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Abstract
Chemokine CXCL1 is abundantly present in proliferative zones during brain development and in regions of remyelination, suggesting that it influences development of oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPC) in these regions. We studied in vitro the effects and possible mechanisms by which CXCL1 acts on human fetal OPC. In organotypic slice cultures of human fetal cortical ventricular/subventricular (VZ/SVZ) zones, blocking of CXCL1 signaling reduced significantly the proliferation of OPC. Moreover, exogenously added CXCL1 induced increase of OPC proliferation. Treatments of purified OPC cultures and cell depletion experiments demonstrated that this effect of CXCL1 was mainly indirect, mediated through astrocytes. We identified that CXCL1 acted through the extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK1/2) pathway, activated primarily in astrocytes. In vitro, astrocytes stimulated with CXCL1 released several cytokines, but only the release of interleukin-6 (IL-6) was completely blocked by inhibition of ERK1/2 pathway. When released IL-6 was neutralized in slices, a decrease in OPC proliferation was demonstrated, while addition of IL-6 was able to return OPC proliferation in astrocyte-depleted slices to the control level. These results suggest that in the human fetal brain CXCL1 promotes proliferation of early OPC, acting in part through an ERK1/2-dependent pathway and release of IL-6 from astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radmila Filipovic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3401, USA.
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102
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Kaul M. HIV's double strike at the brain: neuronal toxicity and compromised neurogenesis. FRONT BIOSCI-LANDMRK 2008; 13:2484-94. [PMID: 17981728 DOI: 10.2741/2860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are often associated with severe and debilitating neurological problems that include behavioral abnormalities, motor dysfunction and frank dementia. HIV-1-infected peripheral immune cells, in particular macrophages, appear to infiltrate the CNS, release neurotoxins and provoke a neuropathological response involving all cell types in the brain. In the CNS, HIV-1 and its components initiate activation of chemokine receptors, inflammatory mediators and glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, all of which can activate numerous downstream signaling pathways and disturb neuronal and glial function. Recent experimental evidence suggests that disturbance by HIV-1 results not only in neuronal injury and death but also in impairment of neurogenesis. This article will review recently identified pathological mechanisms which potentially contribute to the development of neurocognitive impairment and dementia in association with HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Kaul
- Infectious and Inflammatory Disease Center, Burnham Institute for Medical Research, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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103
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Cytokines in Synaptic Function. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1567-7443(07)10007-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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104
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Mechanisms of neuroimmunity and neurodegeneration associated with HIV-1 infection and AIDS. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2007; 1:138-51. [PMID: 18040780 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-006-9011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are a persistent health problem worldwide. HIV-1 seems to enter the brain very soon after peripheral infection and can induce severe and debilitating neurological problems that include behavioral abnormalities, motor dysfunction, and frank dementia. Infected peripheral immune-competent cells, in particular macrophages, appear to infiltrate the CNS and provoke a neuropathological response involving all cell types in the brain. The course of HIV-1 disease is strongly influenced by viral and host factors, such as the viral strain and the response of the host's immune system. In addition, HIV-1-dependent disease processes in the periphery have a substantial effect on the pathological changes in the central nervous system (CNS), although the brain eventually harbors a distinctive viral population of its own. In the CNS, HIV-1 also incites activation of chemokine receptors, inflammatory mediators, extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes, and glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, all of which can initiate numerous downstream signaling pathways and disturb neuronal and glial function. Although there have been many major improvements in the control of viral infection in the periphery, an effective therapy for HIV-1-associated dementia (HAD) is still not available. This article addresses recently uncovered pathologic neuroimmune and degenerative mechanisms contributing to neuronal damage induced by HIV-1 and discusses experimental and potentially future therapeutic approaches.
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105
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Liapi A, Pritchett J, Jones O, Fujii N, Parnavelas JG, Nadarajah B. Stromal-Derived Factor 1 Signalling Regulates Radial and Tangential Migration in the Developing Cerebral Cortex. Dev Neurosci 2007; 30:117-31. [DOI: 10.1159/000109857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2006] [Accepted: 10/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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106
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Schmidt OI, Leinhase I, Hasenboehler E, Morgan SJ, Stahel PF. [The relevance of the inflammatory response in the injured brain]. DER ORTHOPADE 2007; 36:248, 250-8. [PMID: 17333066 DOI: 10.1007/s00132-007-1061-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Research efforts in recent years have defined traumatic brain injury (TBI) as a predominantly immunological and inflammatory disorder. This perception is based on the fact that the overwhelming neuroinflammatory response in the injured brain contributes to the development of posttraumatic edema and to neuropathological sequelae which are, in large part, responsible for the adverse outcome. While the "key" mediators of neuroinflammation, such as the cytokine cascade and the complement system, have been clearly defined by studies in experimental TBI models, their exact pathways of interaction and pathophysiological implications remain to be further elucidated. This lack of knowledge is partially due to the concept of a "dual role" of the neuroinflammatory response after TBI. This notion implies that specific inflammatory molecules may mediate diverse functions depending on their local concentration and kinetics of expression in the injured brain. The inflammation-induced effects range from beneficial aspects of neuroprotection to detrimental neurotoxicity. The lack of success in pushing anti-inflammatory therapeutic concepts from"bench to bedside" for patients with severe TBI strengthens the further need for advances in basic research on the molecular aspects of the neuroinflammatory network in the injured brain. The present review summarizes the current knowledge from experimental studies in this field of research and discusses potential future targets of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- O I Schmidt
- Zentrum für Traumatologie, Fachbereich Unfall- und Wiederherstellungschirurgie, Klinikum Sankt Georg, Leipzig
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107
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Bonanno G, Raiteri L, Milanese M, Zappettini S, Melloni E, Pedrazzi M, Passalacqua M, Tacchetti C, Usai C, Sparatore B. The high-mobility group box 1 cytokine induces transporter-mediated release of glutamate from glial subcellular particles (gliosomes) prepared from in situ-matured astrocytes. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2007; 82:73-93. [PMID: 17678956 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(07)82004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
The multifunctional protein high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is expressed in restricted areas of adult brain where it can act as a proinflammatory cytokine. We report here that HMGB1 affects CNS transmission by inducing glutamatergic release from glial (gliosomes) but not neuronal (synaptosomes) resealed subcellular particles isolated from mouse cerebellum and hippocampus. Confocal microscopy showed that gliosomes are enriched with glia-specific proteins such as GFAP and S-100, but not with neuronal proteins such as PSD-95, MAP-2, and beta-tubulin III. Furthermore, gliosomes exhibit labeling neither for integrin-alphaM nor for myelin basic protein, specific for microglia and oligodendrocytes, respectively. The gliosomal fraction contains proteins of the exocytotic machinery coexisting with GFAP. Consistent with ultrastructural analysis, several approximately 30-nm nonclustered vesicles are present in the gliosome cytoplasm. Finally, gliosomes represent functional organelles that actively export glutamate when subjected to releasing stimuli, such as ionomycin or ATP, by mechanisms involving extracellular Ca(2+) and Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores. HMGB1-induced release of the stable glutamate analogue [(3)H]d-aspartate and endogenous glutamate form gliosomes, whereas nerve terminals were insensitive to the protein. The HMGB1-evoked release of glutamate was independent on modifications of cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration, but it was blocked by dl-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate, suggesting the involvement of transporter-mediated release mechanisms. Moreover, dihydrokainic acid, a selective inhibitor of glutamate transporter 1 does not block the HMGB1 effect, indicating a role for the glial glutamate-aspartate transporter (GLAST) subtype in this response. HMGB1 bind to gliosomes but not to synaptosomes and can physically interact with GLAST and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE). Taken together, these results suggest that the HMGB1 cytokine could act as a modulator of glutamate homeostasis in adult mammalian brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giambattista Bonanno
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology University of Genoa, Italy
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108
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Parachikova A, Cotman CW. Reduced CXCL12/CXCR4 results in impaired learning and is downregulated in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 28:143-53. [PMID: 17764962 PMCID: PMC2198928 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2007.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2007] [Revised: 06/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of plaques and tangles in parallel with progressive cognitive decline. The underlying cause of the cognitive decline is unknown. The purpose of this study was to identify factors that could affect learning and memory using the Tg2576 mouse model of AD. Un-biased GeneChip analysis at the time-point coinciding with the onset of behavioral deficits but prior to plaque deposition revealed that Tg2576 show altered gene expression for a number of molecules including the chemokine CXCL12. We show that this chemokine's mRNA, protein and receptor are downregulated in this mouse model coinciding with cognitive deficits. Furthermore, we demonstrate that CXCL12 levels are decreased in AD patients as compared to controls. To determine if CXCL12 might be related to impaired learning and memory, we chronically treated young non-transgenic mice with an antagonist to the CXCL12 receptor to simulate the reduction seen in transgenic animals. Treated animals showed selectively impaired learning and memory suggesting a potential role for this chemokine in cognitive functioning.
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MESH Headings
- Aging/genetics
- Aging/immunology
- Aging/metabolism
- Alzheimer Disease/genetics
- Alzheimer Disease/immunology
- Alzheimer Disease/metabolism
- Amyloid beta-Peptides/immunology
- Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism
- Animals
- Benzylamines
- Biomarkers/metabolism
- Brain/anatomy & histology
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/metabolism
- Chemokine CXCL12/genetics
- Chemokine CXCL12/immunology
- Cyclams
- Disease Models, Animal
- Down-Regulation/genetics
- Down-Regulation/immunology
- Encephalitis/genetics
- Encephalitis/immunology
- Encephalitis/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Heterocyclic Compounds/pharmacology
- Hippocampus/immunology
- Hippocampus/metabolism
- Hippocampus/physiopathology
- Humans
- Learning Disabilities/genetics
- Learning Disabilities/immunology
- Learning Disabilities/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Plaque, Amyloid/genetics
- Plaque, Amyloid/immunology
- Plaque, Amyloid/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Receptors, CXCR4/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, CXCR4/genetics
- Receptors, CXCR4/immunology
- Synaptic Transmission/genetics
- Synaptic Transmission/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- A Parachikova
- Institute for Brain Aging and Dementia, University of California, 1113 Gillespie Neuroscience Research Facility, Irvine, CA 92697-4540, USA.
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109
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Stromal derived factor-1 exerts differential regulation on distinct cortical cell populations in vitro. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2007; 7:31. [PMID: 17425785 PMCID: PMC1854892 DOI: 10.1186/1471-213x-7-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Accepted: 04/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stromal derived factor (SDF-1), an alpha chemokine, is a widely known chemoattractant in the immune system. A growing body of evidence now suggests multiple regulatory roles for SDF-1 in the developing nervous system. RESULTS To investigate the role of SDF-1 signaling in the growth and differentiation of cortical cells, we performed numerous in vitro experiments, including gene chip and quantitative RT-PCR analysis. Using SDF-1 medium and AMD3100, a receptor antagonist, we demonstrate that the chemokine signaling regulates key events during early cortical development. First, SDF-1 signaling maintains cortical progenitors in proliferation, possibly through a mechanism involving connexin 43 mediated intercellular coupling. Second, SDF-1 signaling upregulates the differentiation of cortical GABAergic neurons, independent of sonic signaling pathway. Third, SDF-1 enables the elongation and branching of axons of cortical glutamatergic neurons. Finally, cortical cultures derived from CXCR4-/- mutants show a close parallel to AMD3100 treatment with reduced cell proliferation and differentiation of GABAergic neurons. CONCLUSION Results from this study show that SDF-1 regulates distinct cortical cell populations in vitro.
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110
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Carrol ED, Mankhambo LA, Balmer P, Nkhoma S, Banda DL, Guiver M, Jeffers G, Makwana N, Molyneux EM, Molyneux ME, Smyth RL, Hart CA. Chemokine responses are increased in HIV-infected Malawian children with invasive pneumococcal disease. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007; 44:443-50. [PMID: 17195767 PMCID: PMC2811313 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0b013e31802f8390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemokines play an important role in the recruitment and regulation of leukocyte traffic during bacterial infection. The aims of this study were to investigate the chemokine response to invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) and to examine the influence of HIV infection on the chemokine response, pneumococcal bacterial loads, and outcome. METHODS We prospectively studied 95 children with IPD, and blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples were taken at admission for the determination of chemokines, interferon-gamma (IFNgamma), and pneumococcal bacterial loads. RESULTS Plasma CXCL8 and CCL2, CSF CXCL8 and CCL4, and IFNgamma were significantly higher in HIV-infected children than in HIV-uninfected children. Blood and CSF pneumococcal bacterial loads correlated with plasma and CSF chemokines, respectively, and were higher in HIV-infected children compared with HIV-uninfected children. Among HIV-infected children, plasma concentrations of CXCL8 and CCL2 were significantly higher in nonsurvivors than in survivors, but CCL5 was significantly lower. HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children with IPD had higher concentrations of chemokines (except CCL5) than acutely ill HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children with no detectable bacterial infection. Male gender and low plasma CCL2 concentrations were shown to be independently associated with survival. CONCLUSIONS Chemokines, in particular CCL2, are associated with survival in IPD and correlate with pneumococcal bacterial loads, disease presentation, and outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enitan D Carrol
- Malawi-Liverpool-Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Programme, Blantyre, Malawi.
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111
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Bhowmick S, Duseja R, Das S, Appaiahgiri MB, Vrati S, Basu A. Induction of IP-10 (CXCL10) in astrocytes following Japanese encephalitis. Neurosci Lett 2007; 414:45-50. [PMID: 17287085 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2006.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2006] [Revised: 10/26/2006] [Accepted: 11/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors are important elements for the selective attraction and activation of various subsets of leukocytes. Interferon-gamma inducible protein (IP-10 or CXCL-10) is a potent chemoattractant and has been suggested to enhance the severity of virus infection and neuronal injury. In order to assess functional importance of this chemokine in viral encephalitis, we have exploited an experimental model of Japanese encephalitis. We report for the first time that in Japanese encephalitis, astrocytes are the predominant source of IP-10. A progressive increase in IP-10 induction following viral infection is concomitant with the increase in IFN-gamma a known inducer of IP-10. However, this increase in IFN-gamma level is not sufficient to confer protection as animals eventually succumb to the infection.
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112
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Dhillon NK, Pinson D, Dhillon S, Tawfik O, Danley M, Davis M, Nemon O, Mayo M, Kumar A, Tsai YJ, Kumar A, Buch S. Bleomycin treatment causes enhancement of virus replication in the lungs of SHIV-infected macaques. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2007; 292:L1233-40. [PMID: 17220371 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00293.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pneumonia is a major complication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogenesis but it develops only after prolonged infection. We used the macaque model to explore a hypothesis that the disease is a two-stage process, the first stage being establishment of the viral infection in the lung and the second being amplification of virus replication by host factors induced by chemical agents or opportunistic pathogens in the lung. Bleomycin, a chemical known to induce diffuse alveolar damage and pulmonary fibrosis with accumulation of macrophages and a rich T helper type 2 (Th2) cytokine environment, was inoculated intratracheally into five of eight SHIV 89.6P-infected macaques and into one uninfected macaque. Three additional simian HIV (SHIV)-infected macaques without bleomycin treatment served as untreated virus controls. Although none of the animals became clinically ill, bleomycin induced classical host responses in the lungs of all the treated, virus-infected macaques. There was enhanced production of the chemokine, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), that had previously been shown to cause enhanced replication of the virus. Four of the five treated animals developed more productive SHIV infection in the lungs compared with the infected untreated animals. Enhanced virus replication was found primarily in infiltrating macrophages. Enhanced replication of the virus in the lungs was associated with host factors induced by the drug and supported the hypothesis for a two-stage process of pulmonary pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navneet Kaur Dhillon
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, USA
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113
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Dijkstra IM, de Haas AH, Brouwer N, Boddeke HWGM, Biber K. Challenge with innate and protein antigens induces CCR7 expression by microglia in vitro and in vivo. Glia 2007; 54:861-72. [PMID: 16977602 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Since activated microglia are able to phagocytose damaged cells and subsequently express major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) and co-stimulatory proteins, they are considered to function as antigen presenting cells (APCs) in the central nervous system. The maturation and migratory potential of professional APCs is associated with the expression of chemokine receptor CCR7. We therefore investigated whether the immunological activation of microglia induces CCR7 expression. We here present that activation of cultured microglia by both the innate antigen lipopolysaccharide and protein antigen ovalbumin rapidly induces CCR7 expression, accompanied by increased MHC-II expression. Moreover, it is shown that CCR7 expression in IBA-1 positive cells is induced during the symptom onset and progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a rodent model for multiple sclerosis. These results suggest that microglia express CCR7 under specific inflammatory conditions, corroborating the idea that microglia develop into APCs with migratory potential toward lymphoid chemokines.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Antigen Presentation/immunology
- Antigen-Presenting Cells/immunology
- Antigens/immunology
- Chemotaxis/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalitis/immunology
- Encephalitis/physiopathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/physiopathology
- Female
- Gliosis/immunology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class II/immunology
- Lipopolysaccharides/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Microglia/immunology
- Ovalbumin/immunology
- Phagocytosis/immunology
- Receptors, CCR7
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Dijkstra
- Department of Medical Physiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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114
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Ireland DDC, Reiss CS. Gene expression contributing to recruitment of circulating cells in response to vesicular stomatitis virus infection of the CNS. Viral Immunol 2006; 19:536-45. [PMID: 16987071 PMCID: PMC2562241 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2006.19.536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
During acute Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV) infection of the mouse central nervous system, neutrophils, natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, and CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are recruited from the circulation in response to chemokines and cytokines. This study elucidated the production of these factors and infiltration of these peripheral cells. Chemokines that were observed included CCL1, CXCL10 (IP-10), CCL5 (RANTES), CCL3 (MIP-1alpha), CCL4 (MIP-1beta), CXCL1 (MIP-2), CCL2 (MCP-1), and CCL11 (eotaxin). Cytokines produced in response to the infection include IL-1 and interferon-gamma, but not type I interferons. Neutrophils are the first recruited cell type, appearing as early as 24 h after intranasal application of the virus. NK cells follow, but T cells are not detected until 6 days postinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek D C Ireland
- Department of Biology, New York University, New York, New York 10003-6688, USA
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115
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Sun S, Cao H, Han M, Li TT, Pan HL, Zhao ZQ, Zhang YQ. New evidence for the involvement of spinal fractalkine receptor in pain facilitation and spinal glial activation in rat model of monoarthritis. Pain 2006; 129:64-75. [PMID: 17123734 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2006] [Revised: 08/23/2006] [Accepted: 09/28/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Fractalkine, a chemokine binding to only one known receptor CX3CR1, has recently been proposed to be a neuron-to-glia signal in the spinal cord leading to microglial activation and glially dependent pain facilitation. The previous studies explored that blockade of endogenous fractalkine, using anti-CX3CR1 neutralizing antibody, dose-dependently attenuated neuropathic pain. The present study examined the role of endogenous fractalkine in inflammatory pain. Intra-articular injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced rat ankle joint monoarthritis (MA) model was used. Western blot analysis revealed that CX3CR1 expression in the spinal cord was significantly increased following CFA-induced MA. Intrathecal injection of anti-CX3CR1 neutralizing antibody both delayed the development of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, and reversed established pain facilitation. Furthermore, blockade of CX3CR1 significantly suppressed activation of spinal glia, especially microglia, evoked by MA. These data provided new evidence for the contribution of endogenous fractalkine to the initiation and early maintenance of inflammatory pain facilitation via activating spinal microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Sun
- Institutes of Brain Science, Institute of Neurobiology, Fudan University, 138 Yixueyuan, Shanghai 200032, China
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116
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Induction of the CXCL1 (KC) chemokine in mouse astrocytes by infection with the murine encephalomyelitis virus of Theiler. Virology 2006; 358:98-108. [PMID: 16996102 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2006] [Revised: 07/28/2006] [Accepted: 08/02/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we focused on the production of the chemokine CXCL1, also termed KC, by cultured Theiler murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-infected mouse astrocytes. cRNA from mock- and TMEV-infected cells was hybridized to the Affymetrix murine genome U74v2 DNA microarray. Hybridization data analysis demonstrated upregulation of two sequences coding for IL-8 and related to the GRO 1 oncogene MGSA. The murine counterpart of the above human genes has been reported to be the chemokine CXCL1 or KC, and therefore we studied its regulation, confirming its mRNA increase by Northern blots. The presence of CXCL1 in the supernatants of infected cells was further demonstrated by a specific ELISA and its intracellular accumulation by flow cytometry. This secreted CXCL1 was biologically active in a non species-specific way as it induces chemoattraction on human neutrophils and monocyte/macrophages, but not on CD3 positive lymphocytes. Its induction does not follow the MAP kinase pathway which transcripts are decrease in infected cells compared with uninfected astrocytes. Two inflammatory cytokines, IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha, which are also induced by TMEV in astrocytes, were potent inducers of CXCL1. Nevertheless, both mechanisms of induction follow different pathways as antibodies to both cytokines fail to inhibit TMEV-induced CXCL1 upregulation. Spinal cords but not brains from TMEV-infected SJL/J animals contain CXCL1 at the start of clinical signs of the disease. As no CXCL1 induction can be detected neither in cultured BALB/c astrocytes nor in nervous tissue, we propose an important role for CXCL1 in this experimental model of multiple sclerosis as a chemoattractant of destructive immune cells.
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117
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Guerreiro JB, Santos SB, Morgan DJ, Porto AF, Muniz AL, Ho JL, Teixeira AL, Teixeira MM, Carvalho EM. Levels of serum chemokines discriminate clinical myelopathy associated with human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) disease from HTLV-1 carrier state. Clin Exp Immunol 2006; 145:296-301. [PMID: 16879249 PMCID: PMC1809672 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2006.03150.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 5% of people infected with human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) develop clinical myelopathy or tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) that is associated with high-levels of Th1 cytokines, interferon (IFN)-gamma and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Chemokines are known to induce cytokine secretion and direct the trafficking of immune cells to sites of disease. The present study measured serum chemokines correlated with autonomously released IFN-gamma in cell cultures. HTLV-1 infection was defined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and confirmed by Western blot. Subjects included HTLV-1 carriers (n = 56), patients with HAM/TSP (n = 31) and healthy HTLV-1 seronegative volunteer controls (n = 20). Serum chemokines and IFN-gamma autonomously released by mononuclear cells in culture were quantified by ELISA. Compared to HTLV-1 carriers, serum chemokines in HAM/TSP patients showed significantly increased levels of CXCL9 and CXCL10, significantly diminished levels of CCL2 and similar amounts of CCL11 and CCL24. In contrast, CCL11 and CCL24 were significantly lower in serum of HAM/TSP patients than either control. IFN-gamma was positively correlated with CXCL9 and CXCL10 when HAM/TSP and HTLV-1 carriers were used as a combined group. However, despite a large proportion of HTLV-1 carriers having high IFN-gamma levels, these chemokines were not increased in carriers. This study showed that high levels of CXCL9 and CXCL10 in the systemic circulation and low serum CCL2 levels are features of HAM/TSP. HTLV-1 infection and Tax and/or additional viral encoded factor-mediated pathological processes triggering T cell activation with autogenous IFN-gamma release are probably involved in regulating chemokine release.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Guerreiro
- Serviço de Imunologia, Hospital Universitário Prof Edgard Santos, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 5o andar, Rua João das Botas s/n Canela, 40110-160 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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118
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Kaul M, Zheng J, Okamoto S, Gendelman HE, Lipton SA. HIV-1 infection and AIDS: consequences for the central nervous system. Cell Death Differ 2006; 12 Suppl 1:878-92. [PMID: 15832177 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4401623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 265] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) can induce severe and debilitating neurological problems that include behavioral abnormalities, motor dysfunction and frank dementia. After infiltrating peripheral immune competent cells, in particular macrophages, HIV-1 provokes a neuropathological response involving all cell types in the brain. HIV-1 also incites activation of chemokine receptors, inflammatory mediators, extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes and glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, all of which can trigger numerous downstream signaling pathways and disrupt neuronal and glial function. This review will discuss recently uncovered pathologic neuroimmune and degenerative mechanisms contributing to neuronal damage induced by HIV-1 and potential approaches for development of future therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kaul
- Center for Neuroscience and Aging Research, The Burnham Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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119
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Deleyrolle L, Marchal-Victorion S, Dromard C, Fritz V, Saunier M, Sabourin JC, Tran Van Ba C, Privat A, Hugnot JP. Exogenous and Fibroblast Growth Factor 2/Epidermal Growth Factor-Regulated Endogenous Cytokines Regulate Neural Precursor Cell Growth and Differentiation. Stem Cells 2006; 24:748-62. [PMID: 16166253 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2005-0138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Neurospheres (NSs) are clonal cellular aggregates composed of neural stem cells and progenitors. A comprehensive description of their proliferation and differentiation regulation is an essential prerequisite for their use in biotherapies. Cytokines are essential molecules regulating cell precursor fate. Using a gene-array strategy, we conducted a descriptive and functional analysis of endogenous cytokines and receptors expressed by spinal cord-derived NSs during their growth or their differentiation into neuronal and glial cells. NSs were found to express approximately 100 receptor subunits and cytokine/secreted developmental factors. Several angiogenic factors and receptors that could mediate neural precursor cell-endothelial cell relationships were detected. Among them, receptor B for endothelins was highly expressed, and endothelins were found to increase NS growth. In contrast, NSs express receptors for ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), interferon (IFN)-gamma, or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, which, when added in the growth phase, led to a dramatic growth reduction followed by a reduction or a loss of oligodendrocyte formation on differentiation. In addition, NSs synthesize fibroblast growth factor 2/epidermal growth factor (FGF2/EGF)-regulated endogenous cytokines that participate in their growth and differentiation. Notably, BMP-7 and CNTF were expressed during expansion, but upon differentiation there was a remarkable switch from BMP-7 to BMP-4 and -6 and a sharp increase of CNTF. Reintroduction of growth factors reverses the BMP expression profile, indicating growth factor-BMP cross-regulations. The role of endogenous CNTF was investigated by deriving NSs from CNTF knockout mice. These NSs have an increased growth rate associated with reduction of apoptosis and generate astrocytes with a reduced glial fibulary acidic protein (GFAP) content. These results demonstrate the combined role of endogenous and exogenous cytokines in neural precursor cell growth and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Deleyrolle
- INSERM U583, INM-Hôpital Saint Eloi, 80 rue Augustin Fliche, 34295 Montpellier, France
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120
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Sui Y, Stehno-Bittel L, Li S, Loganathan R, Dhillon NK, Pinson D, Nath A, Kolson D, Narayan O, Buch S. CXCL10-induced cell death in neurons: role of calcium dysregulation. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 23:957-64. [PMID: 16519660 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04631.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines play a key role in the regulation of central nervous system disease. CXCL10 over-expression has been observed in several neurodegenerative diseases, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and HIV-associated dementia. More recent studies by others and us have shown that CXCL10 elicits apoptosis in fetal neurons. The mechanism of CXCL10-mediated neurotoxicity, however, remains unclear. In this study, we provide evidence for the direct role of Ca(2+) dysregulation in CXCL10-mediated apoptosis. We demonstrate that treatment of fetal neuronal cultures with exogenous CXCL10 produced elevations in intracellular Ca(2+) and that this effect was modulated via the binding of CXCL10 to its cognate receptor, CXCR3. We further explored the association of intracellular Ca(2+) elevations with the caspases that are involved in CXC10-induced neuronal apoptosis. Our data showed that increased Ca(2+), which is available for uptake by the mitochondria, is associated with membrane permeabilization and cytochrome c release from this compartment. The released cytochrome c then activates the initiator active caspase-9. This initiator caspase sequentially activates the effector caspase-3, ultimately leading to apoptosis. This study identifies the temporal signaling cascade involved in CXCL10-mediated neuronal apoptosis and provides putative targets for pharmaceutical intervention of neurological disorders associated with CXCL10 up-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjun Sui
- Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Marion Merrell Dow Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
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121
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Kalev I, Kaasik A, Zarkovski A, Mikelsaar AV. Chemokine receptor CCR5 expression in in vitro differentiating human fetal neural stem/progenitor and glioblastoma cells. Neurosci Lett 2006; 394:22-7. [PMID: 16278045 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2005.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Revised: 09/08/2005] [Accepted: 10/04/2005] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We have studied the expression of CC-chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) at the protein level in human fetal neural stem/progenitor and glioblastoma cells in differentiation, using immunocytochemistry, routine fluorescence microscopy and confocal laser microscopy analysis. Neural stem/progenitor cells were isolated from the brain of 18-21 weeks old fetuses aborted due to medical indications, and propagated in vitro as neurospheres. Glioblastoma cells were isolated from tumour biopsies and propagated in vitro as spheres according to the same methods as fetal neural cells. Two stem/progenitor cell neurosphere and two glioblastoma spheroid cultures were initiated to differentiate using RA and cAMP. The cells were fixed and analyzed immunocytochemically on the 1st, 3rd, and 8th days of the differentiation. The expression of CCR5 was localized mainly in the cell nuclei, and was usually much weaker, if at all, in cytoplasm. Confocal laser microscopy analysis confirmed the same location. The expression of CCR5 was the highest one on the 3rd day of differentiation in all cultures, but showed also distinct differences between cultures, and in normal fetal differentiated stem/progenitor cells the expression of CCR5 was much weaker than in differentiated glioblastoma spheric cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Kalev
- Department of Human Biology and Genetics, Institute of General and Molecular Pathology, University of Tartu, Ravila Street 19, Postal code 51014, Tartu, Estonia.
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122
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Bsibsi M, Persoon-Deen C, Verwer RWH, Meeuwsen S, Ravid R, Van Noort JM. Toll-like receptor 3 on adult human astrocytes triggers production of neuroprotective mediators. Glia 2006; 53:688-95. [PMID: 16482523 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 215] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are innate immunity receptors that are expressed on a wide range of cell types, including CNS glial cells. In general, TLR engagement by specific sets of microbial ligands triggers production of pro-inflammatory factors and enhances antigen-presenting cell functions. The functional roles of TLR in the CNS, however, are still poorly understood. While adult human astrocytes in culture dominantly express TLR4, they display a strikingly strong and selective induction of TLR3 when activated by pro-inflammatory cytokines, TLR3 or TLR4 agonists, or oxidative stress. Gene profiling analysis of the astrocyte response to either TLR3 or TLR4 activation revealed that TLR3, but not TLR4, induces expression of a range of neuroprotective mediators and several other molecules that regulate cellular growth, differentiation, and migration. Also, TLR3 triggered enhanced production of anti-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-9 (IL-9), IL-10, and IL-11 and downregulation of the p40 subunit of IL-12 and IL-23. The collective TLR3-induced products were found in functional assays to inhibit astrocyte growth, promote human endothelial cell growth, and importantly, to enhance neuronal survival in organotypic human brain slice cultures. Together, our data indicate that TLR3 is induced on human astrocytes upon inflammation and when activated, mediates a comprehensive neuroprotective response rather than a polarized pro-inflammatory reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malika Bsibsi
- Division of Biomedical Research, TNO Quality of Life, Leiden, The Netherlands
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123
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Uddin J, Garcia HH, Gilman RH, Gonzalez AE, Friedland JS. Monocyte-astrocyte networks and the regulation of chemokine secretion in neurocysticercosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 175:3273-81. [PMID: 16116219 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.175.5.3273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Neurocysticercosis, caused by infection with larval Taenia solium, is a major cause of epilepsy worldwide. Larval degeneration, which is symptomatic, results in inflammatory cell influx. Astrocytes, the most abundant cell type and major cytokine-producing cell within the CNS, may be important in orchestrating inflammatory responses after larval degeneration. We investigated the effects of direct stimulation and of conditioned medium from T. solium larval Ag (TsAg)-stimulated monocytes (CoMTsAg) on neutrophil and astrocyte chemokine release. CoMTsAg, but not control conditioned medium, stimulated astrocyte CCL2/MCP-1 (161.5 +/- 16 ng/ml), CXCL8/IL-8 (416 +/- 6.2 ng/ml), and CXCL10/IFN-gamma-inducible protein (9.07 +/- 0.6 ng/ml) secretion after 24 h, whereas direct astrocyte or neutrophil stimulation with TsAg had no effect. There was rapid accumulation of CCL2 and CXCL8 mRNA within 1 h, with somewhat delayed expression of CXCL10 mRNA initially detected 8 h poststimulation. Neutralizing anti-TNF-alpha inhibited CoMTsAg-induced CCL2 mRNA accumulation by up to 99%, causing total abolition of CXCL10 and up to 77% reduction in CXCL8 mRNA. CoMTsAg induced maximal nuclear binding of NF-kappaB p65 and p50 by 1 h, with IkappaBalpha and IkappaBbeta decay within 15 min. In addition, CoMTsAg induced transient nuclear binding of AP-1, which peaked 4 h poststimulation. In NF-kappaB blocking experiments using pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, CoMTsAg-induced CCL2 secretion was reduced by up to 80% (p = 0.0006), whereas CXCL8 was inhibited by up to 75% (p = 0.0003). In summary, the data show that astrocytes are an important source of chemokines following larval Ag stimulation. Such chemokine secretion is NF-kappaB dependent, likely to involve AP-1, and is regulated in a paracrine loop by monocyte-derived TNF-alpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasim Uddin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Wellcome Trust Centre for Clinical Tropical Medicine, Imperial College (Hammersmith Campus), London, United Kingdom
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124
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Kaul M, Lipton SA. Experimental and potential future therapeutic approaches for HIV-1 associated dementia targeting receptors for chemokines, glutamate and erythropoietin. Neurotox Res 2005; 8:167-86. [PMID: 16260394 DOI: 10.1007/bf03033828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Severe and debilitating neurological problems that include behavioral abnormalities, motor dysfunction and frank dementia can occur after infection with the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1). Infected peripheral immune-competent cells, in particular macrophages, infiltrate the central nervous system (CNS) and provoke a neuropathological response involving all cell types in the brain. HIV-1 infection results in activation of chemokine receptors, inflammatory mediators, extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes and glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, all of which can trigger numerous downstream signaling pathways that result in disruption of neuronal and glial function. Despite many major improvements in the control of viral infection in the periphery, a truly effective therapy for HIV-1 associated dementia is currently not available. This review will discuss experimental and potentially future therapeutic strategies based on recently uncovered pathologic mechanisms contributing to neuronal damage induced by HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kaul
- Center for Neuroscience and Aging Research, The Burnham Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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125
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Limatola C, Lauro C, Catalano M, Ciotti MT, Bertollini C, Di Angelantonio S, Ragozzino D, Eusebi F. Chemokine CX3CL1 protects rat hippocampal neurons against glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 166:19-28. [PMID: 16019082 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2005] [Accepted: 03/09/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Excitotoxicity is a cell death caused by excessive exposure to glutamate (Glu), contributing to neuronal degeneration in many acute and chronic CNS diseases. We explored the role of fractalkine/CX3CL1 on survival of hippocampal neurons exposed to excitotoxic doses of Glu. We found that: CX3CL1 reduces excitotoxicity when co-applied with Glu, through the activation of the ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt pathways, or administered up to 8 h after Glu insult; CX3CL1 reduces the Glu-activated whole-cell current through mechanisms dependent on intracellular Ca2+; CX3CL1 is released from hippocampal cells after excitotoxic insult, likely providing an endogenous protective mechanism against excitotoxic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Limatola
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti and Dipartimento di Fisiologia Umana e Farmacologia, Centro di Eccellenza BEMM, Università di Roma La Sapienza, P.le A. Moro 5, I00185 Rome, Italy.
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126
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Blednov YA, Bergeson SE, Walker D, Ferreira VM, Kuziel WA, Harris RA. Perturbation of chemokine networks by gene deletion alters the reinforcing actions of ethanol. Behav Brain Res 2005; 165:110-25. [PMID: 16105698 PMCID: PMC3040067 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2005.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2005] [Revised: 06/23/2005] [Accepted: 06/23/2005] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Microarray analysis of human alcoholic brain and cultured cells exposed to ethanol showed significant changes in expression of genes related to immune or inflammatory responses, including chemokines and chemokine receptors. To test the hypothesis that chemokines exhibit previously undiscovered pleiotropic effects important for the behavioral actions of ethanol, we studied mutant mice with deletion of the Ccr2, Ccr5, Ccl2 or Ccl3 genes. Deletion of Ccr2, Ccl2 (females) or Ccl3 in mice resulted in lower preference for alcohol and consumption of lower amounts of alcohol in a two-bottle choice test as compared with wild-type mice. Ethanol treatment (2.5 g/kg, i.p.) induced stronger conditioned taste aversion in Ccr2, Ccl2 or Ccl3 null mutant mice than in controls. Ccr2 and Ccr5 null mutant mice did not differ from wild-type mice in ethanol-induced loss of righting reflex (LORR), but mice lacking Ccl2 or Ccl3 showed longer LORR than wild-type mice. There were no differences between mutant strains and wild-type mice in severity of ethanol-induced withdrawal. Genetic mapping of chromosome 11 for the Ccl2 and Ccl3 genes (46.5 and 47.6 cM, respectively) revealed that an alcohol-induced LORR QTL region was contained within the introgressed region derived from 129/SvJ, which may cause some behavioral phenotypes observed in the null mice. On the contrary, known QTLs on Chr 9 are outside of 129/SvJ region in Ccr2 and Ccr5 (71.9 and 72.0 cM, respectively) null mutant mice. These data show that disruption of the chemokine network interferes with motivational effects of alcohol.
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MESH Headings
- Alcohol Drinking/genetics
- Alcohol Drinking/immunology
- Alcoholism/genetics
- Alcoholism/immunology
- Animals
- Association Learning/physiology
- Chemokine CCL2/deficiency
- Chemokine CCL2/genetics
- Chemokine CCL3
- Chemokine CCL4
- Chemokines, CC/deficiency
- Chemokines, CC/genetics
- Conditioning, Classical/physiology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Ethanol
- Female
- Gene Deletion
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/deficiency
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Receptors, CCR2
- Receptors, CCR5/deficiency
- Receptors, CCR5/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/deficiency
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Reinforcement, Psychology
- Severity of Illness Index
- Sex Factors
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/genetics
- Substance Withdrawal Syndrome/immunology
- Taste/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri A. Blednov
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, University of Texas A 4800, 1 University Station, 2500 Speedway MBB 1.124, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 512 232 2520/5761;, fax: +1 512 232 2525
| | - Susan E. Bergeson
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, University of Texas A 4800, 1 University Station, 2500 Speedway MBB 1.124, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA
| | - Danielle Walker
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, University of Texas A 4800, 1 University Station, 2500 Speedway MBB 1.124, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA
| | - Vania M.M. Ferreira
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, University of Texas A 4800, 1 University Station, 2500 Speedway MBB 1.124, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA
| | - William A. Kuziel
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A 5000, Austin, TX 78712-0162, USA
| | - R. Adron Harris
- Waggoner Center for Alcohol and Addiction Research, University of Texas A 4800, 1 University Station, 2500 Speedway MBB 1.124, Austin, TX 78712-1095, USA
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127
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Ahn DK, Lee KR, Lee HJ, Kim SK, Choi HS, Lim EJ, Park JS. Intracisternal administration of chemokines facilitated formalin-induced behavioral responses in the orofacial area of freely moving rats. Brain Res Bull 2005; 66:50-8. [PMID: 15925144 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2005] [Revised: 03/30/2005] [Accepted: 03/31/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effects of intracisternal administration of MCP-1, Rantes or IL-8 on pain transmission in the orofacial area. We also investigated mechanisms of hyperalgesic responses produced by intracisternal administration of IL-8. An orofacial formalin test was employed to assess the effects of chemokines on nociceptive processing. For each animal, the number of behavioral responses and the time spent grooming, rubbing and/or scratching the facial region proximal to the formalin injection site was recorded for nine successive 5-min intervals. Intracisternal administration of MCP-1, Rantes or IL-8 significantly increased formalin-induced scratching behavioral responses in the orofacial area. Intracisternal pretreatment with indomethacin, a non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitor, did not block IL-8-induced hyperalgesia. Pretreatment with 100 microg propranolol, a non-selective beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist and 50 microg atenolol, a selective beta(1)-adrenergic receptor antagonist, inhibited the number of scratches and the duration of scratching produced by 1 ng of IL-8 injected intracisternally. These results indicate that intracisternal administration of chemokines produce a hyperalgesic response with an orofacial inflammatory pain model and that the IL-8-induced hyperalgesia is mediated by central beta(1)-adrenergic receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Ahn
- Department of Oral Physiology, School of Dentistry, Kyungpook National University, 188-1 Sam Deok 2ga, Chung-gu, Daegu 700-412, South Korea.
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128
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D'Aversa TG, Eugenin EA, Berman JW. NeuroAIDS: Contributions of the human immunodeficiency virus-1 proteins tat and gp120 as well as CD40 to microglial activation. J Neurosci Res 2005; 81:436-46. [PMID: 15954144 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are the resident phagocytes of the brain and are an important source of proinflammatory mediators. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infects the central nervous system early in the course of disease, and it is believed that this occurs, in part, through the transmigration of HIV-1-infected cells across the blood-brain barrier. Infected cells release viral proteins, such as Tat and gp120. After microglia interact with these proteins, they become activated and secrete chemokines; up-regulate key surface receptors, such as CD40, and also activate resident cells. This review focuses on the consequences of microglial activation in NeuroAIDS, with an emphasis on chemokine production and CD40 up-regulation after interaction with tat or gp120. The importance of microglial CD40 in two other neurological diseases, Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis, is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- T G D'Aversa
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, USA
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129
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Strachan GD, Kopp AS, Koike MA, Morgan KL, Jordan-Sciutto KL. Chemokine- and neurotrophic factor-induced changes in E2F1 localization and phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene product (pRb) occur by distinct mechanisms in murine cortical cultures. Exp Neurol 2005; 193:455-68. [PMID: 15869948 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2004] [Revised: 08/10/2004] [Accepted: 08/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The retinoblastoma susceptibility gene product (pRb) and E2F1 have been found to exhibit altered localization and increased staining in several neurodegenerative diseases. We have observed similar localization in primary murine cortical cultures treated with neurotrophic factors (NTF) or chemokines. In untreated cultures, E2F1 exhibited minimal immunostaining using the KH95 antibody, which recognizes the pRb interaction domain. In primary E16 murine cortical cultures, NTF- or chemokine-treated neurons, KH95 E2F1 staining was increased in the cytoplasm. However, an antibody recognizing the amino-terminus of E2F1 (KH20) stained the cytoplasm of both untreated and treated neurons. Taken together these results suggest that the change seen in E2F1 using the KH95 antibody is due to antigen unmasking of a carboxy-terminal epitope in response to NTF and chemokines. When we assessed staining for the hyperphosphorylated, inactive form of pRb (ppRb) in untreated cultures, ppRb was predominantly cytoplasmic. In response to NTF or chemokine treatment, staining for ppRb was observed predominantly in nuclei of neurons indicating a change in subcellular distribution. Immunoblot analysis demonstrated increased levels of ppRb in response to NTF and chemokines. Inhibitors of translation, nuclear export, and phoshpatidylinositol-3-kinase blocked NTF- and chemokine-induced nuclear ppRb localization while having no effect on E2F1 staining. Instead increased cytoplasmic KH95 E2F1 staining was dependent on cytoskeletal destabilization which did not influence ppRb localization. These findings demonstrate that alterations in ppRb distribution and E2F1 antigen availability by NTF and chemokines occur by distinct mechanisms suggesting that E2F1 function may be independent of pRb regulation in post-mitotic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon D Strachan
- Department of Pathology, University of Pennsylvania, 240 S. 40th St, Room 312 Levy Bldg, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6030, USA
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130
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Sano R, Tessitore A, Ingrassia A, d'Azzo A. Chemokine-induced recruitment of genetically modified bone marrow cells into the CNS of GM1-gangliosidosis mice corrects neuronal pathology. Blood 2005; 106:2259-68. [PMID: 15941905 PMCID: PMC1895262 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2005-03-1189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone marrow cells (BMCs) could correct some pathologic conditions of the central nervous system (CNS) if these cells would effectively repopulate the brain. One such condition is G(M1)-gangliosidosis, a neurodegenerative glycosphingolipidosis due to deficiency of lysosomal beta-galactosidase (beta-gal). In this disease, abnormal build up of G(M1)-ganglioside in the endoplasmic reticulum of brain cells results in calcium imbalance, induction of an unfolded protein response (UPR), and neuronal apoptosis. These processes are accompanied by the activation/proliferation of microglia and the production of inflammatory cytokines. Here we demonstrate that local neuroinflammation promotes the selective activation of chemokines, such as stromal-cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1), macrophage inflammatory protein 1-alpha (MIP-1alpha), and MIP-1beta, which chemoattract genetically modified BMCs into the CNS. Mice that underwent bone marrow transplantation showed increased beta-gal activity in different brain regions and reduced lysosomal storage. Decreased production of chemokines and effectors of the UPR as well as restoration of neurologic functions accompanied this phenotypic reversion. Our results suggest that beta-gal-expressing bone marrow (BM)-derived cells selectively migrate to the CNS under a gradient of chemokines and become a source of correcting enzyme to deficient neurons. Thus, a disease condition such as G(M1)-gangliosidosis, which is characterized by neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation, may influence the response of the CNS to ex vivo gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Sano
- Department of Genetics and Tumor Cell Biology, St Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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131
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Tsuji D, Kuroki A, Ishibashi Y, Itakura T, Kuwahara J, Yamanaka S, Itoh K. Specific induction of macrophage inflammatory protein 1-alpha in glial cells of Sandhoff disease model mice associated with accumulation of N-acetylhexosaminyl glycoconjugates. J Neurochem 2005; 92:1497-507. [PMID: 15748167 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.02986.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Sandhoff disease is a lysosomal storage disease caused by simultaneous deficiencies of beta-hexosaminidase A (HexA; alphabeta) and B (HexB; betabeta), due to a primary defect of the beta-subunit gene (HEXB) associated with excessive accumulation of GM2 ganglioside (GM2) and oligosaccharides with N-acetylhexosamine residues at their non-reducing termini, and with neurosomatic manifestations. To elucidate the neuroinflammatory mechanisms involved in its pathogenesis, we analyzed the expression of chemokines in Sandhoff disease model mice (SD mice) produced by disruption of the murine Hex beta-subunit gene allele (Hexb-/-). We demonstrated that chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha (MIP-1alpha) was induced in brain regions, including the cerebral cortex, brain stem and cerebellum, of SD mice from an early stage of the pathogenesis but not in other systemic organs. On the other hand, little changes in other chemokine mRNAs, including those of RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T expressed and secreted), MCP-1 (monocyte chemotactic protein-1), SLC (secondary lymphoid-tissue chemokine), fractalkine and SDF-1 (stromal derived factor-1), were detected. Significant up-regulation of MIP-1alpha mRNA and protein in the above-mentioned brain regions was observed in parallel with the accumulation of natural substrates of HexA and HexB. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that MIP-1alpha-immunoreactivity (IR) in the above-mentioned brain regions of SD mice was co-localized in Iba1-IR-positive microglial cells and partly in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-IR-positive astrocytes, in which marked accumulation of N-acetylglucosaminyl (GlcNAc)-oligosaccharides was observed from the presymptomatic stage of the disease. In contrast, little MIP-1alpha-IR was observed in neurons in which GM2 accumulated predominantly. These results suggest that specific induction of MIP-1alpha might coincide with the accumulation of GlcNAc-oligosaccharides due to a HexB deficiency in resident microglia and astrocytes in the brains of SD mice causing their activation and acceleration of the progressive neurodegeneration in SD mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Tsuji
- Department of Medicinal Biotechnology, Institute of Medicinal Resources, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokushima, 1-78 Sho-machi, Tokushima 770-8505, Japan
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132
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Ransohoff
- Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Department of Neurosciences, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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133
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Lee HP, Jun YC, Choi JK, Kim JI, Carp RI, Kim YS. The expression of RANTES and chemokine receptors in the brains of scrapie-infected mice. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 158:26-33. [PMID: 15589034 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2004] [Revised: 07/30/2004] [Accepted: 08/02/2004] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
While chemokines play an important role in host defense, it has become abundantly clear that their expression is not solely restricted to immune cells. In this study, to investigate the role of chemokines in pathogenic mechanism of neurodegeneration in prion diseases, we determined the cerebral expression of RANTES, a major chemoattractant of monocytes and activated lymphocytes, and its receptors CCR1, CCR3 and CCR5 in ME7 scrapie-infected mice. The mRNA of RANTES gene was upregulated in the brains of scrapie-infected mice. Intense immunoreactivity of RANTES was observed only in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes of the hippocampus of the infected mice. In addition, the levels of mRNA expression of CCR1, CCR3, and CCR5 were increased in hippocampus of scrapie-infected brains compared to the values in controls. Immunostaining of CCR1, CCR3, and CCR5 was observed in reactive astrocytes of the hippocampal region of scrapie-infected brains. In addition, immunoreactivity of CCR5 was also observed in microglia of scrapie-infected brains. These results suggest that RANTES and its receptors may participate in amplifying proinflammatory responses and, thereby, exacerbate the neurodegeneration of prion diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Pil Lee
- Ilsong Institute of Life Science, Hallym University, 1605-4 Kwanyangdong, Dongangu, Anyang, Kyeonggi-Do 431-060, Republic of Korea
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134
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Buch S, Sui Y, Dhillon N, Potula R, Zien C, Pinson D, Li S, Dhillon S, Nicolay B, Sidelnik A, Li C, Villinger T, Bisarriya K, Narayan O. Investigations on four host response factors whose expression is enhanced in X4 SHIV encephalitis. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 157:71-80. [PMID: 15579283 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
HIV encephalopathy, one of the major complications of HIV infection, involves productive virus replication in macrophages in the brain in association with heightened expression of several host response factors. One or more of these factors are thought to be the cause of the degenerative changes in neurons in the brain. Macaques infected with SIV and SHIV viruses have provided excellent working models for studying mechanisms of the human disease. Although HIV encephalopathy is primarily associated with CCR5-utilizing viruses, our findings have shown that CXCR4-utilizing SHIVs were also capable of causing the syndrome in rhesus macaques. In SHIV-infected macaques, approximately 30% of the animals developed encephalitis. In order to understand the factors leading to end-stage encephalitis, we performed microarray analyses on brains of encephalitic and non-encephalitic-infected macaques, and found pronounced enhancement of expression of interleukin-4, platelet-derived growth factor-B chain, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and CXCL10 in the brains of the encephalitic animals. This review discusses the role of each of these factors in mediating SHIV encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilpa Buch
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, Marion Merrell Dow Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis, 5000 Wahl Hall East, University of Kansas Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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135
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Cartier L, Hartley O, Dubois-Dauphin M, Krause KH. Chemokine receptors in the central nervous system: role in brain inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 48:16-42. [PMID: 15708626 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 380] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines were originally described as chemotactic cytokines involved in leukocyte trafficking. Research over the last decade, however, has shown that chemokine receptors are not restricted to leukocytes. In the brain, chemokine receptors are not only found in microglia (a brain macrophage), but also in astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and neurons. In this review, we describe the spatial and cellular distribution of chemokine receptors in the brain, distinguishing between constitutively and inducibly expressed receptors. We then discuss possible physiological functions, including neuronal migration, cell proliferation and synaptic activity. Evidence is emerging that chemokine receptors are also involved in neuronal death and hence neurodegenerative diseases. Chemokines may induce neuronal death either indirectly (e.g. through activation of microglia killing mechanisms) or directly through activation of neuronal chemokine receptors. Disease processes in which chemokines and their receptors are likely to be involved include multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), HIV-associated dementia (HAD) and cerebral ischemic disease. The study of chemokines and their receptors in the central nervous system (CNS) is not only relevant for the understanding of brain physiology and pathophysiology, but may also lead to the development of targeted treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Cartier
- Biology of Ageing Laboratory, Department of Geriatrics, Geneva University Hospitals, 2 chemin du Petit-Bel Air, CH-1225 Chêne-Bourg, Switzerland
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136
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Valerio A, Ferrario M, Martinez FO, Locati M, Ghisi V, Bresciani LG, Mantovani A, Spano P. Gene expression profile activated by the chemokine CCL5/RANTES in human neuronal cells. J Neurosci Res 2005; 78:371-82. [PMID: 15389840 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Differentiated human NT2-N neurons were shown to express CCR5 and CXCR4 chemokine receptor mRNA and protein, and to be responsive to the chemokines CCL5 and CXCL12. Using cDNA microarray technology, CCL5 was found to induce a distinct transcriptional program, with reproducible induction of 46 and 9 genes after 2 and 8 hr of treatment, respectively. Conversely, downregulation of 20 and 7 genes was observed after 2 and 8 hr of treatment, respectively. Modulation of a selected panel of CCL5-responsive genes was also confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot and compared to gene expression changes induced by CXCL12 treatment. Gene clustering identified distinct functional subsets of CCL5-responsive molecules, and a significant number of expressed sequence tags encoding unknown genes. CCL5-responsive genes comprise a significant number of enzymes, transcription factors, and miscellaneous molecules involved in neuronal survival and differentiation, including neurite outgrowth and synaptogenesis. Our results suggest that CCL5 biological functions might go beyond its recognized chemotactic activity in the central nervous system, in particular with regard to the control of neural plasticity events both during development and in postnatal life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Valerio
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Brescia University School of Medicine, viale Europa 11, 25123 Brescia, Italy.
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137
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Schmidt OI, Heyde CE, Ertel W, Stahel PF. Closed head injury--an inflammatory disease? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 48:388-99. [PMID: 15850678 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 284] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Closed head injury (CHI) remains the leading cause of death and persisting neurological impairment in young individuals in industrialized nations. Research efforts in the past years have brought evidence that the intracranial inflammatory response in the injured brain contributes to the neuropathological sequelae which are, in large part, responsible for the adverse outcome after head injury. The presence of hypoxia and hypotension in the early resuscitative period of brain-injured patients further aggravates the inflammatory response in the brain due to ischemia/reperfusion-mediated injuries. The profound endogenous neuroinflammatory response after CHI, which is phylogenetically aimed at defending the intrathecal compartment from invading pathogens and repairing lesioned brain tissue, contributes to the development of cerebral edema, breakdown of the blood-brain barrier, and ultimately to delayed neuronal cell death. However, aside from these deleterious effects, neuroinflammation has been recently shown to mediate neuroreparative mechanisms after brain injury as well. This "dual effect" of neuroinflammation was the focus of extensive experimental and clinical research in the past years and has lead to an expanded basic knowledge on the cellular and molecular mechanisms which regulate the intracranial inflammatory response after CHI. Thus, head injury has recently evolved as an inflammatory and immunological disease much more than a pure traumatological, neurological, or neurosurgical entity. The present review will summarize the so far known mechanisms of posttraumatic neuroinflammation after CHI, based on data from clinical and experimental studies, with a special focus on the role of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and the complement system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver I Schmidt
- Department of Trauma and Reconstructive Surgery, Charité University Medical School Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Germany
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138
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Cavallaro S. DNA microarrays and animal models of learning and memory. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2005; 60:97-133. [PMID: 15474588 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(04)60004-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastiano Cavallaro
- Institute of Neurological Sciences, Italian National Research Council, 95123 Catania, Italy
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139
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Zhai Q, Luo Y, Zhang Y, Berman MA, Dorf ME. Low nuclear levels of nuclear factor-kappa B are essential for KC self-induction in astrocytes: requirements for shuttling and phosphorylation. Glia 2005; 48:327-36. [PMID: 15390109 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Stimulation with the chemokine KC induces an autocrine response in mouse astrocytes. A requirement for NF-kappa B was established for KC self-induction. NF-kappa B inhibitors, p65 antisense oligonucleotides, or dominant-negative Ikappa Balpha inhibited this autocrine response. Mutation of a specific kappa B site in the KC promoter also blocked KC self-induction. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and in vivo footprinting confirmed the direct binding of NF-kappa B to the KC promoter. However, neither NF-kappa B nuclear translocation, increased Ikappa B degradation, nor upregulation of NF-kappa B DNA binding activity was observed after KC stimulation. Reporter gene assays demonstrated KC-upregulated NF-kappa B transcriptional activity, and this effect was inhibited by dominant-negative IkappaBalpha. Accumulation of NF-kappaB was noted within the nucleus in the presence of nuclear export inhibitor leptomycin B, demonstrating constitutive shuttling of NF-kappa B between the cytoplasm and nucleus. Blocking NF-kappa B shuttling inhibited KC transcription. KC induced p65 phosphorylation, which was critical for NF-kappa B activation as determined with the Gal-4-p65 fusion protein and mutation of p65 phosphorylation sites. In conclusion, low-level nuclear NF-kappa B is essential for KC self-induction, and this effect is mediated by shuttling and phosphorylation of NF-kappa B. The results outline a novel mechanism for NF-kappa B participation in transcription regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiwei Zhai
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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140
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Bentivoglio M, Morelli M. Chapter I The organization and circuits of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons and the distribution of dopamine receptors in the brain. HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL NEUROANATOMY 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s0924-8196(05)80005-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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141
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Lawrence DMP, Seth P, Durham L, Diaz F, Boursiquot R, Ransohoff RM, Major EO. Astrocyte differentiation selectively upregulates CCL2/monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in cultured human brain-derived progenitor cells. Glia 2005; 53:81-91. [PMID: 16206198 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Chemokines (chemoattractant cytokines) and their receptors are present in the brain and may play roles in both neurodevelopment and neuropathology. Increased brain levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), also known as CCL2, are found in patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-associated dementia and other acute and chronic neurologic diseases. Although the function of CCL2 in the brain is unclear, it is believed that upregulation of this chemokine during neuropathologic or neuroinflammatory conditions leads to recruitment of activated monocytes into the brain, where they differentiate into macrophages producing neurotoxic and inflammatory molecules. We recently showed that human fetal brain-derived progenitor cells are susceptible to HIV-1 and JC virus infection, and that differentiation toward an astrocyte phenotype increased virus production from these cells. In the current study, we found that in the absence of infection, progenitors produced moderate levels of CCL2 (5.6 ng per million cells). Astrocyte differentiation over 3 weeks increased CCL2 protein levels 30-fold in a biphasic manner, whereas neuronal differentiation decreased production 20-fold. Electromobility shift assays (EMSAs) demonstrated increased nuclear NF-kappaB levels within 2 h of initiating astrocyte differentiation, and inhibitors of NF-kappaB activation partially blocked the CCL2 increase in differentiating astrocytes. Transfection of progenitors with mutated CCL2 promoter/CAT reporter constructs showed that the distal promoter region, containing NF-kappaB and NF-I binding sites, is important for differentiation-induced CCL2 upregulation. Together these results suggest that the transcription factor NF-kappaB, and possibly NF-I, contribute to the upregulation of CCL2 chemokine production during the differentiation of human progenitor cells toward an astrocyte phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane M P Lawrence
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Neuroscience, National Institute of Neurologic Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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142
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Shih SR, Stollar V, Lin JY, Chang SC, Chen GW, Li ML. Identification of genes involved in the host response to enterovirus 71 infection. J Neurovirol 2004; 10:293-304. [PMID: 15385252 DOI: 10.1080/13550280490499551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) infection may be asymptomatic or may cause diarrhea, rashes, and hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD). However, EV71 also has the potential to cause severe neurological disease. To date, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of host response to EV71 infection. In this report, we utilized cDNA microarray to profile the kinetics and patterns of host gene expression in EV71-infected human neural SF268 cells. We have identified 157 genes with significant changes in mRNA expression and performed hierarchical clustering to classify these genes into five different groups based on their kinetics of expression. EV71 infection led to increases in the level of mRNAs encoding chemokines, proteins involved in protein degradation, complement proteins, and proapoptotis proteins. cDNA microarray expression comparisons of EV71- and mock-infected cells also revealed the down-regulation of several genes encoding proteins involved in host RNA synthesis. Expression of interferon-regulated proteins was increased early in the infection and then decreased. Expression of proteins involved in cellular development and differentiation, some oncogenes, and transcription and translation regulators were suppressed and then stimulated late in the infection. Our findings illustrate the overall host response to EV71 infection, and will aid in understanding the host response to this virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ru Shih
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Immunology, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854-5635, USA
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143
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Chen CJ, Chen JH, Chen SY, Liao SL, Raung SL. Upregulation of RANTES gene expression in neuroglia by Japanese encephalitis virus infection. J Virol 2004; 78:12107-19. [PMID: 15507597 PMCID: PMC525064 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.78.22.12107-12119.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes cerebral inflammation and stimulates inflammatory cytokine expression. Glial cells orchestrate immunocyte recruitment to focal sites of viral infection within the central nervous system (CNS) and synchronize immune cell functions through a regulated network of cytokines and chemokines. Since immune cell infiltration is prominent, we investigated the production of a responding chemoattractant, RANTES (regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted), in response to JEV infection of glial cells. Infection with JEV was found to elicit the production of RANTES from primary neurons/glia, mixed glia, microglia, and astrocytes but not from neuron cultures. The production of RANTES did not seem to be directly responsible for JEV-induced neuronal death but instead contributed to the recruitment of immune cells. RANTES expression required viral replication and the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) as well as transcription factors, including nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) and nuclear factor IL-6 (NF-IL-6). The induction of RANTES expression by JEV infection in glial cells needed the coordinate activation of NF-kappaB and NF-IL-6. Using enzymatic inhibitors, we demonstrated a strong correlation between the ERK signaling pathway and RANTES expression. However, JEV replication was not dependent on the activation of ERK, NF-kappaB, and NF-IL-6. Altogether, these results demonstrated that infection of glial cells by JEV provided the early ERK-, NF-kappaB-, and NF-IL-6-mediated signals that directly activated RANTES expression, which might be involved in the initiation and amplification of inflammatory responses in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Jung Chen
- Department of Education and Research, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, No. 160 Sec. 3 Taichung-Gang Road, Taichung 407, Taiwan.
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144
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Verge GM, Milligan ED, Maier SF, Watkins LR, Naeve GS, Foster AC. Fractalkine (CX3CL1) and fractalkine receptor (CX3CR1) distribution in spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia under basal and neuropathic pain conditions. Eur J Neurosci 2004; 20:1150-60. [PMID: 15341587 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03593.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 300] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fractalkine is a unique chemokine reported to be constitutively expressed by neurons. Its only receptor, CX3CR1, is expressed by microglia. Little is known about the expression of fractalkine and CX3CR1 in spinal cord. Given that peripheral nerve inflammation and/or injury gives rise to neuropathic pain, and neuropathic pain may be partially mediated by spinal cord glial activation and consequent glial proinflammatory cytokine release, there must be a signal released by affected neurons that triggers the activation of glia. We sought to determine whether there is anatomical evidence implicating spinal fractalkine as such a neuron-to-glia signal. We mapped the regional and cellular localization of fractalkine and CX3CR1 in the rat spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion, under basal conditions and following induction of neuropathic pain, employing both an inflammatory (sciatic inflammatory neuropathy; SIN) as well as a traumatic (chronic constriction injury; CCI) model. Fractalkine immunoreactivity and mRNA were observed in neurons, but not glia, in the rat spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia, and levels did not change following either CCI or SIN. By contrast, CX3CR1 was expressed by microglia in the basal state, and the microglial cellular concentration was up-regulated in a regionally specific manner in response to neuropathy. CX3CR1-expressing cells were identified as microglia by their cellular morphology and positive OX-42 and CD4 immunostaining. The cellular distribution of fractalkine and CX3CR1 in the spinal circuit associated with nociceptive transmission supports a potential role in the mechanisms that contribute to the exaggerated pain state in these models of neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gail M Verge
- Neurocrine Biosciences, 12790 El Camino Real, San Diego, CA 92130, USA.
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145
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Huerta C, Alvarez V, Mata IF, Coto E, Ribacoba R, Martínez C, Blázquez M, Guisasola LM, Salvador C, Lahoz CH, Peña J. Chemokines (RANTES and MCP-1) and chemokine-receptors (CCR2 and CCR5) gene polymorphisms in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Lett 2004; 370:151-4. [PMID: 15488313 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2004] [Revised: 08/04/2004] [Accepted: 08/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. Late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly, affecting about 5% of the population older than 65 years. Several works have demonstrated the involvement of inflammation in the pathogenesis of both, PD and LOAD. Genetic susceptibility to develop PD and LOAD has also been widely recognised. Thus, functional polymorphisms at the genes encoding inflammatory proteins could influence the overall risk of developing these neurodegenerative disorders. We examined whether DNA-polymorphisms at the genes encoding chemokines MCP-1 (-2518 A/G) and RANTES (-403 A/G), and chemokine receptors 5 (CCR5, Delta32) and 2 (CCR2,V64I), were associated with the risk and/or the clinical outcome of LOAD and PD. A total of 200 PD, 326 LOAD, and 370 healthy controls were genotyped for the four polymorphisms, and genotype frequencies statistically compared. We did not find significant differences in the frequencies of the different genotypes between both groups of patients and controls. We conclude that the four DNA polymorphisms, which have been associated with several immuno-modulated diseases, did not contribute to the risk of PD or LOAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Huerta
- Genética Molecular-IRSIN/FRIAT, Hospital Central Asturias, Oviedo 33006, Spain
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146
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Lund BT, Ashikian N, Ta HQ, Chakryan Y, Manoukian K, Groshen S, Gilmore W, Cheema GS, Stohl W, Burnett ME, Ko D, Kachuck NJ, Weiner LP. Increased CXCL8 (IL-8) expression in Multiple Sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 155:161-71. [PMID: 15342208 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2004] [Revised: 06/01/2004] [Accepted: 06/18/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the CNS which is characterized by large mononuclear cell infiltration and significant demyelination. CXCL8 is a chemo-attractant for both neutrophils and monocytes and triggers their firm adhesion to endothelium. In this study, we demonstrate that serum CXCL8 and CXCL8 secretion from PBMCs are significantly higher in untreated MS patients compared to controls and are significantly reduced in MS patients receiving interferon-beta1a therapy. We suggest that CXCL8 may serve as a marker of monocyte activity in MS and may play a role in monocyte recruitment to the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett T Lund
- Department of Neurology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, MCH-142, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA.
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147
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Milligan ED, Zapata V, Chacur M, Schoeniger D, Biedenkapp J, O'Connor KA, Verge GM, Chapman G, Green P, Foster AC, Naeve GS, Maier SF, Watkins LR. Evidence that exogenous and endogenous fractalkine can induce spinal nociceptive facilitation in rats. Eur J Neurosci 2004; 20:2294-302. [PMID: 15525271 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03709.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that spinal cord glia can contribute to enhanced nociceptive responses. However, the signals that cause glial activation are unknown. Fractalkine (CX3C ligand-1; CX3CL1) is a unique chemokine expressed on the extracellular surface of spinal neurons and spinal sensory afferents. In the dorsal spinal cord, fractalkine receptors are primarily expressed by microglia. As fractalkine can be released from neurons upon strong activation, it has previously been suggested to be a neuron-to-glial signal that induces glial activation. The present series of experiments provide an initial investigation of the spinal pain modulatory effects of fractalkine. Intrathecal fractalkine produced dose-dependent mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. In addition, a single injection of fractalkine receptor antagonist (neutralizing antibody against rat CX3C receptor-1; CX3CR1) delayed the development of mechanical allodynia and/or thermal hyperalgesia in two neuropathic pain models: chronic constriction injury (CCI) and sciatic inflammatory neuropathy. Intriguingly, anti-CX3CR1 reduced nociceptive responses when administered 5-7 days after CCI, suggesting that prolonged release of fractalkine may contribute to the maintenance of neuropathic pain. Taken together, these initial investigations of spinal fractalkine effects suggest that exogenous and endogenous fractalkine are involved in spinal sensitization, including that induced by peripheral neuropathy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies/pharmacology
- CX3C Chemokine Receptor 1
- Cell Communication/drug effects
- Cell Communication/physiology
- Chemokine CX3CL1
- Chemokines, CX3C/administration & dosage
- Chemokines, CX3C/metabolism
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Hyperalgesia/chemically induced
- Hyperalgesia/metabolism
- Hyperalgesia/physiopathology
- Injections, Spinal
- Ligation
- Male
- Membrane Proteins/administration & dosage
- Membrane Proteins/drug effects
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Microglia/drug effects
- Microglia/metabolism
- Neuroglia/drug effects
- Neuroglia/metabolism
- Neurons/metabolism
- Nociceptors/drug effects
- Nociceptors/physiology
- Pain/chemically induced
- Pain/metabolism
- Pain/physiopathology
- Peripheral Nervous System Diseases/chemically induced
- Peripheral Nervous System Diseases/metabolism
- Peripheral Nervous System Diseases/physiopathology
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptors, Cytokine/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Cytokine/metabolism
- Receptors, HIV/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, HIV/metabolism
- Sciatic Neuropathy/chemically induced
- Sciatic Neuropathy/metabolism
- Sciatic Neuropathy/physiopathology
- Spinal Cord/drug effects
- Spinal Cord/metabolism
- Spinal Cord/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Milligan
- Department of Psychology & the Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309-0345, USA
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148
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Potula R, Dhillion N, Sui Y, Zien CA, Funa K, Pinson D, Mayo MS, Singh DK, Narayan O, Buch S. Association of platelet-derived growth factor-B chain with simian human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2004; 165:815-24. [PMID: 15331406 PMCID: PMC1618609 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63344-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines and cytokines play a critical role in HIV infection, serving both to modulate virus replication and to recruit target cells to the site of infection. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), a mitogen and chemoattractant for a wide variety of cells, is secreted by macrophages. Since macrophages are the target cells for lentiviral infection in the brain and PDGF is a known inducer of macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP)-1, a potent chemokine closely associated with HIV encephalitis, we investigated the association of PDGF-B chain (PDGF-B) with encephalitis in macaques caused by simian human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV), a chimera of HIV and SIV. Northern blot analysis confirmed elevated expression of PDGF-B chain mRNA in the brains from encephalitic macaques. Validation of these in vivo studies was confirmed in rhesus macrophage cultures infected with SHIV(KU2) in which we demonstrated heightened expression of PDGF-B chain mRNA. Nuclear run-off analysis established transcriptional up-regulation of PDGF-B chain in virus-inoculated macrophage cultures. Reciprocally, addition of exogenous PDGF enhanced virus replication and MCP-1 expression in these cells. Inhibition of virus replication by tyrosine kinase inhibitor, STI-571, and by PDGF-B antisense oligonucleotides confirmed the specificity of the PDGF effect. Relevance of these findings was confirmed by analysis of archival brain tissue from SHIV encephalitic and non-encephalitic macaques for PDGF-B chain expression. PDGF-B chain protein expression was observed in the virus-infected cells in microglial nodules in the brains of SHIV-encephalitic macaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghava Potula
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, Marion Merrell Dow Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
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149
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Vlkolinský R, Siggins GR, Campbell IL, Krucker T. Acute exposure to CXC chemokine ligand 10, but not its chronic astroglial production, alters synaptic plasticity in mouse hippocampal slices. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 150:37-47. [PMID: 15081247 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2003] [Revised: 01/12/2004] [Accepted: 01/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Brain levels of CXC chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) are elevated in a number of neuropathological conditions. To determine its impact on neuronal function, we measured synaptic transmission and plasticity in hippocampal slices prepared from transgenic (TG) mice with chronic astroglial production of CXCL10. We also tested the acute effect of recombinant CXCL10 applied to slices from normal C57Bl/6J mice, CXCL10 TG mice and CXCR3 knock out (KO) mice. Chronic production of CXCL10 did not alter synaptic plasticity. By contrast, exogenous CXCL10 (10 ng/ml) significantly inhibited long-term potentiation (LTP) in slices from normal C57Bl/6J mice and CXCL10 TG. The effect was probably receptor-mediated because CXCL10-induced inhibition of LTP was not observed in CXCR3 KO mice. Our findings suggest that acute exposure to CXCL10 alters synaptic plasticity via CXCR3 in mouse hippocampus.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Astrocytes/immunology
- Astrocytes/metabolism
- Astrocytes/physiology
- Chemokine CXCL10
- Chemokines, CXC/biosynthesis
- Chemokines, CXC/genetics
- Chemokines, CXC/pharmacology
- Chemokines, CXC/physiology
- Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials/genetics
- Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials/immunology
- In Vitro Techniques
- Long-Term Potentiation/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mice, Transgenic
- Neural Inhibition/genetics
- Neural Inhibition/immunology
- Neuronal Plasticity/genetics
- Neuronal Plasticity/immunology
- Receptors, CXCR3
- Receptors, Chemokine/deficiency
- Receptors, Chemokine/genetics
- Receptors, Chemokine/physiology
- Recombinant Proteins/pharmacology
- Synapses/genetics
- Synapses/immunology
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Vlkolinský
- Department of Neuropharmacology, CVN-12, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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150
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Ambrosini E, Aloisi F. Chemokines and glial cells: a complex network in the central nervous system. Neurochem Res 2004. [PMID: 15139300 DOI: 10.1023/b: nere.0000021246.96864.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines are small secreted proteins that are essential for the recruitment and activation of specific leukocyte subsets at sites of inflammation and for the development and homeostasis of lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues. During the past decade, chemokines and their receptors have also emerged as key signaling molecules in neuroinflammatory processes and in the development and functioning of the central nervous system. Neurons and glial cells, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia, have been identified as cellular sources and/or targets of chemokines produced in the central nervous system in physiological and pathological conditions. In this article, we provide an update of chemokines and chemokine receptors expressed by glial cells focusing on their biological functions and implications in neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ambrosini
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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