Regulation of osmotic stress-responsive gene expression by the LOS6/ABA1 locus in Arabidopsis

Genome-Wide Identification and Analysis of the VQ Motif-Containing Protein Family in Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. Pekinensis)

Previous studies have showed that the VQ motif–containing proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa play an important role in plant growth, development, and stress responses. However, little is known about the functions of the VQ genes in Brassica rapa (Chinese cabbage). In this study, we performed genome-wide identification, characterization, and expression analysis of the VQ genes in Chinese cabbage, especially under adverse environment. We identified 57 VQ genes and classified them into seven subgroups (I–VII), which were dispersedly distributed on chromosomes 1 to 10. The expansion of these genes mainly contributed to segmental and tandem duplication. Fifty-four VQ genes contained no introns and 50 VQ proteins were less than 300 amino acids in length. Quantitative real-time PCR showed that the VQ genes were differentially expressed in various tissues and during different abiotic stresses and plant hormone treatments. This study provides a comprehensive overview of Chinese cabbage VQ genes and will benefit the molecular breeding for resistance to stresses and disease, as well as further studies on the biological functions of the VQ proteins.

Arabidopsis ABA-Activated Kinase MAPKKK18 is Regulated by Protein Phosphatase 2C ABI1 and the Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway

Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events play an important role in the transmission of the ABA signal. Although SnRK2 [sucrose non-fermenting1-related kinase2] protein kinases and group A protein phosphatase type 2C (PP2C)-type phosphatases constitute the core ABA pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways are also involved in plant response to ABA. However, little is known about the interplay between MAPKs and PP2Cs or SnRK2 in the regulation of ABA pathways. In this study, an effort was made to elucidate the role of MAP kinase kinase kinase18 (MKKK18) in relation to ABA signaling and response. The MKKK18 knockout lines showed more vigorous root growth, decreased abaxial stomatal index and increased stomatal aperture under normal growth conditions, compared with the control wild-type Columbia line. In addition to transcriptional regulation of the MKKK18 promoter by ABA, we demonstrated using in vitro and in vivo kinase assays that the kinase activity of MKKK18 was regulated by ABA. Analysis of the cellular localization of MKKK18 showed that the active kinase was targeted specifically to the nucleus. Notably, we identified abscisic acid insensitive 1 (ABI1) PP2C as a MKKK18-interacting protein, and demonstrated that ABI1 inhibited its activity. Using a cell-free degradation assay, we also established that MKKK18 was unstable and was degraded by the proteasome pathway. The rate of MKKK18 degradation was delayed in the ABI1 knockout line. Overall, we provide evidence that ABI1 regulates the activity and promotes proteasomal degradation of MKKK18.

Arabidopsis INCURVATA2 Regulates Salicylic Acid and Abscisic Acid Signaling, and Oxidative Stress Responses

Epigenetic regulatory states can persist through mitosis and meiosis, but the connection between chromatin structure and DNA replication remains unclear. Arabidopsis INCURVATA2 (ICU2) encodes the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase α, and null alleles of ICU2 have an embryo-lethal phenotype. Analysis of icu2-1, a hypomorphic allele of ICU2, demonstrated that ICU2 functions in chromatin-mediated cellular memory; icu2-1 strongly impairs ICU2 function in the maintenance of repressive epigenetic marks but does not seem to affect ICU2 polymerase activity. To better understand the global function of ICU2 in epigenetic regulation, here we performed a microarray analysis of icu2-1 mutant plants. We found that the genes up-regulated in the icu2-1 mutant included genes encoding transcription factors and targets of the Polycomb Repressive Complexes. The down-regulated genes included many known players in salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis and accumulation, ABA signaling and ABA-mediated responses. In addition, we found that icu2-1 plants had reduced SA levels in normal conditions; infection by Fusarium oxysporum induced SA accumulation in the En-2 wild type but not in the icu2-1 mutant. The icu2-1 plants were also hypersensitive to salt stress and exogenous ABA in seedling establishment, post-germination growth and stomatal closure, and accumulated more ABA than the wild type in response to salt stress. The icu2-1 mutant also showed high tolerance to the oxidative stress produced by 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (3-AT). Our results uncover a role for ICU2 in the regulation of genes involved in ABA signaling as well as in SA biosynthesis and accumulation.

Using Co-Expression Analysis and Stress-Based Screens to Uncover Arabidopsis Peroxisomal Proteins Involved in Drought Response

Peroxisomes are essential organelles that house a wide array of metabolic reactions important for plant growth and development. However, our knowledge regarding the role of peroxisomal proteins in various biological processes, including plant stress response, is still incomplete. Recent proteomic studies of plant peroxisomes significantly increased the number of known peroxisomal proteins and greatly facilitated the study of peroxisomes at the systems level. The objectives of this study were to determine whether genes that encode peroxisomal proteins with related functions are co-expressed in Arabidopsis and identify peroxisomal proteins involved in stress response using in silico analysis and mutant screens. Using microarray data from online databases, we performed hierarchical clustering analysis to generate a comprehensive view of transcript level changes for Arabidopsis peroxisomal genes during development and under abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Many genes involved in the same metabolic pathways exhibited co-expression, some genes known to be involved in stress response are regulated by the corresponding stress conditions, and function of some peroxisomal proteins could be predicted based on their co-expression pattern. Since drought caused expression changes to the highest number of genes that encode peroxisomal proteins, we subjected a subset of Arabidopsis peroxisomal mutants to a drought stress assay. Mutants of the LON2 protease and the photorespiratory enzyme hydroxypyruvate reductase 1 (HPR1) showed enhanced susceptibility to drought, suggesting the involvement of peroxisomal quality control and photorespiration in drought resistance. Our study provided a global view of how genes that encode peroxisomal proteins respond to developmental and environmental cues and began to reveal additional peroxisomal proteins involved in stress response, thus opening up new avenues to investigate the role of peroxisomes in plant adaptation to environmental stresses.

Abscisic Acid Transport and Homeostasis in the Context of Stomatal Regulation

The discovery of cytosolic ABA receptors is an important breakthrough in stomatal research; signaling via these receptors is involved in determining the basal stomatal conductance and stomatal responsiveness. However, the source of ABA in guard cells is still not fully understood. The level of ABA increases in guard cells by de novo synthesis, recycling from inactive conjugates via β-glucosidases BG1 and BG2 and by import, whereas it decreases by hydroxylation, conjugation, and export. ABA importers include the NRT1/PTR family protein AIT1, ATP-binding cassette protein ABCG40, and possibly ABCG22, whereas the DTX family member DTX50 and ABCG25 function as ABA exporters. Here, we review the proteins involved in ABA transport and homeostasis and their physiological role in stomatal regulation. Recent experiments suggest that functional redundancy probably exists among ABA transporters between vasculature and guard cells and ABA recycling proteins, as stomatal functioning remained intact in abcg22, abcg25, abcg40, ait1, and bg1bg2 mutants. Only the initial response to reduced air humidity was significantly delayed in abcg22. Considering the reports showing autonomous ABA synthesis in guard cells, we discuss that rapid stomatal responses to atmospheric factors might depend primarily on guard cell-synthesized ABA, whereas in the case of long-term soil water deficit, ABA synthesized in the vasculature might have a significant role.

Functional roles of the pepper RING finger protein gene, CaRING1, in abscisic acid signaling and dehydration tolerance

Plants are constantly exposed to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses, which include pathogens and conditions of high salinity, low temperature, and drought. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a major plant hormone involved in signal transduction pathways that mediate the defense response of plants to abiotic stress. Previously, we isolated Ring finger protein gene (CaRING1) from pepper (Capsicum annuum), which is associated with resistance to bacterial pathogens, accompanied by hypersensitive cell death. Here, we report a new function of the CaRING1 gene product in the ABA-mediated defense responses of plants to dehydration stress. The expression of the CaRING1 gene was induced in pepper leaves treated with ABA or exposed to dehydration or NaCl. Virus-induced gene silencing of CaRING1 in pepper plants exhibited low degree of ABA-induced stomatal closure and high levels of transpirational water loss in dehydrated leaves. These led to be more vulnerable to dehydration stress in CaRING1-silenced pepper than in the control pepper, accompanied by reduction of ABA-regulated gene expression and low accumulation of ABA and H2O2. In contrast, CaRING1-overexpressing transgenic plants showed enhanced sensitivity to ABA during the seedling growth and establishment. These plants were also more tolerant to dehydration stress than the wild-type plants because of high ABA accumulation, enhanced stomatal closure and increased expression of stress-responsive genes. Together, these results suggest that the CaRING1 acts as positive factor for dehydration tolerance in Arabidopsis by modulating ABA biosynthesis and ABA-mediated stomatal closing and gene expression.

The pepper late embryogenesis abundant protein CaLEA1 acts in regulating abscisic acid signaling, drought and salt stress response

As sessile organisms, plants are constantly challenged by environmental stresses, including drought and high salinity. Among the various abiotic stresses, osmotic stress is one of the most important factors for growth and significantly reduces crop productivity in agriculture. Here, we report a function of the CaLEA1 protein in the defense responses of plants to osmotic stress. Our analyses showed that the CaLEA1 gene was strongly induced in pepper leaves exposed to drought and increased salinity. Furthermore, we determined that the CaLEA1 protein has a late embryogenesis abundant (LEA)_3 homolog domain highly conserved among other known group 5 LEA proteins and is localized in the processing body. We generated CaLEA1-silenced peppers and CaLEA1-overexpressing (OX) transgenic Arabidopsis plants to evaluate their responses to dehydration and high salinity. Virus-induced gene silencing of CaLEA1 in pepper plants conferred enhanced sensitivity to drought and salt stresses, which was accompanied by high levels of lipid peroxidation in dehydrated and NaCl-treated leaves. CaLEA1-OX plants exhibited enhanced sensitivity to abscisic acid (ABA) during seed germination and in the seedling stage; furthermore, these plants were more tolerant to drought and salt stress than the wild-type plants because of enhanced stomatal closure and increased expression of stress-responsive genes. Collectively, our data suggest that CaLEA1 positively regulates drought and salinity tolerance through ABA-mediated cell signaling.

Mining expressed sequence tags of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) to predict the drought responsive regulatory network

It is of great significance to understand the regulatory mechanisms by which plants deal with drought stress. Two EST libraries derived from rapeseed (Brassica napus) leaves in non-stressed and drought stress conditions were analyzed in order to obtain the transcriptomic landscape of drought-exposed B. napus plants, and also to identify and characterize significant drought responsive regulatory genes and microRNAs. The functional ontology analysis revealed a substantial shift in the B. napus transcriptome to govern cellular drought responsiveness via different stress-activated mechanisms. The activity of transcription factor and protein kinase modules generally increased in response to drought stress. The 26 regulatory genes consisting of 17 transcription factor genes, eight protein kinase genes and one protein phosphatase gene were identified showing significant alterations in their expressions in response to drought stress. We also found the six microRNAs which were differentially expressed during drought stress supporting the involvement of a post-transcriptional level of regulation for B. napus drought response. The drought responsive regulatory network shed light on the significance of some regulatory components involved in biosynthesis and signaling of various plant hormones (abscisic acid, auxin and brassinosteroids), ubiquitin proteasome system, and signaling through Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). Our findings suggested a complex and multi-level regulatory system modulating response to drought stress in B. napus.

Hardening with salicylic acid induces concentration-dependent changes in abscisic acid biosynthesis of tomato under salt stress

The role of salicylic acid (SA) in the control of abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis is controversial although both plant growth regulators may accumulate in tissues under abiotic and biotic stress conditions. Hardening of tomato plants to salinity stress with 10(-4)M SA ("high SA") resulted in an up-regulation of ABA biosynthesis genes, zeaxanthin epoxidase (SlZEP1), 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (SlNCED1) and aldehyde oxidases (SlAO1 and SlAO2) in the roots and led to ABA accumulation both in root and leaf tissues. In plants pre-treated with lower concentration of SA (10(-7)M, "low SA"), the up-regulation of SlNCED1 in the roots promoted ABA accumulation in the root tissues but the hormone concentration remained at control level in the leaves. Salt stress induced by 100mM NaCl reduced the transcript abundance of ABA biosynthetic genes and inhibited SlAO activity in plants hardened with "high SA", but the tissues maintained root ABA level over the untreated control. The combined effect of "high SA" and ABA under salt stress led to partially recovered photosynthetic activity, reduced ethylene production in root apices, and restored root growth, which is one of the main features of salt tolerance. Unlike "high SA", hardening with "low SA" had no influence on ethylene production, and led to reduced elongation of roots in plants exposed to 100mM NaCl. The up-regulation of carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases SlCCD1A and SlCCD1B by SA, which produce apocarotenoids, may open new pathways in SA sensing and signalling processes.

TraeALDH7B1-5A, encoding aldehyde dehydrogenase 7 in wheat, confers improved drought tolerance in Arabidopsis

TraeALDH7B1 - 5A , encoding aldehyde dehydrogenase 7 in wheat, conferred significant drought tolerance to Arabidopsis , supported by molecular biological and physiological experiments. Drought stress significantly affects wheat yields. Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) is a family of enzymes catalyzing the irreversible conversion of aldehydes into acids to decrease the damage caused by abiotic stresses. However, no wheat ALDH member has been functionally characterized to date. Here, we obtained a differentially expressed EST encoding ALDH7 from a cDNA-AFLP library of wheat that was treated with polyethylene glycol 6000. The three full-length homologs of TraeALDH7B1 were isolated by searching the NCBI database and by homolog-based cloning method. Using nulli-tetrasomic lines we located them on wheat chromosomes 5A, 5B and 5D, and named them as TraeALDH7B1-5A, -5B and -5D, respectively. Gene expression profiles indicated that the expressions of all three genes were induced in roots, leaves, culms and spikelets under drought and salt stresses. Enzymatic activity analysis showed that TraeALDH7B1-5A had acetaldehyde dehydrogenase activity. For further functional analysis, we developed transgenic Arabidopsis lines overexpressing TraeALDH7B1-5A driven by the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. Compared with wild type Arabidopsis, 35S::TraeALDH7B1-5A plants significantly enhanced the tolerance to drought stress, which was demonstrated by up-regulation of stress responsive genes and physiological evidence of primary root length, maintenance of water retention and contents of chlorophyll and MDA. The combined results indicated that TraeALDH7B1-5A is an important drought responsive gene for genetic transformation to improve drought tolerance in crops.

Crucial roles of the pentatricopeptide repeat protein SOAR1 in Arabidopsis response to drought, salt and cold stresses

Whereas several mitochondrial/chloroplast pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) proteins have been reported to regulate plant responses to abiotic stresses, no nucleus-localized PPR protein has been found to play role in these processes. In the present experiment, we provide evidence that a cytosol-nucleus dual-localized PPR protein SOAR1, functioning to negatively regulate abscisic acid (ABA) signaling in seed germination and postgermination growth, is a crucial, positive regulator of plant response to abiotic stresses. Downregulation of SOAR1 expression reduces, but upregulation of SOAR1 expression enhances, ABA sensitivity in ABA-induced promotion of stomatal closure and inhibition of stomatal opening, and plant tolerance to multiple, major abiotic stresses including drought, high salinity and low temperature. Interestingly and importantly, the SOAR1-overexpression lines display strong abilities to tolerate drought, salt and cold stresses, with surprisingly high resistance to salt stress in germination and postgermination growth of seeds that are able to potentially germinate in seawater, while no negative effect on plant growth and development was observed. So, the SOAR1 gene is likely useful for improvement of crops by transgenic manipulation to enhance crop productivity in stressful conditions. Further experimental data suggest that SOAR1 likely regulates plant stress responses at least partly by integrating ABA-dependent and independent signaling pathways, which is different from the ABI2/ABI1 type 2C protein phosphatase-mediated ABA signaling. These findings help to understand highly complicated stress and ABA signalling network.

Epoxycarotenoid-mediated synthesis of abscisic acid in Physcomitrella patens implicating conserved mechanisms for acclimation to hyperosmosis in embryophytes

Plants acclimate to environmental stress signals such as cold, drought and hypersalinity, and provoke internal protective mechanisms. Abscisic acid (ABA), a carotenoid-derived phytohormone, which increases in response to the stress signals above, has been suggested to play a key role in the acclimation process in angiosperms, but the role of ABA in basal land plants such as mosses, including its biosynthetic pathways, has not been clarified. Targeted gene disruption of PpABA1, encoding zeaxanthin epoxidase in the moss Physcomitrella patens was conducted to determine the role of endogenous ABA in acclimation processes in mosses. The generated ppaba1 plants were found to accumulate only a small amount of endogenous ABA. The ppaba1 plants showed reduced osmotic acclimation capacity in correlation with reduced dehydration tolerance and accumulation of late embryogenesis abundant proteins. By contrast, cold-induced freezing tolerance was less affected in ppaba1, indicating that endogenous ABA does not play a major role in the regulation of cold acclimation in the moss. Our results suggest that the mechanisms for osmotic acclimation mediated by carotenoid-derived synthesis of ABA are conserved in embryophytes and that acquisition of the mechanisms played a crucial role in terrestrial adaptation and colonization by land plant ancestors.

At the border: the plasma membrane-cell wall continuum

Plant cells rely on their cell walls for directed growth and environmental adaptation. Synthesis and remodelling of the cell walls are membrane-related processes. During cell growth and exposure to external stimuli, there is a constant exchange of lipids, proteins, and other cell wall components between the cytosol and the plasma membrane/apoplast. This exchange of material and the localization of cell wall proteins at certain spots in the plasma membrane seem to rely on a particular membrane composition. In addition, sensors at the plasma membrane detect changes in the cell wall architecture, and activate cytoplasmic signalling schemes and ultimately cell wall remodelling. The apoplastic polysaccharide matrix is, on the other hand, crucial for preventing proteins diffusing uncontrollably in the membrane. Therefore, the cell wall-plasma membrane link is essential for plant development and responses to external stimuli. This review focuses on the relationship between the cell wall and plasma membrane, and its importance for plant tissue organization.

AtMyb7, a subgroup 4 R2R3 Myb, negatively regulates ABA-induced inhibition of seed germination by blocking the expression of the bZIP transcription factor ABI5

Various Myb proteins have been shown to play crucial roles in plants, including primary and secondary metabolism, determination of cell fate and identity, regulation of development and involvement in responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. The 126 R2R3 Myb proteins (with two Myb repeats) have been found in Arabidopsis; however, the functions of most of these proteins remain to be fully elucidated. In the present study, we characterized the function of AtMyb7 using molecular biological and genetic analyses. We used qRT-PCR to determine the levels of stress-response gene transcripts in wild-type and atmyb7 plants. We showed that Arabidopsis AtMyb7 plays a critical role in seed germination. Under abscisic acid (ABA) and high-salt stress conditions, atmyb7 plants showed a lower germination rate than did wild-type plants. Furthermore, AtMyb7 promoter:GUS seeds exhibited different expression patterns in response to variations in the seed imbibition period. AtMyb7 negatively controls the expression of the gene encoding bZIP transcription factor, ABI5, which is a key transcription factor in ABA signalling and serves as a crucial regulator of germination inhibition in Arabidopsis.

Positive feedback regulation of a Lycium chinense-derived VDE gene by drought-induced endogenous ABA, and over-expression of this VDE gene improve drought-induced photo-damage in Arabidopsis

Violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE) plays an important role in protecting the photosynthetic apparatus from photo-damage by dissipating excessively absorbed light energy as heat, via the conversion of violaxanthin (V) to intermediate product antheraxanthin (A) and final product zeaxanthin (Z) under light stress. We have cloned a VDE gene (LcVDE) from Lycium chinense, a deciduous woody perennial halophyte, which can grow in a large variety of soil types. The amino acid sequence of LcVDE has high homology with VDEs in other plants. Under drought stress, relative expression of LcVDE and the de-epoxidation ratio (Z+0.5A)/(V+A+Z) increased rapidly, and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) also rose. Interestingly, these elevations induced by drought stress were reduced by the topical administration of abamine SG, a potent ABA inhibitor via inhibition of NCED in the ABA synthesis pathway. Until now, little has been done to explore the relationship between endogenous ABA and the expression of VDE genes. Since V serves as a common precursor for ABA, these data support the possible involvement of endogenous ABA in the positive feedback regulation of LcVDE gene expression in L. chinense under drought stress. Moreover, the LcVDE may be involved in modulating the level of photosynthesis damage caused by drought stress. Furthermore, the ratio of (Z+0.5A)/(V+A+Z) and NPQ increased more in transgenic Arabidopsis over-expressing LcVDE gene than the wild types under drought stress. The maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry of PSII (Fv/Fm) in transgenic Arabidopsis decreased more slowly during the stressed period than that in wild types under the same conditions. Furthermore, transgenic Arabidopsis over-expressing LcVDE showed increased tolerance to drought stress.

The Arabidopsis Vacuolar Sorting Receptor1 is required for osmotic stress-induced abscisic acid biosynthesis

Osmotic stress activates the biosynthesis of the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) through a pathway that is rate limited by the carotenoid cleavage enzyme 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED). To understand the signal transduction mechanism underlying the activation of ABA biosynthesis, we performed a forward genetic screen to isolate mutants defective in osmotic stress regulation of the NCED3 gene. Here, we identified the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) Vacuolar Sorting Receptor1 (VSR1) as a unique regulator of ABA biosynthesis. The vsr1 mutant not only shows increased sensitivity to osmotic stress, but also is defective in the feedback regulation of ABA biosynthesis by ABA. Further analysis revealed that vacuolar trafficking mediated by VSR1 is required for osmotic stress-responsive ABA biosynthesis and osmotic stress tolerance. Moreover, under osmotic stress conditions, the membrane potential, calcium flux, and vacuolar pH changes in the vsr1 mutant differ from those in the wild type. Given that manipulation of the intracellular pH is sufficient to modulate the expression of ABA biosynthesis genes, including NCED3, and ABA accumulation, we propose that intracellular pH changes caused by osmotic stress may play a signaling role in regulating ABA biosynthesis and that this regulation is dependent on functional VSR1.

Yeast functional screen to identify genes conferring salt stress tolerance in Salicornia europaea

Salinity is a critical environmental factor that adversely affects crop productivity. Halophytes have evolved various mechanisms to adapt to saline environments. Salicornia europaea L. is one of the most salt-tolerant plant species. It does not have special salt-secreting structures like a salt gland or salt bladder, and is therefore a good model for studying the common mechanisms underlying plant salt tolerance. To identify candidate genes encoding key proteins in the mediation of salt tolerance in S. europaea, we performed a functional screen of a cDNA library in yeast. The library was screened for genes that allowed the yeast to grow in the presence of 1.3 M NaCl. We obtained three full-length S. europaea genes that confer salt tolerance. The genes are predicted to encode (1) a novel protein highly homologous to thaumatin-like proteins, (2) a novel coiled-coil protein of unknown function, and (3) a novel short peptide of 32 residues. Exogenous application of a synthetic peptide corresponding to the 32 residues improved salt tolerance of Arabidopsis. The approach described in this report provides a rapid assay system for large-scale screening of S. europaea genes involved in salt stress tolerance and supports the identification of genes responsible for such mechanisms. These genes may be useful candidates for improving crop salt tolerance by genetic transformation.

A subset of Arabidopsis RAV transcription factors modulates drought and salt stress responses independent of ABA

Arabidopsis RAV1, RAV1L and RAV2/TEM2 are Related to ABI3/VP1 (RAV) transcription factors that contain both plant-specific B3 and AP2 domains. RAV1 was known to be a negative regulator of growth and its transcript level was repressed by brassinolide (BL). In this study, we found that the expressions of RAV1, and its closest homologs RAV1L and RAV2 were also regulated by other plant hormones, and especially repressed significantly by BL and abscisic acid (ABA), which mediate various abiotic stress responses in plants. Therefore, to further investigate the physiological functions of RAV1, RAV1L and RAV2 in abiotic stress responses, we isolated T-DNA insertional knockout mutants of each gene and produced transgenic plants overexpressing the RAVs. Under normal conditions, each single mutant showed slightly promoted growth patterns only at an early stage of development. In comparison, the RAV1-overexpressing plants exhibited strong growth retardation with semi-dwarfed stature. In drought conditions, RAVs-overexpressing transgenic plants exhibited higher transpirational water loss than the wild type. In salt conditions, seed germination of the RAVs-overexpressing transgenic plants was more inhibited than that of the wild type, while ravs mutants showed promoted seed germination. We also found that RAVs expressions were reduced by dryness and salt. RAV1-overexpressing plants showed the same patterns of increased expression as stress-inducible genes such as RD29A, RD29B and the genes encoding ABA biosynthetic enzymes, as did the wild type and rav1 mutant. However, the RAV1-overexpressing transgenic plants were insensitive to ABA, regardless of the higher accumulation of ABA even in normal conditions. Taken together, these results suggest that RAVs are versatile negative regulators for growth and abiotic stresses, drought and salt, and that negative regulatory effects of RAVs on abiotic stresses are likely to be operated independently of ABA.

A wheat aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase gene, TaACO1, negatively regulates salinity stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

TaACO1 could catalyze ACC into ethylene in vitro. Constitutive expression of TaACO1 in Arabidopsis conferred salt sensitivity, and TaACO1 regulates salt stress mainly via the DREB1/CBF signal transduction pathway. Ethylene signaling plays essential roles in mediating plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses, besides regulating plant growth and development. The roles of ethylene biosynthesis in abiotic stress, however, remain elusive. In this study, an aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate oxidase gene, TaACO1, affecting the terminal step in ethylene biosynthesis, was isolated from a salt-tolerant bread wheat introgression line Shanrong No. 3 (SR3) and its effect on salt-stress response was examined. Purified recombinant protein of TaACO1 heterogenously expressed in Escherchia coli could catalyze ACC into ethylene in vitro. TaACO1 transcripts were down-regulated by salt, drought, oxidative stress and ABA. TaACO1-transgenic plants conferred salt sensitivity as judged from the seed germination, cotyledon greening and the relative root growth under salt stress. Constitutive expression of TaACO1 in Arabidopsis increased AtMYB15 expression and suppressed the expression of stress-responsive genes AtRAB18, AtCBF1 and AtCBF3. These findings are helpful in understanding the roles of ethylene biosynthesis in plant salt-stress response.

PLASTID MOVEMENT IMPAIRED1 mediates ABA sensitivity during germination and implicates ABA in light-mediated Chloroplast movements

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) controls many aspects of plant growth and development, including seed development, germination and responses to water-deficit stress. A complex ABA signaling network integrates environmental signals including water availability and light intensity and quality to fine-tune the response to a changing environment. To further define the regulatory pathways that control water-deficit and ABA responses, we carried out a gene-trap tagging screen for water-deficit-regulated genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. This screen identified PLASTID MOVEMENT IMPAIRED1 (PMI1), a gene involved in blue-light-induced chloroplast movement, as functioning in ABA-response pathways. We provide evidence that PMI1 is involved in the regulation of seed germination by ABA, acting upstream of the intersection between ABA and low-glucose signaling pathways. Furthermore, PMI1 participates in the regulation of ABA accumulation during periods of water deficit at the seedling stage. The combined phenotypes of pmi1 mutants in chloroplast movement and ABA responses indicate that ABA signaling may modulate chloroplast motility. This result was further supported by the detection of altered chloroplast movements in the ABA mutants aba1-6, aba2-1 and abi1-1.

The Arabidopsis thaliana FASCICLIN LIKE ARABINOGALACTAN PROTEIN 4 gene acts synergistically with abscisic acid signalling to control root growth

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The putative FASCICLIN-LIKE ARABINOGALACTAN PROTEIN 4 (At-FLA4) locus of Arabidopsis thaliana has previously been shown to be required for the normal growth of wild-type roots in response to moderately elevated salinity. However, the genetic and physiological pathway that connects At-FLA4 and normal root growth remains to be elucidated.

METHODS

The radial swelling phenotype of At-fla4 was modulated with growth regulators and their inhibitors. The relationship of At-FLA4 to abscisic acid (ABA) signalling was analysed by probing marker gene expression and the observation of the At-fla4 phenotype in combination with ABA signalling mutants.

KEY RESULTS

Application of ABA suppresses the non-redundant role of At-FLA4 in the salt response. At-FLA4 positively regulates the response to low ABA concentration in roots and is required for the normal expression of ABA- and abiotic stress-induced genes. The At-fla4 phenotype is enhanced in the At-abi4 background, while two genetic suppressors of ABA-induced gene expression are required for salt oversensitivity of At-fla4. Salt oversensitivity in At-fla4 is suppressed by the CYP707A inhibitor abscinazole E2B, and salt oversensitivity in At-fla4 roots is phenocopied by chemical inhibition of ABA biosynthesis.

CONCLUSIONS

The predicted lipid-anchored glycoprotein At-FLA4 positively regulates cell wall biosynthesis and root growth by modulating ABA signalling.

Functional characterization of xanthoxin dehydrogenase in rice

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a phytohormone that plays a key role in biotic and abiotic stress responses. ABA metabolic genes are promising targets for molecular breeding work to improve stress tolerance in crops. The accumulation of ABA does not always improve stress tolerance since stress-induced accumulation of ABA in pollen inhibits the normal course of gametogenesis, affecting grain yields in cereals. This effect highlights the importance of manipulating the ABA levels according to the type of tissues. The aim of this study was to assign an ABA biosynthetic enzyme, xanthoxin dehydrogenase (XanDH), as a functional marker to modulate ABA levels in rice. XanDH is a member of the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase family that catalyzes the conversion of xanthoxin to abscisyl aldehyde (ABAld). Previously, this enzyme had only been identified in Arabidopsis, as AtABA2. In this study, a XanDH named OsABA2 was identified in rice. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that a single gene encodes for OsABA2 in the rice genome. Its amino acid sequence contains two motifs that are essential for cofactor binding and catalytic activity. Expression analysis of OsABA2 mRNA showed that the transcript level did not change in response to treatment with ABA or dehydration. Recombinant OsABA2 protein expressed in Escherichia coli converted xanthoxin to ABAld in an NAD-dependent manner. Moreover, expression of OsABA2 in an Arabidopsis aba2 mutant rescued the aba2 mutant phenotypes, characterized by reduced growth, increased water loss, and germination in the presence of paclobutrazol, a gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor or high concentration of glucose. These results indicate that OsABA2 is a rice XanDH that functions in ABA biosynthesis.

The resemblance and disparity of gene expression in dormant and non-dormant seeds and crown buds of leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula)

BACKGROUND

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) is a herbaceous perennial weed and dormancy in both buds and seeds is an important survival mechanism. Bud dormancy in leafy spurge exhibits three well-defined phases of para-, endo- and ecodormancy; however, seed dormancy for leafy spurge is classified as physiological dormancy that requires after-ripening and alternating temperature for maximal germination. Overlaps in transcriptome profiles between different phases of bud and seed dormancy have not been determined. Thus, we compared various phases of dormancy between seeds and buds to identify common genes and molecular processes, which should provide new insights about common regulators of dormancy.

RESULTS

Cluster analysis of expression profiles for 201 selected genes indicated bud and seed samples clustered separately. Direct comparisons between buds and seeds are additionally complicated since seeds incubated at a constant temperature of 20°C for 21 days (21d C) could be considered paradormant (Para) because seeds may be inhibited by endosperm-generated signals, or ecodormant (Eco) because seeds germinate after being subjected to alternating temperature of 20:30°C. Since direct comparisons in gene expression between buds and seeds were problematic, we instead examined commonalities in differentially-expressed genes associated with different phases of dormancy. Comparison between buds and seeds ('Para to Endo buds' and '21d C to 1d C seeds'), using endodormant buds (Endo) and dormant seeds (1d C) as common baselines, identified transcripts associated with cell cycle (HisH4), stress response/transcription factors (ICE2, ERFB4/ABR1), ABA and auxin response (ABA1, ARF1, IAA7, TFL1), carbohydrate/protein degradation (GAPDH_1), and transport (ABCB2). Comparison of transcript abundance for the 'Eco to Endo buds' and '21d C to 1d C seeds' identified transcripts associated with ABA response (ATEM6), auxin response (ARF1), and cell cycle (HisH4). These results indicate that the physiological state of 21d C seeds is more analogous to paradormant buds than that of ecodormant buds.

CONCLUSION

Combined results indicate that common molecular mechanisms associated with dormancy transitions of buds and seeds involve processes associated with ABA and auxin signaling and transport, cell cycle, and AP2/ERF transcription factors or their up-stream regulators.

Closely related NAC transcription factors of tomato differentially regulate stomatal closure and reopening during pathogen attack

To restrict pathogen entry, plants close stomata as an integral part of innate immunity. To counteract this defense, Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato produces coronatine (COR), which mimics jasmonic acid (JA), to reopen stomata for bacterial entry. It is believed that abscisic acid (ABA) plays a central role in regulating bacteria-triggered stomatal closure and that stomatal reopening requires the JA/COR pathway, but the downstream signaling events remain unclear. We studied the stomatal immunity of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and report here the distinct roles of two homologous NAC (for NAM, ATAF1,2, and CUC2) transcription factors, JA2 (for jasmonic acid2) and JA2L (for JA2-like), in regulating pathogen-triggered stomatal movement. ABA activates JA2 expression, and genetic manipulation of JA2 revealed its positive role in ABA-mediated stomatal closure. We show that JA2 exerts this effect by regulating the expression of an ABA biosynthetic gene. By contrast, JA and COR activate JA2L expression, and genetic manipulation of JA2L revealed its positive role in JA/COR-mediated stomatal reopening. We show that JA2L executes this effect by regulating the expression of genes involved in the metabolism of salicylic acid. Thus, these closely related NAC proteins differentially regulate pathogen-induced stomatal closure and reopening through distinct mechanisms.

Trichoderma spp. Improve growth of Arabidopsis seedlings under salt stress through enhanced root development, osmolite production, and Na⁺ elimination through root exudates

Salt stress is an important constraint to world agriculture. Here, we report on the potential of Trichoderma virens and T. atroviride to induce tolerance to salt in Arabidopsis seedlings. We first characterized the effect of several salt concentrations on shoot biomass production and root architecture of Arabidopsis seedlings. We found that salt repressed plant growth and root development in a dose-dependent manner by blocking auxin signaling. Analysis of the wild type and eir1, aux1-7, arf7arf19, and tir1abf2abf19 auxin-related mutants revealed a key role for indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) signaling in mediating salt tolerance. We also found that T. virens (Tv29.8) and T. atroviride (IMI 206040) promoted plant growth in both normal and saline conditions, which was related to the induction of lateral roots and root hairs through auxin signaling. Arabidopsis seedlings grown under saline conditions inoculated with Trichoderma spp. showed increased levels of abscissic acid, L-proline, and ascorbic acid, and enhanced elimination of Na⁺ through root exudates. Our data show the critical role of auxin signaling and root architecture to salt tolerance in Arabidopsis and suggest that these fungi may enhance the plant IAA level as well as the antioxidant and osmoprotective status of plants under salt stress.

Plastid osmotic stress activates cellular stress responses in Arabidopsis

Little is known about cytoplasmic osmoregulatory mechanisms in plants, and even less is understood about how the osmotic properties of the cytoplasm and organelles are coordinately regulated. We have previously shown that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants lacking functional versions of the plastid-localized mechanosensitive ion channels Mechanosensitive Channel of Small Conductance-Like2 (MSL2) and MSL3 contain leaf epidermal plastids under hypoosmotic stress, even during normal growth and development. Here, we use the msl2 msl3 mutant as a model to investigate the cellular response to constitutive plastid osmotic stress. Under unstressed conditions, msl2 msl3 seedlings exhibited several hallmarks of drought or environmental osmotic stress, including solute accumulation, elevated levels of the compatible osmolyte proline (Pro), and accumulation of the stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA). Furthermore, msl2 msl3 mutants expressed Pro and ABA metabolism genes in a pattern normally seen under drought or osmotic stress. Pro accumulation in the msl2 msl3 mutant was suppressed by conditions that reduce plastid osmotic stress or inhibition of ABA biosynthesis. Finally, treatment of unstressed msl2 msl3 plants with exogenous ABA elicited a much greater Pro accumulation response than in the wild type, similar to that observed in plants under drought or osmotic stress. These results suggest that osmotic imbalance across the plastid envelope can elicit a response similar to that elicited by osmotic imbalance across the plasma membrane and provide evidence for the integration of the osmotic state of an organelle into that of the cell in which it resides.

Amplification of ABA biosynthesis and signaling through a positive feedback mechanism in seeds

Abscisic acid is an essential hormone for seed dormancy. Our previous study using the plant gene switch system, a chemically induced gene expression system, demonstrated that induction of 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), a rate-limiting ABA biosynthesis gene, was sufficient to suppress germination in imbibed Arabidopsis seeds. Here, we report development of an efficient experimental system that causes amplification of NCED expression during seed maturation. The system was created with a Triticum aestivum promoter containing ABA responsive elements (ABREs) and a Sorghum bicolor NCED to cause ABA-stimulated ABA biosynthesis and signaling, through a positive feedback mechanism. The chimeric gene pABRE:NCED enhanced NCED and ABF (ABRE-binding factor) expression in Arabidopsis Columbia-0 seeds, which caused 9- to 73-fold increases in ABA levels. The pABRE:NCED seeds exhibited unusually deep dormancy which lasted for more than 3 months. Interestingly, the amplified ABA pathways also caused enhanced expression of Arabidopsis NCED5, revealing the presence of positive feedback in the native system. These results demonstrated the robustness of positive feedback mechanisms and the significance of NCED expression, or single metabolic change, during seed maturation. The pABRE:NCED system provides an excellent experimental system producing dormant and non-dormant seeds of the same maternal origin, which differ only in zygotic ABA. The pABRE:NCED seeds contain a GFP marker which enables seed sorting between transgenic and null segregants and are ideal for comparative analysis. In addition to its utility in basic research, the system can also be applied to prevention of pre-harvest sprouting during crop production, and therefore contributes to translational biology.

The purine metabolite allantoin enhances abiotic stress tolerance through synergistic activation of abscisic acid metabolism

Purine catabolism is regarded as a housekeeping function that remobilizes nitrogen for plant growth and development. However, emerging evidence suggests that certain purine metabolites might contribute to stress protection of plants. Here, we show that in Arabidopsis, the intermediary metabolite allantoin plays a role in abiotic stress tolerance via activation of abscisic acid (ABA) metabolism. The aln loss-of-function of ALN, encoding allantoinase, results in increased allantoin accumulation, genome-wide up-regulation of stress-related genes and enhanced tolerance to drought-shock and osmotic stress in aln mutant seedlings. This phenotype is not caused by a general response to purine catabolism inhibition, but rather results from a specific effect of allantoin. Allantoin activates ABA production both through increased transcription of NCED3, encoding a key enzyme in ABA biosynthesis, and through post-translational activation via high-molecular-weight complex formation of BG1, a β-glucosidase hydrolysing glucose-conjugated ABA. Exogenous application of allantoin to wild-type plants also activates the two ABA-producing pathways that lead to ABA accumulation and stress-responsive gene expression, but this effect is abrogated in ABA-deficient and BG1-knockout mutants. We propose that purine catabolism functions not only in nitrogen metabolism, but also in stress tolerance by influencing ABA production, which is mediated by the possible regulatory action of allantoin.

Comparative analysis of alternative splicing, alternative polyadenylation and the expression of the two KIN genes from cytoplasmic male sterility cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L.)

The KIN genes are crucial members of the cold-regulated gene family. They play exclusive roles during the developmental processes of many organs and respond to various abiotic stresses in plants. However, little is known about the regulation of KIN gene expression in cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) cabbages (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L.). We carried out a genome-wide analysis to identify the KIN genes in the CMS cabbage. Two non-redundant KIN genes, named BoKIN1 (Bol021262) and BoKIN2 (Bol030498), were identified. Reverse transcriptase PCR detected alternative splicing (AS) products of BoKIN1 (four AS products) and BoKIN2 (three AS products). In addition, alternative polyadenylation (APA) was observed for BoKIN1 and BoKIN2 in the CMS cabbage, resulting in variable 3'UTRs in their transcripts. Furthermore, the transcription levels of BoKIN1-0 and BoKIN2-0, the introns of which were spliced completely, were analyzed in various organs and young leaves treated by abiotic stresses. Our data indicated that BoKIN1-0 is highly expressed in various organs, whereas BoKIN2-0 is expressed exclusively in the stamen. Our study also suggested that BoKIN1-0 was upregulated significantly in young leaves of plants exposed to abscisic acid treatment, and cold and heat stress. BoKIN1 and BoKIN2 had differential AS and APA patterns in pre-mRNA processing, and showed differences in their expression patterns and transcript levels. BoKIN1 participates widely in organ development and responds to diverse abiotic stresses, whereas BoKIN2 plays a main role in stamen development in the CMS cabbage.

A distal ABA responsive element in AtNCED3 promoter is required for positive feedback regulation of ABA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays a crucial role in plant development and responses to abiotic stresses. Recent studies indicate that a positive feedback regulation by ABA exists in ABA biosynthesis in plants under dehydration stress. To understand the molecular basis of this regulation, we analyzed the cis-elements of the AtNCED3 promoter in Arabidopsis. AtNCED3 encodes the first committed and highly regulated dioxygenase in the ABA biosynthetic pathway. Through delineated and mutagenesis analyses in stable-transformed Arabidopsis, we revealed that a distal ABA responsive element (ABRE: GGCACGTG, -2372 to -2364 bp) is required for ABA-induced AtNCED3 expression. By analyzing the AtNCED3 expression in ABRE binding protein ABF3 over-expression transgenic plants and knock-out mutants, we provide evidence that the ABA feedback regulation of AtNCED3 expression is not mediated by ABF3.

Molecular cloning and characterization of CrNCED1, a gene encoding 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase in Citrus reshni, with functions in tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses

Abscisic acid (ABA) is an important stress phytohormone that plays an essential role in mediating the signaling networks associated with plant responses to various abiotic stresses. In the present study, we isolated a gene CrNCED1 encoding the rate-limiting enzyme of ABA synthesis, 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), from Citrus reshni. Expression patterns of CrNCED1 varied among different tissues, in which higher levels were measured in the leaves than in the roots. The steady-state mRNA levels of CrNCED1 were progressively elevated by dehydration and ABA, only transiently induced by cold, but not affected by salt. To examine its function in stress tolerance, transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana nudicaulis) plants constitutively overexpressing CrNCED1 were generated, which contained higher ABA levels than the wild type (WT) under both normal growth conditions and drought stress. The transgenic lines displayed enhanced tolerance to dehydration, drought, salt and oxidative stresses when compared with the WT. Lower levels of reactive oxygen species (H₂O₂ and O₂⁻) were detected in the transgenic plants than in the WT under dehydration and salt stress. On the contrary, transcript levels of several genes associated with ROS scavenging, osmoticum adjustment, and water maintenance, and activities of two antioxidant enzymes were higher in the transgenic plants relative to the WT under the dehydration stress. Taken together, CrNCED1 overexpression confers enhanced tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses, which may be, at least in part, ascribed to the positive activation of the stress-responsive genes.

The broccoli (Brassica oleracea) phloem tissue proteome

BACKGROUND

The transport of sugars, hormones, amino acids, proteins, sugar alcohols, and other organic compounds from the sites of synthesis to the sites of use or storage occurs through the conducting cells of the phloem. To better understand these processes a comprehensive understanding of the proteins involved is required. While a considerable amount of data has been obtained from proteomic analyses of phloem sap, this has mainly served to identify the soluble proteins that are translocated through the phloem network.

RESULTS

In order to obtain more comprehensive proteomic data from phloem tissue we developed a simple dissection procedure to isolate phloem tissue from Brassica oleracea. The presence of a high density of phloem sieve elements was confirmed using light microscopy and fluorescently labeled sieve element-specific antibodies. To increase the depth of the proteomic analysis for membrane bound and associated proteins, soluble proteins were extracted first and subsequent extractions were carried out using two different detergents (SDS and CHAPSO). Across all three extractions almost four hundred proteins were identified and each extraction method added to the analysis demonstrating the utility of an approach combining several extraction protocols.

CONCLUSIONS

The phloem was found to be enriched in proteins associated with biotic and abiotic stress responses and structural proteins. Subsequent expression analysis identified a number of genes that appear to be expressed exclusively or at very high levels in phloem tissue, including genes that are known to express specifically in the phloem as well as novel phloem genes.

Isohydric and anisohydric strategies of wheat genotypes under osmotic stress: biosynthesis and function of ABA in stress responses

Changes in water potential (ψw), stomatal conductance, abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation, expression of the major genes involved in ABA biosynthesis, activities of abscisic aldehyde oxidase (AO, EC 1.2.3.1) and antioxidant enzymes were studied in two wheat cultivars with contrasting acclimation strategies subjected to medium strength osmotic stress (-0.976MPa) induced by polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000). Because the biosynthetic pathway of ABA involves multiple gene products, the aim of this study was to unravel how these genes are regulated in isohydric and anisohydric wheat genotypes. In the root tissues of the isohydric cultivar, Triticum aestivum cv. Kobomugi, osmotic stress increased the transcript levels of 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED) gene, controlling the rate limiting step of ABA biosynthesis. Moreover, this cultivar exhibited a higher basal activity and a higher induction of aldehyde oxidase isoenzymes (AAO2-AAO3), responsible for converting ABAldehyde to ABA. It was found that the fast activation of the ABA biosynthesis in the roots generated an enhanced ABA pool in the shoot, which brought about a faster closure of the stomata upon increasing osmotic stress and, as a result, the plants could maintain ψw in the tissues close to the control level. In contrast, the anisohydric genotype, cv. GK Öthalom, exhibited a moderate induction of ABA biosynthesis in the roots, leading to the maintenance but no increase in the concentration of ABA on the basis of tissue water content in the leaves. Due to the slower response of their stomata to water deficit, the tissues of cv. GK Öthalom have to acclimate to much more negative water potentials during increasing osmotic stress. A decreased activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was found in the leaves and roots of both cultivars exposed to osmotic stress, but in the roots elevated activities of catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione transferase (GST) were detected in the isohydric cultivar, suggesting that this genotype was more successful in the elimination of reactive oxygen species caused by the stress conditions.

Population genomic footprints of selection and associations with climate in natural populations of Arabidopsis halleri from the Alps

Natural genetic variation is essential for the adaptation of organisms to their local environment and to changing environmental conditions. Here, we examine genomewide patterns of nucleotide variation in natural populations of the outcrossing herb Arabidopsis halleri and associations with climatic variation among populations in the Alps. Using a pooled population sequencing (Pool-Seq) approach, we discovered more than two million SNPs in five natural populations and identified highly differentiated genomic regions and SNPs using FST -based analyses. We tested only the most strongly differentiated SNPs for associations with a nonredundant set of environmental factors using partial Mantel tests to identify topo-climatic factors that may underlie the observed footprints of selection. Possible functions of genes showing signatures of selection were identified by Gene Ontology analysis. We found 175 genes to be highly associated with one or more of the five tested topo-climatic factors. Of these, 23.4% had unknown functions. Genetic variation in four candidate genes was strongly associated with site water balance and solar radiation, and functional annotations were congruent with these environmental factors. Our results provide a genomewide perspective on the distribution of adaptive genetic variation in natural plant populations from a highly diverse and heterogeneous alpine environment.

Direct regulation of abiotic responses by the Arabidopsis circadian clock component PRR7

Up to 30% of the plant transcriptome is circadian clock-regulated in different species; however, we still lack a good understanding of the mechanisms involved in these genome-wide oscillations in gene expression. Here, we show that PSEUDO-RESPONSE REGULATOR 7 (PRR7), a central component of the Arabidopsis clock, is directly involved in the repression of master regulators of plant growth, light signaling and stress responses. The expression levels of most PRR7 target genes peak around dawn, in an antiphasic manner to PRR7 protein levels, and were repressed by PRR7. These findings indicate that PRR7 is important for cyclic gene expression by repressing the transcription of morning-expressed genes. In particular we found an enrichment of the genes involved in abiotic stress responses, and in accordance we observed that PRR7 is involved in the oxidative stress response and the regulation of stomata conductance.

The transcriptomic signature of RacA activation and inactivation provides new insights into the morphogenetic network of Aspergillus niger

RacA is the main Rho GTPase in Aspergillus niger regulating polarity maintenance via controlling actin dynamics. Both deletion and dominant activation of RacA (Rac(G18V)) provoke an actin localization defect and thereby loss of polarized tip extension, resulting in frequent dichotomous branching in the ΔracA strain and an apolar growing phenotype for Rac(G18V). In the current study the transcriptomics and physiological consequences of these morphological changes were investigated and compared with the data of the morphogenetic network model for the dichotomous branching mutant ramosa-1. This integrated approach revealed that polar tip growth is most likely orchestrated by the concerted activities of phospholipid signaling, sphingolipid signaling, TORC2 signaling, calcium signaling and CWI signaling pathways. The transcriptomic signatures and the reconstructed network model for all three morphology mutants (ΔracA, Rac(G18V), ramosa-1) imply that these pathways become integrated to bring about different physiological adaptations including changes in sterol, zinc and amino acid metabolism and changes in ion transport and protein trafficking. Finally, the fate of exocytotic (SncA) and endocytotic (AbpA, SlaB) markers in the dichotomous branching mutant ΔracA was followed, demonstrating that hyperbranching does not per se result in increased protein secretion.

OsRMC, a negative regulator of salt stress response in rice, is regulated by two AP2/ERF transcription factors

High salinity causes remarkable losses in rice productivity worldwide mainly because it inhibits growth and reduces grain yield. To cope with environmental changes, plants evolved several adaptive mechanisms, which involve the regulation of many stress-responsive genes. Among these, we have chosen OsRMC to study its transcriptional regulation in rice seedlings subjected to high salinity. Its transcription was highly induced by salt treatment and showed a stress-dose-dependent pattern. OsRMC encodes a receptor-like kinase described as a negative regulator of salt stress responses in rice. To investigate how OsRMC is regulated in response to high salinity, a salt-induced rice cDNA expression library was constructed and subsequently screened using the yeast one-hybrid system and the OsRMC promoter as bait. Thereby, two transcription factors (TFs), OsEREBP1 and OsEREBP2, belonging to the AP2/ERF family were identified. Both TFs were shown to bind to the same GCC-like DNA motif in OsRMC promoter and to negatively regulate its gene expression. The identified TFs were characterized regarding their gene expression under different abiotic stress conditions. This study revealed that OsEREBP1 transcript level is not significantly affected by salt, ABA or severe cold (5 °C) and is only slightly regulated by drought and moderate cold. On the other hand, the OsEREBP2 transcript level increased after cold, ABA, drought and high salinity treatments, indicating that OsEREBP2 may play a central role mediating the response to different abiotic stresses. Gene expression analysis in rice varieties with contrasting salt tolerance further suggests that OsEREBP2 is involved in salt stress response in rice.

A wheat PI4K gene whose product possesses threonine autophophorylation activity confers tolerance to drought and salt in Arabidopsis

Phosphoinositides are involved in regulation of recruitment and activity of signalling proteins in cell membranes. Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4-kinases (PI4Ks) generate PI4-phosphate the precursor of regulatory phosphoinositides. No type II PI4K research on the abiotic stress response has previously been reported in plants. A stress-inducible type II PI4K gene, named TaPI4KIIγ, was obtained by de novo transcriptome sequencing of drought-treated wheat (Triticum aestivum). TaPI4KIIγ, localized on the plasma membrane, underwent threonine autophosphorylation, but had no detectable lipid kinase activity. Interaction of TaPI4KIIγ with wheat ubiquitin fusion degradation protein (TaUDF1) indicated that it might be hydrolysed by the proteinase system. Overexpression of TaPI4KIIγ revealed that it could enhance drought and salt stress tolerance during seed germination and seedling growth. A ubdkγ7 mutant, identified as an orthologue of TaPI4KIIγ in Arabidopsis, was sensitive to salt, polyethylene glycol (PEG), and abscisic acid (ABA), and overexpression of TaPI4KIIγ in the ubdkγ7 mutant compensated stress sensitivity. TaPI4KIIγ promoted root growth in Arabidopsis, suggesting that TaPI4KIIγ might enhance stress resistance by improving root growth. Overexpression of TaPI4KIIγ led to an altered expression level of stress-related genes and changes in several physiological traits that made the plants more tolerant to stress. The results provided evidence that overexpression of TaPI4KIIγ could improve drought and salt tolerance.

Role of CBFs as integrators of chloroplast redox, phytochrome and plant hormone signaling during cold acclimation

Cold acclimation of winter cereals and other winter hardy species is a prerequisite to increase subsequent freezing tolerance. Low temperatures upregulate the expression of C-repeat/dehydration-responsive element binding transcription factors (CBF/DREB1) which in turn induce the expression of COLD-REGULATED (COR) genes. We summarize evidence which indicates that the integration of these interactions is responsible for the dwarf phenotype and enhanced photosynthetic performance associated with cold-acclimated and CBF-overexpressing plants. Plants overexpressing CBFs but grown at warm temperatures mimic the cold-tolerant, dwarf, compact phenotype; increased photosynthetic performance; and biomass accumulation typically associated with cold-acclimated plants. In this review, we propose a model whereby the cold acclimation signal is perceived by plants through an integration of low temperature and changes in light intensity, as well as changes in light quality. Such integration leads to the activation of the CBF-regulon and subsequent upregulation of COR gene and GA 2-oxidase (GA2ox) expression which results in a dwarf phenotype coupled with increased freezing tolerance and enhanced photosynthetic performance. We conclude that, due to their photoautotrophic nature, plants do not rely on a single low temperature sensor, but integrate changes in light intensity, light quality, and membrane viscosity in order to establish the cold-acclimated state. CBFs appear to act as master regulators of these interconnecting sensing/signaling pathways.

ABA homeostasis and signaling involving multiple subcellular compartments and multiple receptors

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays pivotal roles in many important physiological processes including stomatal closure, seed dormancy, growth and various environmental stresses. In these responses, ABA action is under the control of complex regulatory mechanisms involving homeostasis, perception and signaling. Recent studies provide new insights into these processes, which are of great importance in understanding the mechanisms underlying the evolutionary principle of how plants can survive as a sessile organism under ever-changing environmental conditions. They also form the basis for designing plants that have an enhanced resistance to various stresses in particular abiotic stress.

Genome-wide quantitative identification of DNA differentially methylated sites in Arabidopsis seedlings growing at different water potential

Background

In eukaryotes, the combinatorial usage of cis-regulatory elements enables the assembly of composite genetic switches to integrate multifarious, convergent signals within a single promoter. Plants as sessile organisms, incapable of seeking for optimal conditions, rely on the use of this resource to adapt to changing environments. Emerging evidence suggests that the transcriptional responses of plants to stress are associated with epigenetic processes that govern chromatin accessibility. However, the extent at which specific chromatin modifications contribute to gene regulation has not been assessed.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In the present work, we combined methyl-sensitive-cut counting and RNA-seq to follow the transcriptional and epigenetic response of plants to simulated drought. Comprehensive genome wide evidence supports the notion that the methylome is widely reactive to water potential. The predominant changes in methylomes were loci in the promoters of genes encoding for proteins suited to cope with the environmental challenge.

Conclusion/Significance

These selective changes in the methylome with corresponding changes in gene transcription suggest drought sets in motion an instructive mechanism guiding epigenetic machinery toward specific effectors genes.

The role of abscisic acid in regulating cucumber fruit development and ripening and its transcriptional regulation

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), a kind of fruit usually harvested at the immature green stage, belongs to non-climacteric fruit. To investigate the contribution of abscisic acid (ABA) to cucumber fruit development and ripening, variation in ABA level was investigated and a peak in ABA level was found in pulp before fruit get fully ripe. To clarify this point further, exogenous ABA was applied to cucumber fruits at two different development stages. Results showed that ABA application at the turning stage promotes cucumber fruit ripening, while application at the immature green stage had inconspicuous effects. In addition, with the purpose of understanding the transcriptional regulation of ABA, two partial cDNAs of CsNCED1 and CsNCED2 encoding 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED), a key enzyme in ABA biosynthetic pathway; one partial cDNA of CsCYP707A1 for 8'-hydroxylase, a key enzyme in the oxidative catabolism of ABA and two partial cDNAs of CsBG1 and CsBG2 for β-glucosidase (BG) that hydrolyzes ABA glucose ester (ABA-GE) to release active ABA were cloned from cucumber. The DNA and deduced amino acid sequences of these obtained genes respectively showed high similarities to their homologous genes in other plants. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that ABA content may be regulated by its biosynthesis (CsNCEDs), catabolism (CsCYP707A1) and reactivation genes (CsBGs) at the transcriptional level during cucumber fruit development and ripening, in response to ABA application, dehydration and pollination, among which CsNCED1, CsCYP707A1 and CsBG1 were highly expressed in pulp and may play more important roles in regulating ABA metabolism.

The accumulation of endogenous proline induces changes in gene expression of several antioxidant enzymes in leaves of transgenic Swingle citrumelo

Plant exposure to abiotic stresses leads to an accumulation of reactive oxygen species with the concomitant increase in antioxidant defense mechanisms. Previous studies showed that exogenous application of proline mitigate the deleterious effects caused by oxidative stress due to its ability to increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes. However, there are no reports of the effects of high endogenous accumulation of proline in the transcriptional pattern of antioxidant enzymes genes under normal conditions of water supply or in response to water deficit. Here, we show that isoforms of four antioxidant enzymes genes (Ascorbate peroxidase-APX, Catalase-CAT, Superoxide dismutase-SOD and Glutathione reductase-GR) were differentially regulated in leaves of Swingle citrumelo transgenic plants with high endogenous proline accumulation submitted to water deficits and also under normal water supply condition. Proline per se caused a two-fold change in the transcription activity of APX1, APXcl, CAT2 and Cu/ZnSOD2, while during water deficit proline influenced mRNAs levels in APXs and Cu/ZnSODs isoforms, MnSODmit and GRcl. This study adds new information on the role of proline during drought conditions and, more important, without the potential confounding effects imposed by water deficiency. We showed that, in addition to its known effects on diverse plant physiological and biochemical processes, high endogenous proline can also acts as a regulatory/signalling molecule capable of altering the transcript levels of stress-related genes.

Abscisic Acid synthesis and response

Abscisic acid (ABA) is one of the "classical" plant hormones, i.e. discovered at least 50 years ago, that regulates many aspects of plant growth and development. This chapter reviews our current understanding of ABA synthesis, metabolism, transport, and signal transduction, emphasizing knowledge gained from studies of Arabidopsis. A combination of genetic, molecular and biochemical studies has identified nearly all of the enzymes involved in ABA metabolism, almost 200 loci regulating ABA response, and thousands of genes regulated by ABA in various contexts. Some of these regulators are implicated in cross-talk with other developmental, environmental or hormonal signals. Specific details of the ABA signaling mechanisms vary among tissues or developmental stages; these are discussed in the context of ABA effects on seed maturation, germination, seedling growth, vegetative stress responses, stomatal regulation, pathogen response, flowering, and senescence.

Transcriptional profiling reveals sexual differences of the leaf transcriptomes in response to drought stress in Populus yunnanensis

Populus yunnanensis Dode., a native dioecious woody plant species in Southwest China, plays an important role in commercial forestry and environmental protection. In natural habitats, female P. yunnanensis trees are extremely rare while males are dominant in population. Our previous physiological studies in the species have revealed sex-dependent difference in response to drought stress, and females suffer greater negative effects than males. However, the molecular basis of sex-related differences during drought stress has been poorly characterized. We use the Illumina-Solexa platform to sequence the leaf transcriptomes derived from male and female P. yunnanensis trees grown in normal condition and drought stress. In total, 22,235 transcripts were identified in this study and 6039 genes were differentially expressed (DEGs) during drought stress. Majority of the DEGs were identified in males (92%, 5539); thus, males had greater remodeling of the leaf transcriptome in response to drought compared with females. Furthermore, many genes involved in hormone biosynthesis, photosynthesis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging enzyme system had more transcript changes in males than in females during drought stress, while these genes exhibited higher transcript alteration in females than in males in normal condition. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis of 15 selected genes suggested that during drought treatment the up-regulated DEGs had a quicker increment in their transcript abundances in females than that in males. The sexual differences of gene transcription coincide with the sexual different adaptation of P. yunnanensis in the present natural habitats.

Analysis of differential expression of Mediator subunit genes in Arabidopsis

Mediator is a conserved eukaryotic multiprotein complex required by RNA polymerase II for transcription of its target genes. Till date, there is no report explaining the signals that affect the overall concentration of individual Med subunits. In this report, we have analyzed the effect of different phytohormones and stresses on the transcript level of Med genes in Arabidopsis. Hormones like auxin and JA, and cold stress did not show significant effect. ABA moderately increased the transcript abundance of more than 70% of AtMed genes analyzed in this study. However, there was noticeable change in the transcript level of several AtMed genes in response to BR. Stresses like high light, dark and salt also caused significant change in the transcript abundance of many AtMed genes. These data reveal that different environmental cues can affect stoichiometric concentration of Med subunits by affecting the transcription of their respective genes. This may, in turn, affect the overall arrangement of functional Mediator complex. This also suggests that some subunits may have some specific functions to play in response different signals.

Disruption of abscisic acid signaling constitutively activates Arabidopsis resistance to the necrotrophic fungus Plectosphaerella cucumerina

Plant resistance to necrotrophic fungi is regulated by a complex set of signaling pathways that includes those mediated by the hormones salicylic acid (SA), ethylene (ET), jasmonic acid (JA), and abscisic acid (ABA). The role of ABA in plant resistance remains controversial, as positive and negative regulatory functions have been described depending on the plant-pathogen interaction analyzed. Here, we show that ABA signaling negatively regulates Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) resistance to the necrotrophic fungus Plectosphaerella cucumerina. Arabidopsis plants impaired in ABA biosynthesis, such as the aba1-6 mutant, or in ABA signaling, like the quadruple pyr/pyl mutant (pyr1pyl1pyl2pyl4), were more resistant to P. cucumerina than wild-type plants. In contrast, the hab1-1abi1-2abi2-2 mutant impaired in three phosphatases that negatively regulate ABA signaling displayed an enhanced susceptibility phenotype to this fungus. Comparative transcriptomic analyses of aba1-6 and wild-type plants revealed that the ABA pathway negatively regulates defense genes, many of which are controlled by the SA, JA, or ET pathway. In line with these data, we found that aba1-6 resistance to P. cucumerina was partially compromised when the SA, JA, or ET pathway was disrupted in this mutant. Additionally, in the aba1-6 plants, some genes encoding cell wall-related proteins were misregulated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and biochemical analyses of cell walls from aba1-6 and wild-type plants revealed significant differences in their Fourier transform infrared spectratypes and uronic acid and cellulose contents. All these data suggest that ABA signaling has a complex function in Arabidopsis basal resistance, negatively regulating SA/JA/ET-mediated resistance to necrotrophic fungi.