101
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Leal-Morales A, Pulido-Sánchez M, López-Sánchez A, Govantes F. Transcriptional organization and regulation of the Pseudomonas putida flagellar system. Environ Microbiol 2021; 24:137-157. [PMID: 34859548 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A single region of the Pseudomonas putida genome, designated the flagellar cluster, includes 59 genes potentially involved in the biogenesis and function of the flagellar system. Here, we combine bioinformatics and in vivo gene expression analyses to clarify the transcriptional organization and regulation of the flagellar genes in the cluster. We have identified 11 flagellar operons and characterized 22 primary and internal promoter regions. Our results indicate that synthesis of the flagellar apparatus and core chemotaxis machinery is regulated by a three-tier cascade in which fleQ is a Class I gene, standing at the top of the transcriptional hierarchy. FleQ- and σ54 -dependent Class II genes encode most components of the flagellar structure, part of the chemotaxis machinery and multiple regulatory elements, including the flagellar σ factor FliA. FliA activation of Class III genes enables synthesis of the filament, one stator complex and completion of the chemotaxis apparatus. Accessory regulatory proteins and an intricate operon architecture add complexity to the regulation by providing feedback and feed-forward loops to the main circuit. Because of the high conservation of the gene arrangement and promoter motifs, we believe that the regulatory circuit presented here may also apply to other environmental pseudomonads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Leal-Morales
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo, Universidad Pablo de Olavide/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Junta de Andalucía and Departamento de Biología Molecular e Ingeniería Bioquímica, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Marta Pulido-Sánchez
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo, Universidad Pablo de Olavide/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Junta de Andalucía and Departamento de Biología Molecular e Ingeniería Bioquímica, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Aroa López-Sánchez
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo, Universidad Pablo de Olavide/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Junta de Andalucía and Departamento de Biología Molecular e Ingeniería Bioquímica, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Fernando Govantes
- Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo, Universidad Pablo de Olavide/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Junta de Andalucía and Departamento de Biología Molecular e Ingeniería Bioquímica, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla, Spain
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102
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Shariati A, Vesal S, Khoshbayan A, Goudarzi P, Darban-Sarokhalil D, Razavi S, Didehdar M, Chegini Z. Novel strategies for inhibition of bacterial biofilm in chronic rhinosinusitis. J Appl Microbiol 2021; 132:2531-2546. [PMID: 34856045 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
An important role has been recently reported for bacterial biofilm in the pathophysiology of chronic diseases, such as chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). CRS, affecting sinonasal mucosa, is a persistent inflammatory condition with a high prevalence around the world. Although the exact pathological mechanism of this disease has not been elicited yet, biofilm formation is known to lead to a more significant symptom burden and major objective clinical indicators. The high prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria has severely restricted the application of antibiotics in recent years. Furthermore, systemic antibiotic therapy, on top of its insufficient concentration to eradicate bacteria in the sinonasal biofilm, often causes toxicity, antibiotic resistance, and an effect on the natural microbiota, in patients. Thus, coming up with alternative therapeutic options instead of systemic antibiotic therapy is emphasized in the treatment of bacterial biofilm in CRS patients. The use of topical antibiotic therapy and antibiotic eluting sinus stents that induce higher antibiotic concentration, and decrease side effects could be helpful. Besides, recent research recognized that various natural products, nitric oxide, and bacteriophage therapy, in addition to the hindered biofilm formation, could degrade the established bacterial biofilm. However, despite these improvements, new antibacterial agents and CRS biofilm interactions are complicated and need extensive research. Finally, most studies were performed in vitro, and more preclinical animal models and human studies are required to confirm the collected data. The present review is specifically discussing potential therapeutic strategies for the treatment of bacterial biofilm in CRS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aref Shariati
- Molecular and Medicine Research Center, Khomein University of Medical Sciences, Khomein, Iran
| | - Soheil Vesal
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Basic Sciences and Advanced Technologies in Biology, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amin Khoshbayan
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parnian Goudarzi
- Department of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Davood Darban-Sarokhalil
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Microbial Biotechnology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shabnam Razavi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Microbial Biotechnology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Didehdar
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - Zahra Chegini
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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103
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Rather MA, Gupta K, Mandal M. Microbial biofilm: formation, architecture, antibiotic resistance, and control strategies. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:1701-1718. [PMID: 34558029 PMCID: PMC8578483 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00624-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The assembly of microorganisms over a surface and their ability to develop resistance against available antibiotics are major concerns of interest. To survive against harsh environmental conditions including known antibiotics, the microorganisms form a unique structure, referred to as biofilm. The mechanism of biofilm formation is triggered and regulated by quorum sensing, hostile environmental conditions, nutrient availability, hydrodynamic conditions, cell-to-cell communication, signaling cascades, and secondary messengers. Antibiotic resistance, escape of microbes from the body's immune system, recalcitrant infections, biofilm-associated deaths, and food spoilage are some of the problems associated with microbial biofilms which pose a threat to humans, veterinary, and food processing sectors. In this review, we focus in detail on biofilm formation, its architecture, composition, genes and signaling cascades involved, and multifold antibiotic resistance exhibited by microorganisms dwelling within biofilms. We also highlight different physical, chemical, and biological biofilm control strategies including those based on plant products. So, this review aims at providing researchers the knowledge regarding recent advances on the mechanisms involved in biofilm formation at the molecular level as well as the emergent method used to get rid of antibiotic-resistant and life-threatening biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muzamil Ahmad Rather
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University (A Central University), Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India
| | - Kuldeep Gupta
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University (A Central University), Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India
| | - Manabendra Mandal
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University (A Central University), Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India.
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104
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Chen CY, Zhuang KW, Chang YH, Nagarajan D, Huang CC, Chang JS. Basic oxygen furnace slag as a support material for the cultivation of indigenous marine microalgae. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 342:125968. [PMID: 34563825 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Attached cultivation of microalgae is a suitable strategy for attaining high biomass productivity with effortless harvesting. This study evaluates the feasibility of using Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag (BOFS) as a carrier for microalgae cultivation. Among the three indigenous microalgae (namely, Chlorella sorokiniana PTC13, Tetraselmis suecica SC5, and Nannochloropsis oceanica DG), which were examined for their capability of attached growth on BOFS, T. suecica SC5 showed the best attached-growth performance (2.52 mg/g slag). Optimizing the cultivation parameters (agitation rate, 200 rpm; added sodium acetate, 1 g/L; light intensity, 300 µmol/m2/s) further enhanced the attached biomass yield to 6.38 mg/g slag. The microalgae-attached slag can be used as the seed for re-growth for three additional cycles and the biomass yield and productivity both enhanced from 6.00 to 11.58 mg/g slag and 497 to 760 mg/L/d, respectively. This study demonstrated the potential of using T. suecica SC5-attached BOFS to construct artificial reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yen Chen
- University Center for Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Wei Zhuang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Han Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Dillirani Nagarajan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; Department of Chemical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chieh-Chen Huang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Jo-Shu Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Tunghai University, Taichung 407, Taiwan; Research Center for Smart Sustainable Circular Economy, Tunghai University, Taichung 407, Taiwan.
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105
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Liu T, Li G, Wu X, Chen S, Zhang S, Han H, Zhang H, Luo X, Cai X, Ma D. Β-Cyclodextrin-graft-poly(amidoamine) dendrons as the nitric oxide deliver system for the chronic rhinosinusitis therapy. Drug Deliv 2021; 28:306-318. [PMID: 33509000 PMCID: PMC7850337 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2021.1876183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is a rather prevalent condition with a chronic inflammatory process, which is hard to cure. Herein, a new antibacterial drug, nitric oxide (NO), was used for the attempt on CRS therapy. To achieve this, a star copolymer (β-CD-PAMAM) consisting of the β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) core and seven PAMAM-G3 arms, which was designed as a low-cytotoxicity and high NO loading carrier, were synthesized and characterizied. The obtained β-CD-PAMAM/NONOate showed the effect in inhibiting and dispersing the biofilm of S. aureus, as well as the effective antibacterial performance, implying the promising application in CRS treatment. The in vivo assay confirmed that β-CD-PAMAM/NONOate displayed excellent therapy effect on CRS and significantly improved the symptoms of the experimental rats, which was no significant different in therapy effect with the clinical Rhinocort. Incorporated with its little toxicity in vitro and in vivo, the β-CD-PAMAM/NONOate was suggested a promising application in CRS therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guowei Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xidong Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangxi Testing Center of Medical Instruments, Nanchang, China
| | - Shaohua Chen
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Siyi Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hong Han
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hongbin Zhang
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoning Luo
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiang Cai
- Department of Light Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Polytechnic, Foshan, China
| | - Dong Ma
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Tumor Molecular Biology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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106
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Elgamoudi BA, Korolik V. Campylobacter Biofilms: Potential of Natural Compounds to Disrupt Campylobacter jejuni Transmission. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:12159. [PMID: 34830039 PMCID: PMC8617744 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial biofilms occur naturally in many environmental niches and can be a significant reservoir of infectious microbes in zoonotically transmitted diseases such as that caused by Campylobacter jejuni, the leading cause of acute human bacterial gastroenteritis world-wide. The greatest challenge in reducing the disease caused by this organism is reducing transmission of C. jejuni to humans from poultry via the food chain. Biofilms enhance the stress tolerance and antimicrobial resistance of the microorganisms they harbor and are considered to play a crucial role for Campylobacter spp. survival and transmission to humans. Unconventional approaches to control biofilms and to improve the efficacy of currently used antibiotics are urgently needed. This review summarizes the use plant- and microorganism-derived antimicrobial and antibiofilm compounds such as essential oils, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), polyphenolic extracts, algae extracts, probiotic-derived factors, d-amino acids (DAs) and glycolipid biosurfactants with potential to control biofilms formed by Campylobacter, and the suggested mechanisms of their action. Further investigation and use of such natural compounds could improve preventative and remedial strategies aimed to limit the transmission of campylobacters and other human pathogens via the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassam A. Elgamoudi
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia;
| | - Victoria Korolik
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia;
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia
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107
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Penesyan A, Paulsen IT, Kjelleberg S, Gillings MR. Three faces of biofilms: a microbial lifestyle, a nascent multicellular organism, and an incubator for diversity. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2021; 7:80. [PMID: 34759294 PMCID: PMC8581019 DOI: 10.1038/s41522-021-00251-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilms are organised heterogeneous assemblages of microbial cells that are encased within a self-produced matrix. Current estimates suggest that up to 80% of bacterial and archaeal cells reside in biofilms. Since biofilms are the main mode of microbial life, understanding their biology and functions is critical, especially as controlling biofilm growth is essential in industrial, infrastructure and medical contexts. Here we discuss biofilms both as collections of individual cells, and as multicellular biological individuals, and introduce the concept of biofilms as unique incubators of diversity for the microbial world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anahit Penesyan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
| | - Ian T Paulsen
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
| | - Staffan Kjelleberg
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, 60 Nanyang Drive, SBS-01N-27, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Michael R Gillings
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
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108
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Jia F, Peng Y, Li J, Li X, Yao H. Metagenomic prediction analysis of microbial aggregation in anammox-dominated community. WATER ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH : A RESEARCH PUBLICATION OF THE WATER ENVIRONMENT FEDERATION 2021; 93:2549-2558. [PMID: 33539607 DOI: 10.1002/wer.1529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Aggregation of anammox bacteria is essential to maintain high biomass concentrations and prevent the loss of biomass in anammox processes. PICRUSt (Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States) was used in this study to predict the metagenomic potentials and characterize the microbial community structure and functional features in anammox aggregates (e.g., sludge flocs, biofilms, and granules). The results showed that Candidatus Brocadia was the most dominant anammox genera in all aggregates (38.0% in flocs, 69.4% in biofilm, and 52.0% in granules) and the functional gene involved in the anammox process was detected in the highest amount in biofilms, followed by granules and flocs. Furthermore, the anammox microbial aggregation pathway was explored that anammox bacteria have strong motility and high capability for early attachment. Anammox bacteria could produce large amounts of EPS (extracellular polymeric substances) regulated by quinolone and transport to extracellular environment through type II secretion system. The strong ability of c-di-GMP (bis-(3'-5')-cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate) synthesis enabled a stable architectural structure of aggregation. This study elucidated the aggregation mechanism of anammox microorganisms at the genetic level to enhance the stability of anammox processes. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Candidatus Brocadia was the most dominant anammox genera in aggregates. Anammox bacteria have strong motility and high attachment capability. Anammox bacteria possess strong EPS synthesis regulated by quinolone. c-di-GMP synthesis enables a stable structure of aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangxu Jia
- Beijing International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Water Pollution Control Techniques for Antibiotics and Resistance Genes, School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
| | - Yongzhen Peng
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Engineering Research Center of Beijing, Key Laboratory of Beijing for Water Quality Science and Water Environment Recovery Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Jianwei Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Engineering Research Center of Beijing, Key Laboratory of Beijing for Water Quality Science and Water Environment Recovery Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiyao Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse Technology, Engineering Research Center of Beijing, Key Laboratory of Beijing for Water Quality Science and Water Environment Recovery Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Hong Yao
- Beijing International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Water Pollution Control Techniques for Antibiotics and Resistance Genes, School of Civil Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
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109
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An Z, Zhang X, Zheng Y, Wang ZW. Aerobic granulation of single culture protist. Process Biochem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2021.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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110
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Sentenac H, Loyau A, Leflaive J, Schmeller DS. The significance of biofilms to human, animal, plant and ecosystem health. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Sentenac
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement UMR 5245 Université de Toulouse CNRS INPT UPS Castanet‐Tolosan Cedex France
| | - Adeline Loyau
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement UMR 5245 Université de Toulouse CNRS INPT UPS Castanet‐Tolosan Cedex France
- Department of Experimental Limnology Leibniz‐Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB) Stechlin Germany
| | - Joséphine Leflaive
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement UMR 5245 Université de Toulouse CNRS INPT UPS Castanet‐Tolosan Cedex France
| | - Dirk S. Schmeller
- Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement UMR 5245 Université de Toulouse CNRS INPT UPS Castanet‐Tolosan Cedex France
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111
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Differential Surface Competition and Biofilm Invasion Strategies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14 and PAO1. J Bacteriol 2021; 203:e0026521. [PMID: 34516283 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00265-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains PA14 and PAO1 are among the two best-characterized model organisms used to study the mechanisms of biofilm formation while also representing two distinct lineages of P. aeruginosa. Previous work has shown that PA14 and PAO1 use different strategies for surface colonization; they also have different extracellular matrix composition and different propensities to disperse from biofilms back into the planktonic phase surrounding them. We expand on this work here by exploring the consequences of these different biofilm production strategies during direct competition. Using differentially labeled strains and microfluidic culture methods, we show that PAO1 can outcompete PA14 in direct competition during early colonization and subsequent biofilm growth, that they can do so in constant and perturbed environments, and that this advantage is specific to biofilm growth and requires production of the Psl polysaccharide. In contrast, P. aeruginosa PA14 is better able to invade preformed biofilms and is more inclined to remain surface-associated under starvation conditions. These data together suggest that while P. aeruginosa PAO1 and PA14 are both able to effectively colonize surfaces, they do so in different ways that are advantageous under different environmental settings. IMPORTANCE Recent studies indicate that P. aeruginosa PAO1 and PA14 use distinct strategies to initiate biofilm formation. We investigated whether their respective colonization and matrix secretion strategies impact their ability to compete under different biofilm-forming regimes. Our work shows that these different strategies do indeed impact how these strains fair in direct competition: PAO1 dominates during colonization of a naive surface, while PA14 is more effective in colonizing a preformed biofilm. These data suggest that even for very similar microbes there can be distinct strategies to successfully colonize and persist on surfaces during the biofilm life cycle.
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112
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Sierra Cacho D, Zamorano Sánchez DS, Xiqui-Vázquez ML, Viruega Góngora VI, Ramírez-Mata A, Baca BE. CdgC, a Cyclic-di-GMP Diguanylate Cyclase of Azospirillum baldaniorum Is Involved in Internalization to Wheat Roots. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:748393. [PMID: 34745182 PMCID: PMC8564387 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.748393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Azospirillum baldaniorum is a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR) capable of fixing nitrogen, the synthesis of several phytohormones including indole-acetic acid, and induction of plant defenses against phytopathogens. To establish a successful and prolonged bacteria-plant interaction, A. baldaniorum can form biofilms, bacterial communities embedded in a self-made matrix formed by extracellular polymeric substances which provide favorable conditions for survival. A key modulator of biofilm formation is the second messenger bis-(3'-5')-cyclic-dimeric-GMP (c-di-GMP), which is synthesized by diguanylate cyclases (DGC) and degraded by specific phosphodiesterases. In this study, we analyzed the contribution of a previously uncharacterized diguanylate cyclase designated CdgC, to biofilm formation and bacterial-plant interaction dynamics. We showed that CdgC is capable of altering c-di-GMP levels in a heterologous host, strongly supporting its function as a DGC. The deletion of cdgC resulted in alterations in the three-dimensional structure of biofilms in a nitrogen-source dependent manner. CdgC was required for optimal colonization of wheat roots. Since we also observed that CdgC played an important role in exopolysaccharide production, we propose that this signaling protein activates a physiological response that results in the strong attachment of bacteria to the roots, ultimately contributing to an optimal bacterium-plant interaction. Our results demonstrate that the ubiquitous second messenger c-di-GMP is a key factor in promoting plant colonization by the PGPR A. baldaniorum by allowing proficient internalization in wheat roots. Understanding the molecular basis of PGPR-plant interactions will enable the design of better biotechnological strategies of agro-industrial interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sierra Cacho
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Ciudad Universitaria, Puebla, Mexico
| | - David S. Zamorano Sánchez
- Programa de Biología de Sistemas y Biología Sintética, Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Maria Luisa Xiqui-Vázquez
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Ciudad Universitaria, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Víctor Iván Viruega Góngora
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Ciudad Universitaria, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Alberto Ramírez-Mata
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Ciudad Universitaria, Puebla, Mexico
| | - Beatriz E. Baca
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias Microbiológicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Ciudad Universitaria, Puebla, Mexico
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113
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Røder HL, Trivedi U, Russel J, Kragh KN, Herschend J, Thalsø-Madsen I, Tolker-Nielsen T, Bjarnsholt T, Burmølle M, Madsen JS. Biofilms can act as plasmid reserves in the absence of plasmid specific selection. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2021; 7:78. [PMID: 34620879 PMCID: PMC8497521 DOI: 10.1038/s41522-021-00249-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmids facilitate rapid bacterial adaptation by shuttling a wide variety of beneficial traits across microbial communities. However, under non-selective conditions, maintaining a plasmid can be costly to the host cell. Nonetheless, plasmids are ubiquitous in nature where bacteria adopt their dominant mode of life - biofilms. Here, we demonstrate that biofilms can act as spatiotemporal reserves for plasmids, allowing them to persist even under non-selective conditions. However, under these conditions, spatial stratification of plasmid-carrying cells may promote the dispersal of cells without plasmids, and biofilms may thus act as plasmid sinks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henriette Lyng Røder
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Urvish Trivedi
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jakob Russel
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kasper Nørskov Kragh
- Costerton Biofilm Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jakob Herschend
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ida Thalsø-Madsen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tim Tolker-Nielsen
- Costerton Biofilm Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas Bjarnsholt
- Costerton Biofilm Center, Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mette Burmølle
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Jonas Stenløkke Madsen
- Section of Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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114
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Shalev O, Ratzke C. A holistic view of host-associated microbial evolution. Trends Microbiol 2021; 29:961-962. [PMID: 34563431 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2021.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Microbes often live associated with other organisms. Whereas the impact of microbes on their hosts is well studied, what such a lifestyle means for the microbes is poorly understood. To address this gap, Bansept et al. explore how microbes could evolve to cope with altering between host-associated and host-free lifestyles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Or Shalev
- Systems Biology of Microbial Communities, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Cluster of Excellence 'Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections', University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Christoph Ratzke
- Systems Biology of Microbial Communities, Interfaculty Institute for Microbiology and Infection Medicine Tübingen (IMIT), Cluster of Excellence 'Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections', University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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115
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Nair HAS, Subramoni S, Poh WH, Hasnuddin NTB, Tay M, Givskov M, Tolker-Nielsen T, Kjelleberg S, McDougald D, Rice SA. Carbon starvation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms selects for dispersal insensitive mutants. BMC Microbiol 2021; 21:255. [PMID: 34551714 PMCID: PMC8459498 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-021-02318-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biofilms disperse in response to specific environmental cues, such as reduced oxygen concentration, changes in nutrient concentration and exposure to nitric oxide. Interestingly, biofilms do not completely disperse under these conditions, which is generally attributed to physiological heterogeneity of the biofilm. However, our results suggest that genetic heterogeneity also plays an important role in the non-dispersing population of P. aeruginosa in biofilms after nutrient starvation. RESULTS In this study, 12.2% of the biofilm failed to disperse after 4 d of continuous starvation-induced dispersal. Cells were recovered from the dispersal phase as well as the remaining biofilm. For 96 h starved biofilms, rugose small colony variants (RSCV) were found to be present in the biofilm, but were not observed in the dispersal effluent. In contrast, wild type and small colony variants (SCV) were found in high numbers in the dispersal phase. Genome sequencing of these variants showed that most had single nucleotide mutations in genes associated with biofilm formation, e.g. in wspF, pilT, fha1 and aguR. Complementation of those mutations restored starvation-induced dispersal from the biofilms. Because c-di-GMP is linked to biofilm formation and dispersal, we introduced a c-di-GMP reporter into the wild-type P. aeruginosa and monitored green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression before and after starvation-induced dispersal. Post dispersal, the microcolonies were smaller and significantly brighter in GFP intensity, suggesting the relative concentration of c-di-GMP per cell within the microcolonies was also increased. Furthermore, only the RSCV showed increased c-di-GMP, while wild type and SCV were no different from the parental strain. CONCLUSIONS This suggests that while starvation can induce dispersal from the biofilm, it also results in strong selection for mutants that overproduce c-di-GMP and that fail to disperse in response to the dispersal cue, starvation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harikrishnan A S Nair
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore.,Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Singapore, Singapore.,Present address: Eppendorf AG, Barkhausenweg 1, 22339, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sujatha Subramoni
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wee Han Poh
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Martin Tay
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore.,Present address: Public Utilities Board, Government of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Michael Givskov
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore.,Costerton Biofilm Center, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tim Tolker-Nielsen
- Costerton Biofilm Center, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Staffan Kjelleberg
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Diane McDougald
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore. .,The Ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Scott A Rice
- The Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Singapore, Singapore. .,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore. .,The Ithree Institute, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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116
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Yuan S, Xu R, Wang D, Lin Q, Zhou S, Lin J, Xia L, Fu Y, Gan Z, Meng F. Ecological Linkages between a Biofilm Ecosystem and Reactor Performance: The Specificity of Biofilm Development Phases. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:11948-11960. [PMID: 34415760 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In biofilm-based engineered ecosystems, the reactor performance was closely linked to interspecies interactions within a biofilm ecosystem, whereas the ecological processes underpinning such linkage were still unenlightened. Herein, the principles of community succession and assembly were integrated to capture the ecological laws of biofilm development by molecular ecological networks and assembly model analysis based on the 16S rRNA sequencing analysis and metagenomics in a well-controlled moving bed biofilm reactor. At the initial colonization phase (days 0-2, driven by initial colonizers), interspecific cooperation (74.18%) facilitated initial biofilm formation, whereas some pioneers, and keystone species disappeared at later phases. At the accumulation phase (days 3-30, rapid biofilm development), interspecific cooperation (81.41 ± 5.07%) contributed to rapid biofilm development and keystone species were mainly involved in quorum sensing or positively correlated with extracellular polymeric substance production. At the maturation phase (days 31-106, a well-adapted quasi-equilibrium state), increased interspecific competition (32.74 ± 4.77%) and higher small-world property facilitated the rapid information transportation and pollutant treatment, and keystone species were positively correlated with the removal of COD and NH4+-N. Homogenizing dispersal diminished the contemporary community dissimilarities, while turnover but rather nestedness governed the temporal variations in the biofilm succession period. This study highlighted the specificity of ecological processes at distinct biofilm development phases, which would advance our understanding on the development-to-function linkages in biofilm-based treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasha Yuan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Ronghua Xu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Depeng Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Qining Lin
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Shunyi Zhou
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Jieying Lin
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Lichao Xia
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Yue Fu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Zhihao Gan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
| | - Fangang Meng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology (Sun Yat-sen University), Guangzhou 510275, P. R. China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Pollution Control and Waste Utilization in Livestock and Poultry Production, Changsha, Hunan 410125, P. R. China
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117
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Joshi JR, Khazanov N, Charkowski A, Faigenboim A, Senderowitz H, Yedidia I. Interkingdom Signaling Interference: The Effect of Plant-Derived Small Molecules on Quorum Sensing in Plant-Pathogenic Bacteria. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2021; 59:153-190. [PMID: 33951403 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-020620-095740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In the battle between bacteria and plants, bacteria often use a population density-dependent regulatory system known as quorum sensing (QS) to coordinate virulence gene expression. In response, plants use innate and induced defense mechanisms that include low-molecular-weight compounds, some of which serve as antivirulence agents by interfering with the QS machinery. The best-characterized QS system is driven by the autoinducer N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL), which is produced by AHL synthases (LuxI homologs) and perceived by response regulators (LuxR homologs). Several plant compounds have been shown to directly inhibit LuxI or LuxR. Gaining atomic-level insight into their mode of action and how they interfere with QS enzymes supports the identification and design of novel QS inhibitors.Such information can be gained by combining experimental work with molecular modeling and docking simulations. The summary of these findings shows that plant-derived compounds act as interkingdom cues and that these allomones specifically target bacterial communication systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janak Raj Joshi
- Department of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Lezion, Israel 7528809;
- Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | - Netaly Khazanov
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel 5290002;
| | - Amy Charkowski
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA
| | - Adi Faigenboim
- Department of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Lezion, Israel 7528809;
| | - Hanoch Senderowitz
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel 5290002;
| | - Iris Yedidia
- Department of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Rishon Lezion, Israel 7528809;
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118
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Plastic cell morphology changes during dispersal. iScience 2021; 24:102915. [PMID: 34430806 PMCID: PMC8367785 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Dispersal is the movement of organisms from one habitat to another that potentially results in gene flow. It is often plastic, allowing organisms to adjust dispersal movements depending on environmental conditions. A fundamental aim in ecology is to understand the determinants underlying dispersal and its plasticity. We utilized 22 strains of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila to determine if different phenotypic dispersal strategies co-exist within a species and which mechanisms underlie this variability. We quantified the cell morphologies impacting cell motility and dispersal. Distinct differences in innate cellular morphology and dispersal rates were detected, but no universally utilized combinations of morphological parameters correlate with dispersal. Rather, multiple distinct and plastic morphological changes impact cilia-dependent motility during dispersal, especially in proficient dispersing strains facing challenging environmental conditions. Combining ecology and cell biology experiments, we show that dispersal can be promoted through plastic motility-associated changes to cell morphology and motile cilia.
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119
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Feng S, Qiu Y, Huang Z, Yin Y, Zhang H, Zhu D, Tong Y, Yang H. The adaptation mechanisms of Acidithiobacillus caldus CCTCC M 2018054 to extreme acid stress: Bioleaching performance, physiology, and transcriptomics. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 199:111341. [PMID: 34015291 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
To understand the acid-resistant mechanism of bioleaching microorganism Acidithiobacillus caldus CCTCC M 2018054, its physiology and metabolic changes at the transcriptional level under extreme acid stress were systemically studied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared reflection (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that with an increase in acidity, the absorption peak of sulfur oxidation-related functional groups such as S-O decreased significantly, and a dense sulfur passivation film appeared on the surface of the ore. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) revealed that coverage scale of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) and biofilm fluctuated accordingly along with the increasing acid stress (pH-stat 1.5, 1.2 0.9 and 0.6) during the bioleaching process. In response to acid stress, the increased levels of intracellular glutamic acid, alanine, cysteine, and proline contributed to the maintenance of intracellular pH homeostasis via decarboxylation and alkaline neutralization. Higher unsaturated fatty acid content was closely related to membrane fluidity. Up to 490 and 447 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at pH 1.5 vs pH 1.2 and pH 1.2 vs pH 0.9, respectively, and 177 common DEGs were associated with two-component system (TCS) regulation, transporter regulation, energy metabolism, and stress response. The upregulation of kdpB helped cells defend against proton invasion, whereas the downregulation of cysB and cbl implied stronger oxidation of sulfur compounds. The transcriptional level of sqr, sor, and soxA was significantly increased and consolidated the energy supply needed for resisting acid stress. Furthermore, eight of the identified DEGs (sor, cbl, ompA, atpF, nuoH, nuoC, sqr, grxB) were verified as being related to the acid stress response process. This study contributes toward expanding the application of these acidophiles in industrial bioleaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoushuai Feng
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology (Jiangnan University) Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Yongkang Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology (Jiangnan University) Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhuangzhuang Huang
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology (Jiangnan University) Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Yijun Yin
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology (Jiangnan University) Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Hailing Zhang
- Department of Biological Engineering, College of Life Science, Yantai University, Shandong, 408100, China
| | - Deqiang Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, 250353, China
| | - Yanjun Tong
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology (Jiangnan University) Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.
| | - Hailin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology (Jiangnan University) Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, China.
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120
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Liao Y, Ye Z, Qian M, Wang X, Guo Y, Han G, Song Y, Hou J, Liu Y. Photoactive NO hybrids with pseudo-zero-order release kinetics for antimicrobial applications. Org Biomol Chem 2021; 18:5473-5480. [PMID: 32643744 DOI: 10.1039/d0ob00564a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial infection is a major threat to the health and life of humans due to the development of drug resistance, which is related to biofilm formation. Nitric oxide (NO) has emerged as an important factor in regulating biofilm formation. In order to harness the potential benefits of NO and develop effective antibacterial agents, we designed and synthesized a new class of NO hybrids in which the active scaffold benzothienoazepine was tagged with a nitroso group and further conjugated with quaternary ammoniums or phosphoniums. The temporal release of NO from these hybrids can be achieved by photoactivation. Interestingly, the NO release follows a pseudo-zero-order kinetics, which is easily determined by measuring the fluorescent benzothienoazepine or NO. Compared to the positive control ciprofloxacin, the NO hybrid with triphenyl phosphonium (TPP) exhibited more effective activity against S. aureus biofilm in darkness. Irradiation of the NO hybrid led to higher inhibition against S. aureus biofilm compared to the parental NO hybrid in darkness or the corresponding NO-released product, indicating the combined effect of NO and the NO-released product. Therefore, this new class of NO hybrids includes very promising antimicrobial agents and this work provides a new way for the design of highly effective antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongfang Liao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Zizhen Ye
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Meng Qian
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Xing Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Yuda Guo
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Guifang Han
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Yuguang Song
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Jingli Hou
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
| | - Yangping Liu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory on Technologies Enabling Development of Clinical Therapeutics and Diagnostics, School of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300070, P. R. China.
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121
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Ruhal R, Kataria R. Biofilm patterns in gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Microbiol Res 2021; 251:126829. [PMID: 34332222 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2021.126829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are attributable to matrix-enclosed aggregates known as biofilms. Biofilms are root cause of industrial biofouling and characterized by antimicrobial resistance during infections. Many biofilm studies examine specific Gram type cultures, whereas nearly all biofilm communities in nature comprise both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Thus, a greater understanding of the conserved themes in biofilm formation is required for common therapeutics. We tried to focus on common components which exist at each stage of biofilm development and regulation. The Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and cell wall glyco-polymers of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria seem to play similar roles during initial adhesion. The inhibition of the polymerization of amyloid-like proteins might impact the biofilms of both Gram-type bacteria. Enzymatic degradation of matrix components by glycoside hydrolase and DNase (nuclease) may disrupt both Gram-type biofilms. An additional common feature is the presence of membrane vesicles, and the potential of these vesicles requires further investigation. Genetic regulation by c-di-GMP is prominent in Gram-negative bacteria. However, quorum sensing (QS) may play a common regulation during biofilms dispersal. These studies are significant not only for common therapeutic against mixed biofilms, but for better understanding of bacterial interactions within natural or host infection environment as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohit Ruhal
- Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Faridabad, India.
| | - Rashmi Kataria
- Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
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122
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Niederdorfer R, Fragner L, Yuan L, Hausherr D, Wei J, Magyar P, Joss A, Lehmann MF, Ju F, Bürgmann H. Distinct growth stages controlled by the interplay of deterministic and stochastic processes in functional anammox biofilms. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 200:117225. [PMID: 34052477 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Mainstream anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) represents one of the most promising energy-efficient mechanisms of fixed nitrogen elimination from wastewaters. However, little is known about the exact processes and drivers of microbial community assembly within the complex microbial biofilms that support anammox in engineered ecosystems. Here, we followed anammox biofilm development on fresh carriers in an established 8m3 mainstream anammox reactor that is exposed to seasonal temperature changes (~25-12°C) and varying NH4+ concentrations (5-25 mg/L). We use fluorescence in situ hybridization and 16S rRNA gene sequencing to show that three distinct stages of biofilm development emerge naturally from microbial community composition and biofilm structure. Neutral modelling and network analysis are employed to elucidate the relative importance of stochastic versus deterministic processes and synergistic and antagonistic interactions in the biofilms during their development. We find that the different phases are characterized by a dynamic succession and an interplay of both stochastic and deterministic processes. The observed growth stages (Colonization, Succession and Maturation) appear to be the prerequisite for the anticipated growth of anammox bacteria and for reaching a biofilm community structure that supports the desired metabolic and functional capacities observed for biofilm carriers already present in the system (~100gNH4-N m3 d-1). We discuss the relevance of this improved understanding of anammox-community ecology and biofilm development in the context of its practical application in the start-up, configuration, and optimization of anammox biofilm reactors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Niederdorfer
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Surface Waters-Research and Management, 6047 Kastanienbaum, Switzerland.
| | - Lisa Fragner
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Surface Waters-Research and Management, 6047 Kastanienbaum, Switzerland
| | - Ling Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environment and Resources of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Damian Hausherr
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Process Engineering, 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Jing Wei
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution & Environmental Technology, 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Paul Magyar
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Adriano Joss
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Process Engineering, 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Moritz F Lehmann
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Feng Ju
- Key Laboratory of Coastal Environment and Resources of Zhejiang Province, School of Engineering, Westlake University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Helmut Bürgmann
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, Department of Surface Waters-Research and Management, 6047 Kastanienbaum, Switzerland
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123
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Alonso VPP, de Oliveira Morais J, Kabuki DY. Incidence of Bacillus cereus, Bacillus sporothermodurans and Geobacillus stearothermophilus in ultra-high temperature milk and biofilm formation capacity of isolates. Int J Food Microbiol 2021; 354:109318. [PMID: 34246014 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2021.109318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of mesophilic and thermophilic spore-forming bacteria in UHT milk, as well as biofilm formation in dairy plants, are concerning. The current study explored the spore-forming bacilli diversity in 100 samples of UHT milk (skimmed and whole). Through this work, a total of 239 isolates from UHT milk samples were obtained. B. cereus s.s. was isolated from 7 samples, B. sporothermodurans from 19 and, G. stearothermophilus from 25 samples. Genes encoding hemolysin (HBL), and non-hemolytic (NHE) enterotoxins were detected in B. cereus s.s. isolates. All isolates of B. cereus s.s. (12) B. sporothermodurans (38), and G. stearothermophilus (47) were selected to verify the ability of biofilm formation in microtiter plates. The results showed all isolates could form biofilms. The OD595 values of biofilm formation varied between 0.14 and 1.04 for B. cereus, 0.20 to 1.87 for B. sporothermodurans, and 0.49 to 2.77 for G. stearothermophilus. The data highlights that the dairy industry needs to reinforce control in the initial quality of the raw material and in CIP cleaning procedures; avoiding biofilm formation and consequently a persistent microbiota in processing plants, which can shelter pathogenic species such as B. cereus s.s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Pereira Perez Alonso
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Food Engineering, State University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
| | - Jéssica de Oliveira Morais
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Food Engineering, State University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Dirce Yorika Kabuki
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Food Engineering, State University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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124
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Krol E, Schäper S, Becker A. Cyclic di-GMP signaling controlling the free-living lifestyle of alpha-proteobacterial rhizobia. Biol Chem 2021; 401:1335-1348. [PMID: 32990642 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2020-0232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic-di-GMP (c-di-GMP) is a ubiquitous bacterial second messenger which has been associated with a motile to sessile lifestyle switch in many bacteria. Here, we review recent insights into c-di-GMP regulated processes related to environmental adaptations in alphaproteobacterial rhizobia, which are diazotrophic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen in symbiosis with their leguminous host plants. The review centers on Sinorhizobium meliloti, which in the recent years was intensively studied for its c-di-GMP regulatory network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizaveta Krol
- Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO), Philipps-Universität Marburg, D-35032 Marburg, Germany.,Department of Biology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, D-35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Simon Schäper
- Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO), Philipps-Universität Marburg, D-35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Anke Becker
- Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO), Philipps-Universität Marburg, D-35032 Marburg, Germany.,Department of Biology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, D-35032 Marburg, Germany
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125
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Pashang R, Gilbride KA. From individual response to population ecology: Environmental factors restricting survival of vegetative bacteria at solid-air interfaces. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 773:144982. [PMID: 33592458 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.144982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Combating microbial survival on dry surfaces contributes to improving public health in indoor environments (clinical and industrial settings) and extends to the natural environment. For vegetative bacteria at solid-air interfaces, lack of water impacts cellular response, and acclimation depends on community support in response to ecological processes. Gaining insights about important ecological processes leading to inhibition of microbial survival under extreme conditions, such as vicinity of highly radioactive nuclear waste, is key for improving engineering designs. Canada plans to store used nuclear fuel and radioactive waste in a deep geological repository (DGR) with a multiple-barrier system constructed at an approximate depth of 500 m. Microorganisms in highly compacted bentonite surrounding used fuel containers will be challenged by high pressure, temperature, and radiation, as well as limited water and nutrients. Thus, it is difficult to estimate microbial activities, given that the prime concern for a microbial community is survival, and energy expenditure is regulated. To enable preventive measures and for risk evaluation, a deeper understanding of community-based survival strategies of bacterial cells exposed to air (gaseous phase) during prolonged periods of desiccation is required. An in-depth review of collective studies that assess microbial survival and persistence during desiccation is presented here to augment and direct our prior knowledge about tactics used by bacteria for survival at interfaces in hostile natural environments including and similar to a DGR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosha Pashang
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberley A Gilbride
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada; Ryerson Urban Water Group, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada.
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126
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Sahoo A, Swain SS, Behera A, Sahoo G, Mahapatra PK, Panda SK. Antimicrobial Peptides Derived From Insects Offer a Novel Therapeutic Option to Combat Biofilm: A Review. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:661195. [PMID: 34248873 PMCID: PMC8265172 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.661195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms form a complex layer with defined structures, that attach on biotic or abiotic surfaces, are tough to eradicate and tend to cause some resistance against most antibiotics. Several studies confirmed that biofilm-producing bacteria exhibit higher resistance compared to the planktonic form of the same species. Antibiotic resistance factors are well understood in planktonic bacteria which is not so in case of biofilm producing forms. This may be due to the lack of available drugs with known resistance mechanisms for biofilms. Existing antibiotics cannot eradicate most biofilms, especially of ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species). Insects produce complex and diverse set of chemicals for survival and defense. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), produced by most insects, generally have a broad spectrum of activity and the potential to bypass the resistance mechanisms of classical antibiotics. Besides, AMPs may well act synergistically with classical antibiotics for a double-pronged attack on infections. Thus, AMPs could be promising alternatives to overcome medically important biofilms, decrease the possibility of acquired resistance and treatment of multidrug-resistant pathogens including ESKAPE. The present review focuses on insect-derived AMPs with special reference to anti-biofilm-based strategies. It covers the AMP composition, pathways and mechanisms of action, the formation of biofilms, impact of biofilms on human diseases, current strategies as well as therapeutic options to combat biofilm with antimicrobial peptides from insects. In addition, the review also illustrates the importance of bioinformatics tools and molecular docking studies to boost the importance of select bioactive peptides those can be developed as drugs, as well as suggestions for further basic and clinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaka Sahoo
- Department of Skin & VD, Institute of Medical Sciences, SUM Hospital, Siksha O Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Shasank Sekhar Swain
- Division of Microbiology & NCDs, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Ayusman Behera
- Department of Zoology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada, India
| | - Gunanidhi Sahoo
- Department of Zoology, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, India
| | | | - Sujogya Kumar Panda
- Centre of Environment, Climate Change and Public Health, RUSA 2.0, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, India
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127
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Wang L, Peng R, Liu X, Heng C, Miao Y, Wang W, Carrier A, Oakes K, Zhang X. Nitrite-enhanced copper-based Fenton reactions for biofilm removal. Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:5514-5517. [PMID: 33955439 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc00374g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Unwanted biofilms present challenges for many industries. Herein an innovative biofilm removal technology was developed based on nitrite-accelerated Fenton chemistry, where both dissolved Cu ions and nano-CuO surfaces efficiently generate reactive nitrogen species as disinfectants. This simple, efficient, and cost-effective approach for biofilm removal generates important insights into Fenton chemistry, a fundamental mechanism in nature, considering the ubiquity of copper, hydrogen peroxide, and nitrite in the environment, biological systems, and various industrial processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
| | - Rui Peng
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
| | - Xue Liu
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
| | - Chendi Heng
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
| | - Yanni Miao
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310018, China.
| | - Andrew Carrier
- Department of Chemistry, Cape Breton University, Sydney, Nova Scotia B1P 6L2, Canada.
| | - Ken Oakes
- Department of Biology, Cape Breton University, Sydney, Nova Scotia B1P 6L2, Canada
| | - Xu Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Cape Breton University, Sydney, Nova Scotia B1P 6L2, Canada.
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128
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Ozer E, Yaniv K, Chetrit E, Boyarski A, Meijler MM, Berkovich R, Kushmaro A, Alfonta L. An inside look at a biofilm: Pseudomonas aeruginosa flagella biotracking. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabg8581. [PMID: 34117070 PMCID: PMC8195488 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg8581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a flagellated bacterium, is one of the top model organisms for biofilm studies. To elucidate the location of bacterial flagella throughout the biofilm life cycle, we developed a new flagella biotracking tool. Bacterial flagella were site-specifically labeled via genetic code expansion. This enabled us to track bacterial flagella during biofilm maturation. Live flagella imaging revealed the presence and synthesis of flagella throughout the biofilm life cycle. To study the possible role of flagella in a biofilm, we produced a flagella knockout strain and compared its biofilm to that of the wild-type strain. Results showed a one order of magnitude stronger biofilm structure in the wild type in comparison with the flagella knockout strain. This suggests a possible structural role for flagella in a biofilm, conceivably as a scaffold. Our findings suggest a new model for biofilm maturation dynamic which underscores the importance of direct evidence from within the biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eden Ozer
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Karin Yaniv
- Avram and Stella Goldstein-Goren Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Einat Chetrit
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Anastasya Boyarski
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Michael M Meijler
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
- National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Ronen Berkovich
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Ariel Kushmaro
- Avram and Stella Goldstein-Goren Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Lital Alfonta
- Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
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129
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Azevedo NF, Allkja J, Goeres DM. Biofilms vs. cities and humans vs. aliens - a tale of reproducibility in biofilms. Trends Microbiol 2021; 29:1062-1071. [PMID: 34088548 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biofilms are complex and dynamic structures that include many more components than just viable cells. Therefore, the apparently simple goal of growing reproducible biofilms is often elusive. One of the challenges in defining reproducibility for biofilm research is that different research fields use a spectrum of parameters to define reproducibility for their particular application. For instance, is the researcher interested in achieving a similar population density, height of biofilm structures, or function of the biofilm in a certain ecosystem/industrial context? Within this article we categorize reproducibility into four different levels: level 1, no reproducibility; level 2, standard reproducibility; level 3, potential standard reproducibility; and level 4, total reproducibility. To better understand the need for these different levels of reproducibility, we expand on the 'cities of microbes' analogy for biofilms by imagining that a new civilization has reached the Earth's outskirts and starts studying the Earth's cities. This will provide a better sense of scale and illustrate how small details can impact profoundly on the growth and behavior of a biofilm and our understanding of reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno F Azevedo
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology, and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Jontana Allkja
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology, and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Darla M Goeres
- Montana State University, Center for Biofilm Engineering, 366 Barnard Hall, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
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130
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Abstract
Viruses play an essential role in shaping microbial community structures and serve as reservoirs for genetic diversity in many ecosystems. In hyperarid desert environments, where life itself becomes scarce and loses diversity, the interactions between viruses and host populations have remained elusive. Here, we resolved host-virus interactions in the soil metagenomes of the Atacama Desert hyperarid core, one of the harshest terrestrial environments on Earth. We show evidence of diverse viruses infecting a wide range of hosts found in sites up to 205 km apart. Viral genomes carried putative extremotolerance features (i.e., spore formation proteins) and auxiliary metabolic genes, indicating that viruses could mediate the spread of microbial resilience against environmental stress across the desert. We propose a mutualistic model of host-virus interactions in the hyperarid core where viruses seek protection in microbial cells as lysogens or pseudolysogens, while viral extremotolerance genes aid survival of their hosts. Our results suggest that the host-virus interactions in the Atacama Desert soils are dynamic and complex, shaping uniquely adapted microbiomes in this highly selective and hostile environment.IMPORTANCE Deserts are one of the largest and rapidly expanding terrestrial ecosystems characterized by low biodiversity and biomass. The hyperarid core of the Atacama Desert, previously thought to be devoid of life, is one of the harshest environments, supporting only scant biomass of highly adapted microbes. While there is growing evidence that viruses play essential roles in shaping the diversity and structure of nearly every ecosystem, very little is known about the role of viruses in desert soils, especially where viral contact with viable hosts is significantly reduced. Our results demonstrate that diverse viruses are widely dispersed across the desert, potentially spreading key stress resilience and metabolic genes to ensure host survival. The desertification accelerated by climate change expands both the ecosystem cover and the ecological significance of the desert virome. This study sheds light on the complex virus-host interplay that shapes the unique microbiome in desert soils.
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131
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Zhang K, Raju C, Zhong W, Pethe K, Gründling A, Chan-Park MB. Cationic Glycosylated Block Co-β-peptide Acts on the Cell Wall of Gram-Positive Bacteria as Anti-biofilm Agents. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021; 4:3749-3761. [PMID: 35006805 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance is a global threat. In addition to the emergence of resistance to last resort drugs, bacteria escape antibiotics killing by forming complex biofilms. Strategies to tackle antibiotic resistance as well as biofilms are urgently needed. Wall teichoic acid (WTA), a generic anionic glycopolymer present on the cell surface of many Gram-positive bacteria, has been proposed as a possible therapeutic target, but its druggability remains to be demonstrated. Here we report a cationic glycosylated block co-β-peptide that binds to WTA. By doing so, the co-β-peptide not only inhibits biofilm formation, it also disperses preformed biofilms in several Gram-positive bacteria and resensitizes methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to oxacillin. The cationic block of the co-β-peptide physically interacts with the anionic WTA within the cell envelope, whereas the glycosylated block forms a nonfouling corona around the bacteria. This reduces physical interaction between bacteria-substrate and bacteria-biofilm matrix, leading to biofilm inhibition and dispersal. The WTA-targeting co-β-peptide is a promising lead for the future development of broad-spectrum anti-biofilm strategies against Gram-positive bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaixi Zhang
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459
| | - Cheerlavancha Raju
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459
| | - Wenbin Zhong
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459
| | - Kevin Pethe
- Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 636921.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551
| | - Angelika Gründling
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Flowers Building London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Mary B Chan-Park
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459.,Centre for Antimicrobial Bioengineering, Nanyang Technological University, 62 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637459.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 636921
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132
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King WL, Bell TH. Can dispersal be leveraged to improve microbial inoculant success? Trends Biotechnol 2021; 40:12-21. [PMID: 33972105 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2021.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms have long been isolated from soils to develop microbial inoculants, with the goal of spiking them into new soils to augment target functions. However, establishment can be sporadic, and we assume that inoculants simply arrive at their destination. Here, we posit a need for integrating dispersal into inoculant development and deployment. We argue that consideration for an inoculant's dispersal ability, whether via active (e.g., chemotaxis) or passive (e.g., attachment to other organisms) means, and including methods of deployment that allow multiple establishment attempts could help increase the predictability of inoculant success. Dispersal can influence many key aspects of in-field survival, including the ability to escape stressors, seek favorable colonization sites, facilitate multiple establishment attempts, and engage in multikingdom interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- William L King
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
| | - Terrence H Bell
- Department of Plant Pathology and Environmental Microbiology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA; Intercollege Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
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133
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van Gestel J, Wagner A. Cryptic surface-associated multicellularity emerges through cell adhesion and its regulation. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001250. [PMID: 33983920 PMCID: PMC8148357 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The repeated evolution of multicellularity led to a wide diversity of organisms, many of which are sessile, including land plants, many fungi, and colonial animals. Sessile organisms adhere to a surface for most of their lives, where they grow and compete for space. Despite the prevalence of surface-associated multicellularity, little is known about its evolutionary origin. Here, we introduce a novel theoretical approach, based on spatial lineage tracking of cells, to study this origin. We show that multicellularity can rapidly evolve from two widespread cellular properties: cell adhesion and the regulatory control of adhesion. By evolving adhesion, cells attach to a surface, where they spontaneously give rise to primitive cell collectives that differ in size, life span, and mode of propagation. Selection in favor of large collectives increases the fraction of adhesive cells until a surface becomes fully occupied. Through kin recognition, collectives then evolve a central-peripheral polarity in cell adhesion that supports a division of labor between cells and profoundly impacts growth. Despite this spatial organization, nascent collectives remain cryptic, lack well-defined boundaries, and would require experimental lineage tracking technologies for their identification. Our results suggest that cryptic multicellularity could readily evolve and originate well before multicellular individuals become morphologically evident.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi van Gestel
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Wagner
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
- The Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
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134
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Greer HM, Overton K, Ferguson MA, Spain EM, Darling LEO, Núñez ME, Volle CB. Extracellular Polymeric Substance Protects Some Cells in an Escherichia coli Biofilm from the Biomechanical Consequences of Treatment with Magainin 2. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9050976. [PMID: 33946431 PMCID: PMC8147140 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9050976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial biofilms have long been recognized as a source of persistent infections and industrial contamination with their intransigence generally attributed to their protective layer of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). EPS, consisting of secreted nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides, make it difficult to fully eliminate biofilms by conventional chemical or physical means. Since most bacteria are capable of forming biofilms, understanding how biofilms respond to new antibiotic compounds and components of the immune system has important ramifications. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are both potential novel antibiotic compounds and part of the immune response in many different organisms. Here, we use atomic force microscopy to investigate the biomechanical changes that occur in individual cells when a biofilm is exposed to the AMP magainin 2 (MAG2), which acts by permeabilizing bacterial membranes. While MAG2 is able to prevent biofilm initiation, cells in an established biofilm can withstand exposure to high concentrations of MAG2. Treated cells in the biofilm are classified into two distinct populations after treatment: one population of cells is indistinguishable from untreated cells, maintaining cellular turgor pressure and a smooth outer surface, and the second population of cells are softer than untreated cells and have a rough outer surface after treatment. Notably, the latter population is similar to planktonic cells treated with MAG2. The EPS likely reduces the local MAG2 concentration around the stiffer cells since once the EPS was enzymatically removed, all cells became softer and had rough outer surfaces. Thus, while MAG2 appears to have the same mechanism of action in biofilm cells as in planktonic ones, MAG2 cannot eradicate a biofilm unless coupled with the removal of the EPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen M. Greer
- Department of Biology, Cottey College, Nevada, MO 64772, USA; (H.M.G.); (K.O.)
| | - Kanesha Overton
- Department of Biology, Cottey College, Nevada, MO 64772, USA; (H.M.G.); (K.O.)
| | - Megan A. Ferguson
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York, New Paltz, NY 12561, USA;
| | - Eileen M. Spain
- Department of Chemistry, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA 90041, USA;
| | - Louise E. O. Darling
- Department of Biological Sciences and Program in Biochemistry, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA;
| | - Megan E. Núñez
- Department of Chemistry and Program in Biochemistry, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA 02481, USA;
| | - Catherine B. Volle
- Departments of Biology and Chemistry, Cornell College, Mount Vernon, IA 52314, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(319)-895-4413
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135
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Abstract
Introduction: As a result of progress in medical care, a huge number of medical devices are used in the treatment of human diseases. In turn, biofilm-related infection has become a growing threat due to the tolerance of biofilms to antimicrobials, a problem magnified by the development of antimicrobial resistance worldwide. As a result, successful treatment of biofilm-disease using only antimicrobials is problematic.Areas covered: We summarize some alternative approaches to classic antimicrobials for the treatment of biofilm disease. This review is not intended to be exhaustive but to give a clinical picture of alternatives to antimicrobial agents to manage biofilm disease. We highlight those strategies that may be closer to application in clinical practice.Expert opinion: There are a number of outstanding challenges in the development of novel antibiofilm therapies. Screening for effective antibiofilm compounds requires models relevant to all clinical scenarios. Although in vitro research of anti-biofilm strategies has progressed significantly over the past decade, there is a lack of in vivo research. In addition, the complexity of biofilm biology makes it difficult to develop a compound that is likely to provide the single 'magic bullet'. The multifaceted nature of biofilms imposes the need for multi-targeted or combinatorial therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose L Del Pozo
- Infectious Diseases Division, Clínica Universidad De Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Department of Microbiology, Clínica Universidad De Navarra, Pamplona, Spain.,Laboratory of Microbial Biofilms, Clínica Universidad De Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
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136
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Effect of Spermidine on Biofilm Formation in Escherichia coli K-12. J Bacteriol 2021; 203:JB.00652-20. [PMID: 33685971 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00652-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyamines are essential for biofilm formation in Escherichia coli, but it is still unclear which polyamines are primarily responsible for this phenomenon. To address this issue, we constructed a series of E. coli K-12 strains with mutations in genes required for the synthesis and metabolism of polyamines. Disruption of the spermidine synthase gene (speE) caused a severe defect in biofilm formation. This defect was rescued by the addition of spermidine to the medium but not by putrescine or cadaverine. A multidrug/spermidine efflux pump membrane subunit (MdtJ)-deficient strain was anticipated to accumulate more spermidine and result in enhanced biofilm formation compared to the MdtJ+ strain. However, the mdtJ mutation did not affect intracellular spermidine or biofilm concentrations. E. coli has the spermidine acetyltransferase (SpeG) and glutathionylspermidine synthetase/amidase (Gss) to metabolize intracellular spermidine. Under biofilm-forming conditions, not Gss but SpeG plays a major role in decreasing the too-high intracellular spermidine concentrations. Additionally, PotFGHI can function as a compensatory importer of spermidine when PotABCD is absent under biofilm-forming conditions. Last, we report here that, in addition to intracellular spermidine, the periplasmic binding protein (PotD) of the spermidine preferential ABC transporter is essential for stimulating biofilm formation.IMPORTANCE Previous reports have speculated on the effect of polyamines on bacterial biofilm formation. However, the regulation of biofilm formation by polyamines in Escherichia coli has not yet been assessed. The identification of polyamines that stimulate biofilm formation is important for developing novel therapies for biofilm-forming pathogens. This study sheds light on biofilm regulation in E. coli Our findings provide conclusive evidence that only spermidine can stimulate biofilm formation in E. coli cells, not putrescine or cadaverine. Last, ΔpotD inhibits biofilm formation even though the spermidine is synthesized inside the cells from putrescine. Since PotD is significant for biofilm formation and there is no ortholog of the PotABCD transporter in humans, PotD could be a target for the development of biofilm inhibitors.
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137
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Vyas HKN, McArthur JD, Sanderson-Smith ML. An optimised GAS-pharyngeal cell biofilm model. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8200. [PMID: 33859234 PMCID: PMC8050266 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87377-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A Streptococcus (GAS) causes 700 million infections and accounts for half a million deaths per year. Biofilm formation has been implicated in both pharyngeal and dermal GAS infections. In vitro, plate-based assays have shown that several GAS M-types form biofilms, and multiple GAS virulence factors have been linked to biofilm formation. Although the contributions of these plate-based studies have been valuable, most have failed to mimic the host environment, with many studies utilising abiotic surfaces. GAS is a human specific pathogen, and colonisation and subsequent biofilm formation is likely facilitated by distinct interactions with host tissue surfaces. As such, a host cell-GAS model has been optimised to support and grow GAS biofilms of a variety of GAS M-types. Improvements and adjustments to the crystal violet biofilm biomass assay have also been tailored to reproducibly detect delicate GAS biofilms. We propose 72 h as an optimal growth period for yielding detectable biofilm biomass. GAS biofilms formed are robust and durable, and can be reproducibly assessed via staining/washing intensive assays such as crystal violet with the aid of methanol fixation prior to staining. Lastly, SEM imaging of GAS biofilms formed by this model revealed GAS cocci chains arranged into three-dimensional aggregated structures with EPS matrix material. Taken together, we outline an efficacious GAS biofilm pharyngeal cell model that can support long-term GAS biofilm formation, with biofilms formed closely resembling those seen in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heema K N Vyas
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.,School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Jason D McArthur
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
| | - Martina L Sanderson-Smith
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, NSW, Australia. .,School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, Molecular Horizons, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia.
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138
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Host defense peptides identified in human apolipoprotein B as novel food biopreservatives and active coating components. Food Microbiol 2021; 99:103804. [PMID: 34119097 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2021.103804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The effectiveness of three novel "host defence peptides" identified in human Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) as novel antimicrobial and antibiofilm agents to be employed in food industry is reported. ApoB-derived peptides have been found to exert significant antimicrobial effects towards Salmonella typhimurium ATCC® 14028 and Salmonella enteritidis 706 RIVM strains. Furthermore, they have been found to retain antimicrobial activity under experimental conditions selected to simulate those occurring during food storage, transportation and heat treatment, and have been found to be endowed with antibiofilm properties. Based on these findings, to evaluate the applicability of ApoB-derived peptides as food biopreservatives, coating solutions composed by chitosan (CH) and an ApoB-derived peptide have been prepared and found to be able to prevent Salmonella cells attachment to different kinds of surfaces employed in food industry. Finally, obtained coating solution has been demonstrated to hinder microbial proliferation in chicken meat samples. Altogether, obtained findings indicate that ApoB-derived peptides are promising candidates as novel biopreservatives for food packaging.
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139
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A Novel Biofilm Model System to Visualise Conjugal Transfer of Vancomycin Resistance by Environmental Enterococci. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9040789. [PMID: 33918930 PMCID: PMC8070047 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9040789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterococci and biofilm-associated infections are a growing problem worldwide, given the rise in antibiotic resistance in environmental and clinical settings. The increasing incidence of antibiotic resistance and its propagation potential within enterococcal biofilm is a concern. This requires a deeper understanding of how enterococcal biofilm develops, and how antibiotic resistance transfer takes place in these biofilms. Enterococcal biofilm assays, incorporating the study of antibiotic resistance transfer, require a system which can accommodate non-destructive, real-time experimentation. We adapted a Gene Frame® combined with fluorescence microscopy as a novel non-destructive platform to study the conjugal transfer of vancomycin resistance in an established enterococcal biofilm.A multi-purpose fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) probe, in a novel application, allowed the identification of low copy number mobile elements in the biofilm. Furthermore, a Hoechst stain and ENU 1470 FISH probe identified Enterococcus faecium transconjugants by excluding Enterococcus faecalis MF06036 donors. Biofilm created with a rifampicin resistant E. faecalis (MW01105Rif) recipient had a transfer efficiency of 2.01 × 10-3; double that of the biofilm primarily created by the donor (E. faecalis MF06036). Conjugation in the mixed enterococcal biofilm was triple the efficiency of donor biofilm. Double antibiotic treatment plus lysozyme combined with live/dead imaging provided fluorescent micrographs identifying de novo enterococcal vancomycin resistant transconjugants inside the biofilm. This is a model system for the further study of antibiotic resistance transfer events in enterococci. Biofilms promote the survival of enterococci and reduce the effectiveness of drug treatment in clinical settings, hence giving enterococci an advantage. Enterococci growing in biofilms exchange traits by means of horizontal gene transfer, but currently available models make study difficult. This work goes some way to providing a non-destructive, molecular imaging-based model system for the detection of antibiotic resistance gene transfer in enterococci.
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140
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Augustyniak D, Kramarska E, Mackiewicz P, Orczyk-Pawiłowicz M, Lundy FT. Mammalian Neuropeptides as Modulators of Microbial Infections: Their Dual Role in Defense versus Virulence and Pathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073658. [PMID: 33915818 PMCID: PMC8036953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The regulation of infection and inflammation by a variety of host peptides may represent an evolutionary failsafe in terms of functional degeneracy and it emphasizes the significance of host defense in survival. Neuropeptides have been demonstrated to have similar antimicrobial activities to conventional antimicrobial peptides with broad-spectrum action against a variety of microorganisms. Neuropeptides display indirect anti-infective capacity via enhancement of the host’s innate and adaptive immune defense mechanisms. However, more recently concerns have been raised that some neuropeptides may have the potential to augment microbial virulence. In this review we discuss the dual role of neuropeptides, perceived as a double-edged sword, with antimicrobial activity against bacteria, fungi, and protozoa but also capable of enhancing virulence and pathogenicity. We review the different ways by which neuropeptides modulate crucial stages of microbial pathogenesis such as adhesion, biofilm formation, invasion, intracellular lifestyle, dissemination, etc., including their anti-infective properties but also detrimental effects. Finally, we provide an overview of the efficacy and therapeutic potential of neuropeptides in murine models of infectious diseases and outline the intrinsic host factors as well as factors related to pathogen adaptation that may influence efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Augustyniak
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Wroclaw, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-71-375-6296
| | - Eliza Kramarska
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Wroclaw, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland;
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Paweł Mackiewicz
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wroclaw, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland;
| | | | - Fionnuala T. Lundy
- Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, UK;
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141
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Niño-Padilla EI, Velazquez C, Garibay-Escobar A. Mycobacterial biofilms as players in human infections: a review. BIOFOULING 2021; 37:410-432. [PMID: 34024206 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2021.1925886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The role of biofilms in pathogenicity and treatment strategies is often neglected in mycobacterial infections. In recent years, the emergence of nontuberculous mycobacterial infections has necessitated the development of novel prophylactic strategies and elucidation of the mechanisms underlying the establishment of chronic infections. More importantly, the question arises whether members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex can form biofilms and contribute to latent tuberculosis and drug resistance because of the long-lasting and recalcitrant nature of its infections. This review discusses some of the molecular mechanisms by which biofilms could play a role in infection or pathological events in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carlos Velazquez
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora, México
| | - Adriana Garibay-Escobar
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas, Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora, México
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142
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Nutrient complexity triggers transitions between solitary and colonial growth in bacterial populations. ISME JOURNAL 2021; 15:2614-2626. [PMID: 33731836 PMCID: PMC8397785 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-00953-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Microbial populations often experience fluctuations in nutrient complexity in their natural environment such as between high molecular weight polysaccharides and simple monosaccharides. However, it is unclear if cells can adopt growth behaviors that allow individuals to optimally respond to differences in nutrient complexity. Here, we directly control nutrient complexity and use quantitative single-cell analysis to study the growth dynamics of individuals within populations of the aquatic bacterium Caulobacter crescentus. We show that cells form clonal microcolonies when growing on the polysaccharide xylan, which is abundant in nature and degraded using extracellular cell-linked enzymes; and disperse to solitary growth modes when the corresponding monosaccharide xylose becomes available or nutrients are exhausted. We find that the cellular density required to achieve maximal growth rates is four-fold higher on xylan than on xylose, indicating that aggregating is advantageous on polysaccharides. When collectives on xylan are transitioned to xylose, cells start dispersing, indicating that colony formation is no longer beneficial and solitary behaviors might serve to reduce intercellular competition. Our study demonstrates that cells can dynamically tune their behaviors when nutrient complexity fluctuates, elucidates the quantitative advantages of distinct growth behaviors for individual cells and indicates why collective growth modes are prevalent in microbial populations.
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143
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Transcriptional profiling of biofilms formed on chilled beef by psychrotrophic meat spoilage bacterium, Pseudomonas fragi 1793. Biofilm 2021; 3:100045. [PMID: 33718862 PMCID: PMC7921472 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2021.100045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas fragi is the predominant bacterial species associated with spoiled aerobically stored chilled meat worldwide. It readily forms biofilms on meat under refrigerated temperature conditions used in the meat industry. Biofilm growth leads to slime development on meat which in turn becomes a major quality defect. To understand the genetic regulation that aids P. fragi to survive under chilled conditions used in the meat industry, as well to obtain an overview of the transcriptomic behavior of this organism when grown as biofilms, RNA sequencing was carried out for the main stages of the P. fragi 1793 biofilm. RNA was extracted at different stages of the biofilm cycle namely initiation, maturation and dispersal. At the same time, the biofilm growth was assessed by fluorescent staining and imaging using confocal laser scanning microscope. The results of RNA sequencing were verified by qRT-PCR using twelve genes that were most significantly up and down regulated at each stage. Differential expression analysis at biofilm maturation revealed 332 significantly upregulated genes and 37 downregulated genes relative to initiation. Differential expression analysis at biofilm dispersal reveled 658 upregulated and 275 downregulated genes relative to initiation. During biofilm maturation and dispersal, genes coding for flp family type IVb pilin, ribosome modulation factor, creatininase were the most upregulated genes while genes encoding for iron uptake systems including TonB-dependent siderophore receptor and taurine transport were significantly down regulated. The results show that protein synthesis and cellular multiplication cease after the biofilm population maximum has reached.
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144
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Jakubovics NS, Goodman SD, Mashburn-Warren L, Stafford GP, Cieplik F. The dental plaque biofilm matrix. Periodontol 2000 2021; 86:32-56. [PMID: 33690911 PMCID: PMC9413593 DOI: 10.1111/prd.12361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Steven D Goodman
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Lauren Mashburn-Warren
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Graham P Stafford
- Integrated Biosciences, School of Clinical Dentistry, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Fabian Cieplik
- Department of Conservative Dentistry and Periodontology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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145
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Kim U, Kim JH, Oh SW. Review of multi-species biofilm formation from foodborne pathogens: multi-species biofilms and removal methodology. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:5783-5793. [PMID: 33663287 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1892585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Multi-species biofilms are ubiquitous worldwide and are a concern in the food industry. Multi-species biofilms have a higher resistance to antimicrobial therapies than mono-species biofilms. In addition, multi-species biofilms can cause severe foodborne diseases. To remove multi-species biofilms, controlling the formation process of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and quorum sensing (QS) effects is essential. EPS disruption, inhibition of QS, and disinfection have been utilized to remove multi-species biofilms. This review presents information on the formation and novel removal methods for multi-species biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Unji Kim
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin-Hee Kim
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Se-Wook Oh
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
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146
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Beloin C, McDougald D. Speciality Grand Challenge for "Biofilms". Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:632429. [PMID: 33692967 PMCID: PMC7937965 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.632429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Beloin
- Genetics of Biofilms Laboratory, Institut Pasteur, UMR CNRS2001, Paris, France
| | - Diane McDougald
- iîhree lnstitute, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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147
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Cai Y, Wang L, Hu H, Bing W, Tian L, Zhao J. A synergistic antibacterial platform: combining mechanical and photothermal effects based on Van-MoS 2-Au nanocomposites. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32:085102. [PMID: 33176290 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/abc98e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we successfully developed a new multifunctional antibacterial system, which combined mechano-bactericidal (Au-nanostars) and photothermal (MoS2) mechanism. Meanwhile, the targeting molecule of vancomycin was modified on the surface of MoS2-Au nanocomposites (Van-MoS2-Au), that generally yield high efficiency in antibacterial performance due to their effective working radii. Van-MoS2-Au nanocomposites were capable of completely destroying both gram-negative (E. coli) and gram-positive (B. subtilis) bacteria under 808 NIR laser irradiation for 20 min, and nearly no bacterial growth was detected after 12 h incubation. Moreover, these nanocomposites could destruct the refractory biofilm as well, which was a much more difficult medical challenge. The new antibacterial nanomaterials might offer many biomedical applications because of the biocompatibility and strong antibacterial ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Cai
- School of Chemistry and Life Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
| | - Luyao Wang
- School of Chemistry and Life Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
| | - Haolu Hu
- School of Chemistry and Life Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Bing
- School of Chemistry and Life Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
- Advanced Institute of Materials Science, Changchun University of Technology, 2055 Yanan Street, Changchun 130012, People's Republic of China
| | - Limei Tian
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, People's Republic of China
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148
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Coclet C, Garnier C, D’Onofrio S, Durrieu G, Pasero E, Le Poupon C, Omanović D, Mullot JU, Misson B, Briand JF. Trace Metal Contamination Impacts Predicted Functions More Than Structure of Marine Prokaryotic Biofilm Communities in an Anthropized Coastal Area. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:589948. [PMID: 33679628 PMCID: PMC7933014 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.589948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Trace metal (TM) contamination in marine coastal areas is a worldwide threat for aquatic communities. However, little is known about the influence of a multi-chemical contamination on both marine biofilm communities' structure and functioning. To determine how TM contamination potentially impacted microbial biofilms' structure and their functions, polycarbonate (PC) plates were immerged in both surface and bottom of the seawater column, at five sites, along strong TM contamination gradients, in Toulon Bay. The PC plates were incubated during 4 weeks to enable colonization by biofilm-forming microorganisms on artificial surfaces. Biofilms from the PC plates, as well as surrounding seawaters, were collected and analyzed by 16S rRNA amplicon gene sequencing to describe prokaryotic community diversity, structure and functions, and to determine the relationships between bacterioplankton and biofilm communities. Our results showed that prokaryotic biofilm structure was not significantly affected by the measured environmental variables, while the functional profiles of biofilms were significantly impacted by Cu, Mn, Zn, and salinity. Biofilms from the contaminated sites were dominated by tolerant taxa to contaminants and specialized hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms. Functions related to major xenobiotics biodegradation and metabolism, such as methane metabolism, degradation of aromatic compounds, and benzoate degradation, as well as functions involved in quorum sensing signaling, extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) matrix, and biofilm formation were significantly over-represented in the contaminated site relative to the uncontaminated one. Taken together, our results suggest that biofilms may be able to survive to strong multi-chemical contamination because of the presence of tolerant taxa in biofilms, as well as the functional responses of biofilm communities. Moreover, biofilm communities exhibited significant variations of structure and functional profiles along the seawater column, potentially explained by the contribution of taxa from surrounding sediments. Finally, we found that both structure and functions were significantly distinct between the biofilm and bacterioplankton, highlighting major differences between the both lifestyles, and the divergence of their responses facing to a multi-chemical contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clément Coclet
- Université de Toulon, Laboratoire MAPIEM, EA 4323, Toulon, France
- Université de Toulon, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, UM110, La Garde, France
| | - Cédric Garnier
- Université de Toulon, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, UM110, La Garde, France
| | - Sébastien D’Onofrio
- Université de Toulon, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, UM110, La Garde, France
| | - Gaël Durrieu
- Université de Toulon, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, UM110, La Garde, France
| | - Emilie Pasero
- Microbia Environnement Observatoire Océanologique, Banyuls-sur-Mer, France
| | - Christophe Le Poupon
- Université de Toulon, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, UM110, La Garde, France
| | - Dario Omanović
- Division for Marine and Environmental Research, Ruðer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Benjamin Misson
- Université de Toulon, Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, IRD, Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography, UM110, La Garde, France
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149
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Vajpeyee A, Chauhan PS, Pandey S, Tiwari S, Yadav LB, Shroti AK, Vajpeyee M. Metagenomics Analysis of Thrombus Samples Retrieved from Mechanical Thrombectomy. Neurointervention 2021; 16:39-45. [PMID: 33530675 PMCID: PMC7946554 DOI: 10.5469/neuroint.2020.00353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study was to assess the microbiota in middle cerebral artery thrombi retrieved in mechanical thrombectomy arising out of symptomatic carotid plaque within 6 hours of acute ischemic stroke. Thrombi were subjected to next-generation sequencing for a bacterial signature to determine their role in atherosclerosis. Materials and Methods We included 4 human middle cerebral artery thrombus samples (all patients were male). The median age for the patients was 51±13.6 years. Patients enrolled in the study from Pacific Medical University and Hospital underwent mechanical thrombectomy in the stroke window period. All patients underwent brain magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) and circle of Willis and neck vessel MRA along with the standard stroke workup to establish stroke etiology. Only patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis and tandem lesions with ipsilateral middle cerebral artery occlusion were included in the study. Thrombus samples were collected, stored at –80 degrees, and subjected to metagenomics analysis. Results Of the 4 patients undergoing thrombectomy for diagnosis with ischemic stroke, all thrombi recovered for bacterial DNA in qPCR were positive. More than 27 bacteria were present in the 4 thrombus samples. The majority of bacteria were Lactobacillus, Stenotrophomonas, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, and Finegoldia. Conclusion Genesis of symptomatic atherosclerotic carotid plaque leading to thromboembolism could be either due to direct mechanisms like acidification and local inflammation of plaque milieu with lactobacillus, biofilm dispersion leading to inflammation like with pseudomonas fluorescence, or enterococci or indirect mechanisms like Toll 2 like signaling by gut microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atulabh Vajpeyee
- Department of Neurology, Pacific Medical College & Hospital, Pacific Medical University, Udaipur, India
| | | | - Swapnil Pandey
- CSIR National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India
| | - Shivam Tiwari
- Department of Neurology, Pacific Medical College & Hospital, Pacific Medical University, Udaipur, India
| | - Lokendra Bahadur Yadav
- Department of Neurology, Pacific Medical College & Hospital, Pacific Medical University, Udaipur, India
| | - Akhilesh Kumar Shroti
- Department of Neurology, Pacific Medical College & Hospital, Pacific Medical University, Udaipur, India
| | - Manisha Vajpeyee
- Department of Neurology, Pacific Medical College & Hospital, Pacific Medical University, Udaipur, India
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150
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Schulze A, Mitterer F, Pombo JP, Schild S. Biofilms by bacterial human pathogens: Clinical relevance - development, composition and regulation - therapeutical strategies. MICROBIAL CELL (GRAZ, AUSTRIA) 2021; 8:28-56. [PMID: 33553418 PMCID: PMC7841849 DOI: 10.15698/mic2021.02.741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Notably, bacterial biofilm formation is increasingly recognized as a passive virulence factor facilitating many infectious disease processes. In this review we will focus on bacterial biofilms formed by human pathogens and highlight their relevance for diverse diseases. Along biofilm composition and regulation emphasis is laid on the intensively studied biofilms of Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus spp., which are commonly used as biofilm model organisms and therefore contribute to our general understanding of bacterial biofilm (patho-)physiology. Finally, therapeutical intervention strategies targeting biofilms will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adina Schulze
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50, 8010 Graz, Austria
- A.S. and F.M. contributed equally to this work
| | - Fabian Mitterer
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50, 8010 Graz, Austria
- A.S. and F.M. contributed equally to this work
| | - Joao P. Pombo
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Stefan Schild
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Humboldtstrasse 50, 8010 Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed Graz, Austria
- Field of Excellence Biohealth – University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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