metabolic and liver disorders in patients with SBMA. Particularly, fatty liver and insulin resistance (IR) have been found in many SBMA patients. The alteration of AR function and the androgen insensitivity can be involved in both fatty liver and IR. In turn, IR and liver alterations can influence neuromuscular damage through different mechanisms. These data lead to consider SBMA as a metabolic as well as a neuromuscular disease. The mechanism of metabolic alterations, their link with the neuromuscular damage, the effects on the course of disease and their treatment will have to be yet fully clarified.

A brief overview of currently used atherosclerosis treatment approaches targeting lipid metabolism alterations

Non-contagious diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases, and mental disorders hold responsibility for major health losses worldwide. Atherosclerosis was found to be the leading cause of deaths due to the major consequences, such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, and others. The number of patients with atherosclerosis increases with every passing year. If treatment is not started on time, every second patient dies within 10 years. Moreover, the disease leads to persistent disability of patients, most of whom are of active working age. Atherosclerosis is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperlipidemia and chronic inflammation. Although this disease annually kills a huge number of people, patients are now offered various therapeutic techniques, however, with different efficiencies. The scientific community is working to develop more effective means for treatment and precaution of the disease, regardless of the difficulties in understanding the causes of the health problem and the characteristics of its course. There are numerous strategies in the treatment and prevention of atherosclerosis, focusing on different aspects of the disease, such as inflammation, lipid metabolism alterations, or others, but none of them, unfortunately, is absolutely effective. In this review, we focused on the treatment approaches aimed at remedy the disruptions of lipid metabolism that are currently used in clinical practice.

Erythrocyte Membrane Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Are Associated with Incidence of Metabolic Syndrome in Middle-Aged and Elderly People-An 8.8-Year Prospective Study

BACKGROUND

The total and specific types of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) related to metabolic syndrome (MetS) remain inconsistent.

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the association of erythrocyte n-3 and n-6 PUFAs with MetS and the components of MetS in a cohort population.

METHODS

This prospective analysis included 2754 participants (aged 40-75 y) from the Guangzhou Nutrition and Health Study (2008-2019) in China. Erythrocyte PUFAs at baseline were measured using gas chromatography. MetS was assessed every 3 y according to the updated National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were used to evaluate HRs and 95% CIs.

RESULTS

We identified 716 incident cases of MetS. The primary analyses showed that the HRs (95% CIs) of MetS (tertile 3 versus 1) were 0.67 (0.56, 0.80) for n-3 PUFAs and 0.70 (0.58, 0.85) for n-6 PUFAs (all Ps trend <0.001). The secondary outcomes showed that, higher erythrocyte very-long-chain (VLC) PUFAs [20:3n-3, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), arachidonic acid (ARA), and 22:4n-6], but lower α-linolenic acid (ALA) and γ-linolenic acid (GLA), tended to be associated with lower incidences of MetS and its components; among individual MetS components, the associations of PUFAs were more pronounced for hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) and hypertension, followed by low high-density lipoproten (HDL) cholesterol. Significantly higher concentrations of n-3 PUFAs (total, DPA, and DHA) and n-6 PUFAs (total, ARA, and 22:4) were observed in participants with improved (versus progressed) status of MetS (all Ps trend ≤0.003).

CONCLUSION

This study reveals that higher erythrocyte VLC n-3 and n-6 PUFAs, but lower 18-carbon PUFAs (ALA and GLA), are associated with lower risks of MetS components (HTG, hypertension, and low HDL cholesterol) and thereby lower MetS incidence in Chinese adults.

Short-Term Efficacy (at 12 Weeks) and Long-Term Safety (up to 52 Weeks) of Omega-3 Free Fatty Acids (AZD0585) for the Treatment of Japanese Patients With Dyslipidemia - A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Phase III Study

BACKGROUND

This study is the first to evaluate the short-term efficacy and long-term safety of AZD0585, a mixture of omega-3 free fatty acids, in Japanese patients with dyslipidemia.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this randomized double-blind placebo-controlled Phase III study, 383 patients were randomized to 2 g AZD0585, 4 g AZD0585, or placebo once daily for 52 weeks. Eligible patients had low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels controlled regardless of statin use, and triglyceride levels between 150 and 499 mg/dL. The least-squares (LS) mean percentage changes in triglyceride concentrations from baseline to the 12-week endpoint (mean of measurements at Weeks 10 and 12) in the 2 and 4 g AZD0585 and placebo groups were -15.57%, -21.75%, and 11.15% respectively (P<0.0001 for both AZD0585 doses vs. placebo). No clinically significant changes from baseline to the 12-week endpoint in total cholesterol, LDL-C, and LDL-C/apolipoprotein (Apo) B were found with AZD0585. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) was slightly increased and very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, non-HDL-C, ApoC-II, and ApoC-III were decreased with AZD0585 compared with placebo at the 12-week endpoint. Lipid profiles up to Week 52 were consistent with those up to the 12-week endpoint. No clinically important safety concerns were raised.

CONCLUSIONS

AZD0585 significantly decreased serum triglyceride levels compared with placebo at the 12-week endpoint and was generally safe and well tolerated in Japanese patients with dyslipidemia.

Fish oil reduces subclinical inflammation, insulin resistance, and atherogenic factors in overweight/obese type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: A pre-post pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Insulin resistance-associated obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are commonly accompanied with metabolic lipid abnormalities and are characterized by hypertriglyceridemia and low HDL-c levels (atherogenic index plasma, AIP). The primary molecular mechanism that is known to cause insulin resistance is chronic low-grade inflammation. Considering that omega-3 fatty acid reduces subclinical inflammation, we hypothesized that fish oil could affect insulin resistance and AIP. Therefore, the present study evaluated the effects of fish oil supplementation on the inflammatory, insulin resistance, and atherogenic factors in overweight/obese T2DM patients.

RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODS

In this study, we recruited 32 overweight and/or obese patients diagnosed with T2DM for over one year and who exhibited hypertriglyceridemia. These patients received fish oil supplementation (4.0 g/day) for eight weeks. Anthropometric and body composition measurements were obtained. In addition, blood samples were collected before and after omega-3 supplementation for the evaluation of lipid profile, glycemia, insulin, and inflammation.

RESULTS

As expected, patients showed reduction in the TNFα, IL-1β, and Il-6 levels after fish oil supplementation and showed improved insulin sensitivity (HOMA-IR) without observed alterations in anthropometric and body composition. These observations were followed by reduction in the levels of triglycerides and non-esterified fatty acids, increase in HDL cholesterol levels, and a significant reduction in triglycerides/HDL-c ratio, and total cholesterol/HDL-c ratio.

CONCLUSION

Fish oil supplementation is effective in reducing the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, improving insulin resistance, and reducing atherogenic factors in overweight/obese and T2DM patients independent of weight loss.

Nutraceutical characteristics of the brown seaweed carotenoid fucoxanthin

Fucoxanthin (Fx), a major carotenoid found in brown seaweed, is known to show a unique and wide variety of biological activities. Upon absorption, Fx is metabolized to fucoxanthinol and amarouciaxanthin, and these metabolites mainly accumulate in visceral white adipose tissue (WAT). As seen in other carotenoids, Fx can quench singlet oxygen and scavenge a wide range of free radicals. The antioxidant activity is related to the neuroprotective, photoprotective, and hepatoprotective effects of Fx. Fx is also reported to show anti-cancer activity through the regulation of several biomolecules and signaling pathways that are involved in either cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, or metastasis suppression. Among the biological activities of Fx, anti-obesity is the most well-studied and most promising effect. This effect is primarily based on the upregulation of thermogenesis by uncoupling protein 1 expression and the increase in the metabolic rate induced by mitochondrial activation. In addition, Fx shows anti-diabetic effects by improving insulin resistance and promoting glucose utilization in skeletal muscle.

Is There Something Fishy About Fish Oil?

BACKGROUND

Fish is consumed as food worldwide and is considered as a rich source of essential nutrients required for a healthy life. Supplementation with fish oil has been adopted as a solution to prevent or cure many pathophysiological states and diseases by both the professionals and the civil population. The beneficial effects are, however, being questioned, as some controversial results were obtained in clinical and population studies.

METHODS

Critical evaluation of studies regarding known effects of fish oil, both in favour of its consumption and related controversies.

RESULTS

From the literature review, contradictory allegations about the positive action of the fish oil on human health emerged, so that a clear line about its beneficial effect cannot be withdrawn.

CONCLUSION

Scientific results on the application of fish oil should be taken with caution as there is still no standardised approach in testing its effects and there are significantly different baselines in respect to nutritional and other lifestyle habits of different populations.

The effects of n-3 fatty acids from flaxseed oil on genetic and metabolic profiles in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

The present study was performed to evaluate the effects of n-3 fatty acids from flaxseed oil on genetic and metabolic profiles in patients with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was performed in sixty women with GDM. Participants were randomly divided into two groups to intake either 2 × 1000 mg/d n-3 fatty acids from flaxseed oil containing 400 mg α-linolenic acid in each capsule (n 30) or placebo (n 30) for 6 weeks. n-3 Fatty acid intake up-regulated PPAR-γ (P < 0·001) and LDL receptor (P = 0·004) and down-regulated gene expression of IL-1 (P = 0·002) and TNF-α (P = 0·001) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of subjects with GDM. In addition, n-3 fatty acid supplementation reduced fasting plasma glucose (P = 0·001), insulin levels (P = 0·001) and insulin resistance (P < 0·001) and increased insulin sensitivity (P = 0·005) when compared with the placebo. Additionally, n-3 fatty acid supplementation was associated with a decrease in TAG (P < 0·001), VLDL-cholesterol (P < 0·001), total cholesterol (P = 0·01) and total cholesterol:HDL-cholesterol ratio (P = 0·01) when compared with placebo. n-3 Fatty acid administration was also associated with a significant reduction in high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (P = 0·006) and malondialdehyde (P < 0·001), and an increase in total nitrite (P < 0·001) and total glutathione levels (P = 0·006) when compared with the placebo. n-3 Fatty acid supplementation for 6 weeks to women with GDM had beneficial effects on gene expression related to insulin, lipid and inflammation, glycaemic control, lipids, inflammatory markers and oxidative stress.

Inflammation and cardiovascular disease: are marine phospholipids the answer?

This review presents the latest research on the cardioprotective effects of n-3 fatty acids (FA) and n-3 FA bound to polar lipids (PL). Overall, n-3 PL may have enhanced bioavailability and potentially bioactivityversusfree FA and ester forms of n-3 FA.

DHA-Induced Perturbation of Human Serum Metabolome. Role of the Food Matrix and Co-Administration of Oat β-glucan and Anthocyanins

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been reported to have a positive impact on many diet-related disease risks, including metabolic syndrome. Although many DHA-enriched foods have been marketed, the impact of different food matrices on the effect of DHA is unknown. As well, the possibility to enhance DHA effectiveness through the co-administration of other bioactives has seldom been considered. We evaluated DHA effects on the serum metabolome administered to volunteers at risk of metabolic syndrome as an ingredient of three different foods. Foods were enriched with DHA alone or in combination with oat beta-glucan or anthocyanins and were administered to volunteers for 4 weeks. Serum samples collected at the beginning and end of the trial were analysed by NMR-based metabolomics. Multivariate and univariate statistical analyses were used to characterize modifications in the serum metabolome and to evaluate bioactive-bioactive and bioactive-food matrix interactions. DHA administration induces metabolome perturbation that is influenced by the food matrix and the co-presence of other bioactives. In particular, when co-administered with oat beta-glucan, DHA induces a strong rearrangement in the lipoprotein profile of the subjects. The observed modifications are consistent with clinical results and indicate that metabolomics represents a possible strategy to choose the most appropriate food matrices for bioactive enrichment.

EPA and DHA have divergent effects on serum triglycerides and lipogenesis, but similar effects on lipoprotein lipase activity: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Comparative studies suggest that DHA may have stronger serum triglyceride-lowering effects than EPA; however, the molecular basis for this differential effect remains unexplored in humans. Differential regulation of lipogenesis and triglyceride clearance are 2 possible mechanisms of action.

OBJECTIVES

We compared the effects of EPA and DHA supplementation on serum triglycerides, markers of lipogenesis, and lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in adults participating in a double-blind, multiarm, placebo-controlled parallel-group randomized trial. Lipogenesis was assessed with the lipogenic index and compound specific isotope analysis (CSIA).

METHODS

Young, healthy normolipidemic men and women (n = 89; 21.6 ± 0.23 y; mean ± SEM) were randomly allocated into 1 of 3 supplement groups for 12 wk: 1) olive oil, 2) ∼3 g EPA/d, and 3) ∼3 g DHA/d. Omega-3 supplements were provided in triglyceride form. Blood was collected before and after supplementation for the analysis of fatty acids and preheparin LPL activity. Variations in the 13C:12C ratio (δ13C) of palmitate (16:0) and linoleate (18:2n-6) were measured by CSIA.

RESULTS

DHA supplementation reduced blood triglycerides (0.85 ± 0.04 mmol/L to 0.65 ± 0.03 mmol/L; P < 0.01), with no change seen with EPA supplementation. DHA supplementation did not change the lipogenic index or δ13C-16:0, whereas EPA supplementation increased the lipogenic index by 11% (P < 0.01) and δ13C-16:0 (P = 0.03) from -23.2 ± 0.2 to -22.8 ± 0.2 milliUrey ± SEM.

CONCLUSIONS

Reduced triglyceride concentrations after DHA supplementation are associated with increased LPL activity, whereas the null effect of EPA supplementation on blood triglycerides may stem from the concomitant increases in lipogenesis and LPL activity. Further investigation of the differential triglyceride-lowering effects of EPA and DHA is warranted in both normolipidemic and hyperlipidemic individuals. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03378232.

Diabetes and Younger Age Are Vital and Independent Risk Factors for Acute Pancreatitis in Patients with Severe Hypertriglyceridemia

Background. The incidence of hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis (HIAP) is increasing worldwide, and now it is the third leading cause of acute pancreatitis in the United States. But, there are only 5% of patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia (>1000 mg/dl) which might generate acute pancreatitis. In order to explore which part of the patients is easy to develop into pancreatitis, a case-control study was performed by us to consider which patient population tend to develop acute pancreatitis in patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia. To perform a retrospective case-control study, we identified severe hypertriglyceridemia patients without AP (HNAP) and with HIAP with a fasting triglyceride level of >1000 mg/dl from The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University during January 1, 2014, to December 31, 2016. Baseline patient characteristics, comorbidities, and risk factors were recorded and evaluated by the univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis for HIAP and HNAP patients. A total of 124 patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia were included in this study; of which, 62 patients were in the HIAP group and 62 were in the HNAP group. Univariate logistic regression analysis showed that there was no gender difference in both groups; however, there were more younger patients in the HIAP group than in the HNAP group (P value < 0.001), and the HIAP group had low level of high-density lipoprotein compared to the HNAP group (P<0.05). Meanwhile, the presence of pancreatitis was associated with higher level of glycemia and a history of diabetes (P<0.05). Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that a history of diabetes and younger age were independent risk factors for acute pancreatitis in patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia. Uncontrolled diabetes and younger age are potential risk factors in patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia to develop acute pancreatitis.

A review of the putative causal mechanisms associated with lower macular pigment in diabetes mellitus

Macular pigment (MP) confers potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects at the macula, and may therefore protect retinal tissue from the oxidative stress and inflammation associated with ocular disease and ageing. There is a body of evidence implicating oxidative damage and inflammation as underlying pathological processes in diabetic retinopathy. MP has therefore become a focus of research in diabetes, with recent evidence suggesting that individuals with diabetes, particularly type 2 diabetes, have lower MP relative to healthy controls. The present review explores the currently available evidence to illuminate the metabolic perturbations that may possibly be involved in MP's depletion. Metabolic co-morbidities commonly associated with type 2 diabetes, such as overweight/obesity, dyslipidaemia, hyperglycaemia and insulin resistance, may have related and independent relationships with MP. Increased adiposity and dyslipidaemia may adversely affect MP by compromising the availability, transport and assimilation of these dietary carotenoids in the retina. Furthermore, carotenoid intake may be compromised by the dietary deficiencies characteristic of type 2 diabetes, thereby further compromising redox homeostasis. Candidate causal mechanisms to explain the lower MP levels reported in diabetes include increased oxidative stress, inflammation, hyperglycaemia, insulin resistance, overweight/obesity and dyslipidaemia; factors that may negatively affect redox status, and the availability, transport and stabilisation of carotenoids in the retina. Further study in diabetic populations is warranted to fully elucidate these relationships.

The Future of Lipid-lowering Therapy

The recent introduction of inhibitors of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9 to lower low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol on top of statins or as monotherapy is rapidly changing the landscape of treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). However, existing lipid-lowering drugs have little impact on lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) or plasma triglycerides, two other risk factors for ASCVD. This review summarizes the evidence and the rationale to target Lp(a) and triglycerides and provides an overview of currently tested strategies to lower Lp(a), apolipoprotein C-III and angiopoietin-like protein 3. In addition, it summarizes new findings on the use of omega-3 fatty acids (OM3FA) to fight ASCVD. With the exception of OM3FA supplementation, the promise of the experimental drugs discussed here depends on the long-term safety and efficacy of monoclonal antibodies and/or antisense oligonucleotides Clinical outcome trials will ultimately prove whether these new therapeutic modalities will reduce ASCVD risk.

Involvement of G-Protein-Coupled Receptor 40 in the Inhibitory Effects of Docosahexaenoic Acid on SREBP1-Mediated Lipogenic Enzyme Expression in Primary Hepatocytes

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is a frequent liver malady, which can progress to cirrhosis, the end-stage liver disease if proper treatment is not applied. Omega-3 fatty acids, such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid, have been clinically proven to lower serum triglyceride levels. Various physiological activities of omega-3 fatty acids are due to their agonistic actions on G-protein-coupled receptor 40 (GPR40) and GPR120. Lipid droplets (LD) accumulation in hepatocytes confirmed that DHA treatment reduced the number of larger ( >10 μm2) LDs, as well as the total area of LDs. Moreover, DHA lowered protein and mRNA expression levels of lipogenic enzymes such as fatty acid synthase (FAS), acetyl-CoA carboxylase and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD-1) in primary hepatocytes incubated with liver X receptor (LXR) agonist T0901317 or high glucose and insulin. DHA also decreased protein expression of nuclear and precursor sterol response-element binding protein (SREBP)-1, a key lipogenesis transcription factor. We further found that exposure of murine primary hepatocytes to DHA for 12 h increased GPR40 and GPR120 mRNA levels. Specific agonists (Compound A for GPR120 and AMG-1638 for GPR40), hepatocytes from GPR120 knock-out mice and GPR40 selective antagonist (GW1100) were used to assess whether DHA's antilipogenic effects are mediated through GPR120 or GPR40. Compound A did not decrease SREBP-1 and FAS protein expression in hepatocytes exposed to T0901317 or high glucose with insulin. Moreover, DHA downregulated lipogenesis enzyme expression in GPR120-null hepatocytes. In contrast, AMG-1638 lowered SREBP-1 and SCD-1 protein levels. Additionally, GW1100, a GPR40 antagonist, reversed the antilipogenic effects of DHA. Collectively, our data demonstrate that DHA downregulates the expression SREBP-1-mediated lipogenic enzymes via GPR40 in primary hepatocytes.

Peripheral Artery Disease Is Associated with a Deficiency of Erythrocyte Membrane n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Population-based data suggest that individuals who consume large dietary amounts of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have lower odds of peripheral artery disease (PAD); however, clinical studies examining n-3 PUFA levels in patients with PAD are sparse. The objective of this study is to compare erythrocyte membrane fatty acid (FA) content between patients with PAD and controls. We conducted a cross-sectional study of 179 vascular surgery outpatients (controls, 34; PAD, 145). A blood sample was drawn and the erythrocyte FA content was assayed using capillary gas chromatography. We calculated the ratio of the n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) to the n-6 PUFA arachidonic acid (ARA) as well as the omega-3 index (O3I), a measure of erythrocyte content of the n-3 PUFA, EPA, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), expressed as a percentage of total erythrocyte FA. Compared with controls, patients with PAD smoked more and were more likely to have hypertension and hyperlipidemia (p < 0.05). Patients with PAD had a lower mean O3I (5.0 ± 1.7% vs 6.0 ± 1.6%, p < 0.001) and EPA:ARA ratio (0.04 ± 0.02 vs 0.05 ± 0.05, p < 0.001), but greater mean total saturated fats (39.5 ± 2.5% vs 38.5 ± 2.6%, p = 0.01). After adjusting for several patient characteristics, comorbidities, and medications, an absolute decrease of 1% in the O3I was associated with 39% greater odds of PAD (odds ratio [OR] 1.39, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03-1.86, and p = 0.03). PAD was associated with a deficiency of erythrocyte n-3 PUFA, a lower EPA:ARA ratio, and greater mean total saturated fats. These alterations in FA content may be involved in the pathogenesis or development of poor outcomes in PAD.

Triglycerides: Emerging Targets in Diabetes Care? Review of Moderate Hypertriglyceridemia in Diabetes

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Moderate hypertriglyceridemia is exceedingly common in diabetes, and there is growing evidence that it contributes to residual cardiovascular risk in statin-optimized patients. Major fibrate trials yielded inconclusive results regarding the cardiovascular benefit of lowering triglycerides, although there was a signal for improvement among patients with high triglycerides and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-the "diabetic dyslipidemia" phenotype. Until recently, no trials have examined a priori the impact of triglyceride lowering in patients with diabetic dyslipidemia, who are likely among the highest cardiovascular-risk patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

In the recent REDUCE IT trial, omega-3 fatty acid icosapent ethyl demonstrated efficacy in lowering cardiovascular events in patients with high triglycerides, low HDL, and statin-optimized low-density lipoprotein (LDL). The ongoing PROMINENT trial is examining the impact of pemafibrate in a similar patient population. Emerging evidence suggests that lowering triglycerides may reduce residual cardiovascular risk, especially in high-risk patients with diabetic dyslipidemia.

Efficacy of DHA and EPA on Serum Triglyceride Levels of Healthy Participants: Systematic Review

Background Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) are categorized as omega-3 poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are present in fish oil, etc. DHA and EPA omega-3 PUFAs have a well-established fasting serum triglycerides (TG) lowering effect that may result in normal lipidemia in hyperlipidemic patients. In general, omega-3 PUFAs, such as DHA and EPA, can be ingested easily, and because they are highly safe, they are assumed to be suitable for controlling fasting serum TG in the serum of those who do not require drug treatment. To the best of our knowledge, however, almost all systematic reviews on the effects of omega-3 PUFAs on lowering fasting serum TG are directed at patients fulfilling the diagnostic criteria of dyslipidemia. Objectives To review and confirm the preventive effect of omega-3 PUFAs against hypertriglyceridemia or the effect on nondrug treatment in patients with a mild disease, a systematic review was conducted to determine whether there was a fasting serum TG-lowering effect in subjects without disease and those with a slightly higher triglyceride level who consumed DHA and/or EPA orally compared to those with placebo or no intake of DHA and/or EPA. Search Methods We evaluated articles from searches of PubMed (1946-February 2016), Ichushi-Web (1977-February 2016), and J Dream III (JST Plus, 1981-February 2016; JMED Plus, 1981-February 2016). The keywords were set as follows: “DHA” or “docosahexaenoic acid” or “EPA” or “eicosapentaenoic acid” and “TG” or “triglyceride” or “triglycerol” or “triacylglycerol” or “neutral lipid.”. In addition to the literature group obtained by the database search, we included participants not suffering from any disease (i.e., excluding mild hypertriglyceridemia). Eligibility Criteria Before the test selection process, the following inclusion criteria were defined. Participants were healthy men and women including those with mild hypertriglyceridemia (fasting serum TG level, 150-199 mg/dL [1.69-2.25 mmol/L)). Intervention was defined as orally ingested DHA and/or EPA. Comparison was made to placebo intake or no intake of DHA and/or EPA. Results were measured for the fasting serum TG level. The test design was RCT, and quasi-RCT. Data Abstraction Various characteristics were extracted from original reports using a standardized data extraction form, including the author of the study, research year, research design, subject characteristics (sex, age, sample size), period, dose of DHA and/or EPA (mg/day), and comparison group. Main Results We identified 37 documents for review. Among the 37 reports used to integrate literature results, 25 revealed a decrease in fasting serum TG level ​​due to the oral ingestion of DHA and/or EPA. Sixteen studies on subjects without disease and 21 on subjects with slightly higher fasting serum TG levels were separated and stratified analysis was conducted. Ten of the 16 (normal TG participant) and 15 of the 21 studies (slightly higher TG participant) respectively, indicated that at least 133 mg/day of DHA and/or EPA intervention provided a statistically significant decrease in the fasting serum TG level between an intervention group versus a placebo group.

The emerging role of omega-3 fatty acids as a therapeutic option in neuropsychiatric disorders

The prevalence of neurologic and psychiatric diseases has been increasing for decades and, given the moderate therapeutic efficacy and safety profile of existing pharmacological treatments, there is an urgent need for new therapeutic approaches. Nutrition has recently been recognized as an important factor for the prevention and treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. The omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) play critical roles in neuronal cell function and neurotransmission as well as inflammatory and immune reactions that are involved in neuropsychiatric disease states. A large number of experimental and epidemiological studies provide a strong basis for interventional clinical trials that assessed the clinical efficacy of n-3 PUFAs in various neurological and psychiatric disorders. Most of these trials found beneficial effects of dietary supplementation with EPA and DHA, and no serious safety concerns have emerged. This review gives an introduction to recent findings on the clinical efficacy of n-3 PUFAs in various neuropsychiatric disorders and the underlying biochemical mechanisms. In addition, the reader will be enabled to identify common methodological weaknesses of clinical studies on n-3 PUFAs, and suggestions for the design of future studies are given.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids as Druggable Therapeutics for Neurodegenerative Disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders are commonly associated with a complex pattern of pathophysiological hallmarks, including increased oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, which makes their treatment challenging. Omega-3 Fatty Acids (O3FA) are natural products with reported neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. These effects have been attributed to their incorporation into neuronal membranes or through the activation of intracellular or recently discovered cell-surface receptors (i.e., Free-Fatty Acid Receptors; FFAR). Molecular docking studies have investigated the roles of O3FA as agonists of FFAR and have led to the development of receptor-specific targeted agonists for therapeutic purposes. Moreover, novel formulation strategies for targeted delivery of O3FA to the brain have supported their development as therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders. Despite the compelling evidence of the beneficial effects of O3FA for several neuroprotective functions, they are currently only available as unregulated dietary supplements, with only a single FDA-approved prescription product, indicated for triglyceride reduction. This review highlights the relative safety and efficacy of O3FA, their drug-like properties, and their capacity to be formulated in clinically viable drug delivery systems. Interestingly, the presence of cardiac conditions such as hypertriglyceridemia is associated with brain pathophysiological hallmarks of neurodegeneration, such as neuroinflammation, thereby further suggesting potential therapeutic roles of O3FA for neurodegenerative disorders. Taken together, this review article summarizes and integrates the compelling evidence regarding the feasibility of developing O3FA and their synthetic derivatives as potential drugs for neurodegenerative disorders.

Composition of a maternal high fat diet rich in satured fats and omega 3 in gestation and lactation for studies with rodents

ABSTRACT Objective To prepare a high fat diet rich in satured fatty acids and supplemented with omega 3 for experimental studies in rodents. Methods Purified industrial ingredients and flaxseed oil as a source of omega 3 at a concentration of 3.5% (v/w) were used in the elaboration of the diets. Centesimal and nutritional compositions, fatty acids profile and dietary intake were evaluated. Serum levels of total protein, albumin, cholesterol and glucose in pregnant rats were verified. The offspring were assessed with regard to body mass and waist circumference. Statistical analysis was performed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Anova One-Way test and Bonferroni post-test. Results High fat and high fat with omega 3 diets presented, respectively, 37% and 36% saturated fat, and the lipid amount was 80% higher than the American Institute of Nutrition 93G control diet. The omega 3 content was 50% higher in the high fat with omega 3 diet. There was no difference in consumption of diet types in weight (grams). The dams that received the High fat diet developed hypercholesterolemia and their High fat offspring exhibited higher body mass on the 1st day of life and increased abdominal circumference on the 30th day of life compared to the control and the high fat with omega 3 offspring. Conclusion The formulated diets with a higher amount of saturated fatty acids meet the nutritional requirements of the gestation and lactation period. The high fat diet with omega 3 was able to attenuate the changes observed in dams and their offspring.

Effects of a Self-micro-emulsifying Delivery System Formulation Versus a Standard ω-3 Acid Ethyl Ester Product on the Bioavailability of Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid: A Study in Healthy Men and Women in a Fasted State

PURPOSE

Intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are associated with several potential health benefits, but standard ethyl ester (EE) formulations of these ω-3 fatty acids require the co-ingestion of fat for adequate absorption. The objective of this research was to assess the relative bioavailability of EPA and DHA administered in a proprietary self-micro-emulsifying delivery system (SMEDS) formulation compared with EPA and DHA in a standard ω-3 acid EE product in healthy men and women in a fasted state.

METHODS

This randomized crossover study investigated the bioavailability of 2 encapsulated formulations of EPA and DHA, a capsule containing 500 mg EPA + DHA administered in a SMEDS formulation (SMEDS treatment), and a capsule containing 840 mg EPA + DHA in a standard ω-3 acid EE formulation (EE treatment). Subjects consumed a single dose of their assigned capsule in a fasting state, and plasma was collected before and for 24 h after dosing. Subjects underwent a ≥14-day washout and were crossed over to the other treatment condition. Plasma concentrations of EPA, DHA, and EPA + DHA were assessed.

FINDINGS

Twenty-three subjects (11 women, 12 men; mean [SEM] age, 33.8 [2.1] years; and body mass index, 24.9 [0.7] kg/m²) completed the trial. The baseline-adjusted, dose-normalized, arithmetic means (SD) of the incremental (i)-AUC_0-24h for EPA + DHA were 543 (266) and 102 (88.2) h · μg/mL/g for the SMEDS and EE formulations, respectively (P < 0.001). The iAUC_0-24h least-squares geometric mean ratio (90% CI) for SMEDS:standard EE was 475/58 = 8.2 (4.8-13.9), indicating markedly higher bioavailability of EPA + DHA with the SMEDS formulation compared to the standard EE formulation. This finding was also true for EPA (geometric mean ratio [90% CI], 18.2 [11.3-29.3]) and DHA (geometric mean ratio [90% CI], 4.5 [2.9-7.0]).

IMPLICATIONS

The SMEDS delivery system markedly enhanced appearance in plasma of EPA and DHA, compared to a standard EE formulation, when ingested in the fasting state. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03443076.

Cardiometabolic risks and omega-3 index in recent-onset bipolar I disorder

OBJECTIVES

The aims of the present study were to characterize cardiometabolic risk factors in a cohort of bipolar disorder patients with limited exposure to psychotropic medications, and to evaluate their associations with mood symptoms and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) blood levels.

METHODS

Cardiometabolic risk assessments were compared in individuals with bipolar I disorder experiencing a first manic or mixed episode or an early depressive episode (n=117) and healthy subjects (n=56). Patients were medication free at assessment and had no or limited exposure to mood-stabilizer or antipsychotic medications prior to the current admission. Associations among cardiometabolic parameters and Clinical Global Impression-Severity scale (CGI-S), manic (Young Mania Rating Scale [YMRS]), and depressive (Hamilton Depression Rating Scale [HDRS]) symptom ratings were evaluated within the bipolar group.

RESULTS

Following adjustment for demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, and parental education), significantly higher fasting triglyceride levels were observed in the bipolar group compared to the healthy group (121.7 mg/dL vs 87.0 mg/dL; P<.01). There were no clear trends for other metabolic indicators, including blood pressure, body mass index, and fasting glucose. Nineteen percent of the bipolar group and 6% of the healthy group met the criteria for metabolic syndrome (P=.23). The omega-3 index was lower in the bipolar group (3.4% vs 3.9%; P<.01). Within the bipolar group, no associations were found between the cardiometabolic parameters and CGI-S, YMRS, and HDRS symptom ratings.

CONCLUSIONS

Recent-onset medication-free bipolar disorder is associated with higher triglyceride levels. These findings are suggestive of early metabolic dysregulation prior to long-term psychotropic medication exposure. Lower omega-3 PUFA levels in individuals with bipolar I disorder represent a potential therapeutic target for additional investigation.