Parent-infant synchrony and the construction of shared timing; physiological precursors, developmental outcomes, and risk conditions

Parental Coping, Representations, and Interactions with Their Infants at High Risk of Cerebral Palsy

The aim of this study is to describe parental coping, representations, and interactions during the time of inclusion in the Small Step early intervention program for infants at high risk of cerebral palsy (CP) in Norway (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03264339). Altogether, 11 infants (mean age 4.8 months, SD: 1.5) and their parents (mothers: n = 10, fathers: n = 9) were included. Parental coping was assessed using the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Parental representations and parent-infant interactions were assessed using the Working Model of the Child Interview (WMCI) and the Parent-Child Early Relational Assessment (PCERA). Parents' PSI-SF and HADS scores were within normal range; however, 26.7% showed symptoms of stress, 52.6% showed symptoms of anxiety, and 31.6% showed symptoms of depression above the cut-off. WMCI results indicate that 73.7% of the parents had balanced representations. For PCERA, the subscale Dyadic Mutuality and Reciprocity was of concern, while two other subscales were in areas of strength and three subscales in some concern areas. There were no differences between mothers and fathers. Most of the parents had balanced representations, some had mental or stress symptoms and many were struggling with aspects of the parent-infant interaction. This knowledge could be useful when developing more family-centered interventions.

Efficacy of a randomized controlled trial of a perinatal adaptation of COS-P in promoting maternal sensitivity and mental wellbeing among women with psychosocial vulnerabilities

Pregnant women with psychosocial vulnerabilities should be offered perinatal interventions that include a parenting component to ameliorate the potential negative effects of maternal mental health problems and/or poor social network on parenting. One such intervention program is the Circle of Security-Parenting intervention (COS-P). The COS-P is a manualized video-based intervention that based on attachment theory seek to enhance maternal sensitivity and decrease the risk on insecure and disorganized attachment. We carried out a randomized controlled trial examining the efficacy of a perinatal adapted version of COS-P for women with psychosocial vulnerabilities (e.g. histories of mental health problems and/or poor social networks). Eligible participants (N = 78) were recruited to the study by midwives during regular prenatal sessions. Interventions were delivered individually at home by trained health nurses both pre and post birth. The primary outcome was maternal sensitivity assessed with the Coding Interactive Behavior Manual by blinded coders from video-recordings of mother-infant free play interactions. Secondary outcomes were mother-reported depressive symptoms, parental reflective functioning, parental stress, infant socio-emotional functioning, and maternal wellbeing. All outcomes were assessed at nine months infant age. We did not find an effect of the intervention on the primary outcome of maternal sensitivity (β = -0.08; 95% CI [-0.41, 0.26], p = .66). Neither did we find intervention effects on the secondary outcomes of depressive symptoms, parental reflective functioning, maternal well-being, or infant socio-emotional functioning. We did however find that the intervention decreased parental stress (β = -8.51; 95% CI [-16.6;-0.41], p = .04). The results are discussed in light of existing findings on the effect of COS-P and sample heterogeneity. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges of adapting the COS-P for pregnant women, some without prior experiences with caregiving. Future research with larger at-risk samples examining moderation factors (e.g. adult attachment, depression maternal-fetal attachment) are recommended.

Intrapersonal synchrony analysis reveals a weaker temporal coherence between gaze and gestures in adults with autism spectrum disorder

The temporal encoding of nonverbal signals within individuals, referred to as intrapersonal synchrony (IaPS), is an implicit process and essential feature of human communication. Based on existing evidence, IaPS is thought to be a marker of nonverbal behavior characteristics in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but there is a lack of empirical evidence. The aim of this study was to quantify IaPS in adults during an experimentally controlled real-life interaction task. A sample of adults with a confirmed ASD diagnosis and a matched sample of typically-developed adults were tested (N = 48). Participants were required to indicate the appearance of a target invisible to their interaction partner nonverbally through gaze and pointing gestures. Special eye-tracking software allowed automated extraction of temporal delays between nonverbal signals and their intrapersonal variability with millisecond temporal resolution as indices for IaPS. Likelihood ratio tests of multilevel models showed enlarged delays between nonverbal signals in ASD. Larger delays were associated with greater intrapersonal variability in delays. The results provide a quantitative constraint on nonverbal temporality in typically-developed adults and suggest weaker temporal coherence between nonverbal signals in adults with ASD. The results provide a potential diagnostic marker and inspire predictive coding theories about the role of IaPS in interpersonal synchronization processes.

Effects of maternal trauma and associated psychopathology on atypical maternal behavior and infant social withdrawal six months postpartum

Maternal psychopathology given a history of maltreatment and domestic violence exposure increases the risk for child psychopathology. Infant social withdrawal is one warning sign of adverse developmental outcomes including child anxiety and depression. It remains unclear how maternal trauma-related psychopathology might affect infant social withdrawal six-months postpartum.

METHODS

One-hundred ninety-five women and their six-month-old infants were studied in an at-risk community sample. Maternal trauma history, posttraumatic stress (PTSD) and major depressive (MDD) disorders were assessed. Maternal and infant behaviors were coded from videotaped interactions.

RESULTS

Maternal trauma was correlated with atypical maternal behavior (AMB) and infant social withdrawal (p ≤ .001). PTSD and MDD, and comorbid PTSD/MDD predicted increased AMB (p ≤ .001) but only maternal MDD was predictive of infant social withdrawal (p ≤ .001). Effects of maternal MDD on infant withdrawal were mediated by AMB.

CONCLUSIONS

At six-months postpartum, maternal MDD was associated with infant withdrawal. AMB is an important target for early intervention.

The specificity, situational modulations, and behavioral correlates of parent-child neural synchrony

In recent years, aiming to uncover the neural mechanism of parent-child interaction and link it to the children's social development, a newly developed index, namely, parent-child inter-brain neural synchronization (INS) has attracted growing interest. Existing studies have mainly focused on three aspects of the INS; these are the specificity of the INS (i.e., stronger INS for parent-child dyads than stranger-child dyads), the situational modulations of the INS (i.e., how the valence of the situation or the types of interaction modulate INS), and the associations between the INS and the state-like behavioral tendencies or trait-like individual features of the parents and children. This review summarizes the existing findings in line with these three topics and provides preliminary suggestions to promote parent-child INS. In the meanwhile, the inconsistent findings and unstudied questions were discussed, opening new avenues for future studies.

Child language and autism diagnosis impact hierarchical temporal structure of parent-child vocal interactions in early childhood

Timing is critical to successful social interactions. The temporal structure of dyadic vocal interactions emerges from the rhythm, timing, and frequency of each individuals' vocalizations and reflects how the dyad dynamically organizes and adapts during an interaction. This study investigated the temporal structure of vocal interactions longitudinally in parent-child dyads of typically developing (TD) infants (n = 49; 9-18 months; 48% male) and toddlers with ASD (n = 23; 27.2 ± 5.0 months; 91.3% male) to identify how developing language and social skills impact the temporal dynamics of the interaction. Acoustic hierarchical temporal structure (HTS), a measure of the nested clustering of acoustic events across multiple timescales, was measured in free play interactions using Allan Factor. HTS reflects a signal's temporal complexity and variability, with greater HTS indicating reduced flexibility of the dyadic system. Child expressive language significantly predicted HTS (ß = -0.2) longitudinally across TD infants, with greater dyadic HTS associated with lower child language skills. ASD dyads exhibited greater HTS (i.e., more rigid temporal structure) than nonverbal matched (d = 0.41) and expressive language matched TD dyads (d = 0.28). Increased HTS in ASD dyads occurred at timescales >1 s, suggesting greater structuring of pragmatic aspects of interaction. Results provide a new window into how language development and social reciprocity serve as constraints to shape parent-child interaction dynamics and showcase a novel automated approach to characterizing vocal interactions across multiple timescales during early childhood.

Longitudinal changes in infants' rhythmic arm movements during rattle-shaking play with mothers

From early on, infants produce a variety of rhythmic behaviors—an ability that likely supports later social communication. However, it is unclear, how this rhythmic motor production changes with age. Here, we investigated the coupling between infants' arm movements across the first year of life in a social context of a rattle-shaking play with their mothers. Through longitudinal measurements at 4, 6, 9, and 12 months of age using wearable motion trackers placed on infants' arms, we show that infants (N = 40) are similarly motivated to attempt rattle-shaking across the first year of life. However, with age, they make more rattling movements with an increased frequency. Their left and right arm movements become more coupled during rattle-shaking, as shown by an increase in wavelet coherence. Infants produced more rattling movements when they were rattling alone than when their mothers were rattling or singing simultaneously. There were no differences between infants' individual and social rattling in between-arms coherence. Our results may help to understand rhythmic arm movements as precursors of motor social coordination.

Early life exposure to unpredictable parental sensory signals shapes cognitive development across three species

Exposure to early life adversity has long term consequences on cognitive function. Most research has focused on understanding components of early life adversities that contribute to later risk, including poverty, trauma, maltreatment, and neglect. Whereas these factors, in the aggregate, explain a significant proportion of emotional and cognitive problems, there are serious gaps in our ability to identify potential mechanisms by which early life adversities might promote vulnerability or resilience. Here we discuss early life exposure to unpredictable signals from the caretaker as an understudied type of adversity that is amenable to prevention and intervention. We employ a translational approach to discover underlying neurobiological mechanisms by which early life exposure to unpredictable signals sculpts the developing brain. First, we review evidence that exposure to unpredictable signals from the parent during sensitive periods impacts development of neural circuits. Second, we describe a method for characterizing early life patterns of sensory signals across species. Third, we present published and original data illustrating that patterns of maternal care predict memory function in humans, non-human primates, and rodents. Finally, implications are discussed for identifying individuals at risk so that early preventive-intervention can be provided.

Anxious parents show higher physiological synchrony with their infants

BACKGROUND

Interpersonal processes influence our physiological states and associated affect. Physiological arousal dysregulation, a core feature of anxiety disorders, has been identified in children of parents with elevated anxiety. However, little is understood about how parent-infant interpersonal regulatory processes differ when the dyad includes a more anxious parent.

METHODS

We investigated moment-to-moment fluctuations in arousal within parent-infant dyads using miniaturised microphones and autonomic monitors. We continually recorded arousal and vocalisations in infants and parents in naturalistic home settings across day-long data segments.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that physiological synchrony across the day was stronger in dyads including more rather than less anxious mothers. Across the whole recording epoch, less anxious mothers showed responsivity that was limited to 'peak' moments in their child's arousal. In contrast, more anxious mothers showed greater reactivity to small-scale fluctuations. Less anxious mothers also showed behaviours akin to 'stress buffering' - downregulating their arousal when the overall arousal level of the dyad was high. These behaviours were absent in more anxious mothers.

CONCLUSION

Our findings have implications for understanding the differential processes of physiological co-regulation in partnerships where a partner is anxious, and for the use of this understanding in informing intervention strategies for dyads needing support for elevated levels of anxiety.

Mother-infant co-regulation during infancy: Developmental changes and influencing factors

Dyadic interaction is the ecological niche in which early human development occurs and parent-infant co-regulation - the reciprocal adjustment between partners when interacting - is key for the dyadic functioning. Research showed that co-regulation changes with the advancing age; however how this development unfolds and by which variables would be affected is largely ignored. The present study investigated co-regulation longitudinal progression across seven-time points (4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 21 and 24 months of infants' age) while exploring the moderating effects of three infant variables (object manipulation, alternated gaze and shared meanings). The sample included healthy mother-infant dyads (N = 79) interacting for 5' in a context including objects. The interaction was coded by using the Fogel's Relational Coding System that distinguishes three main co-regulation patterns, i.e., unilateral, asymmetrical and symmetrical. Object manipulation, alternated gaze and shared meanings were also observed in the first, middle and final parts of the observational period, respectively. We used multilevel modeling technique to identify the developmental trajectories of each co-regulation pattern; we also analyzed whether the trends were moderated by specific factors at specific time periods. Results were statistically significant in both cases. We found an acceleration effect of the age on all the three co-regulation patterns. To specify, asymmetrical pattern decreased very soon, unilateral increased sharply from 6 to 9 months and then declined, symmetrical increased in the 12-15 months period and jumping up at the end. We also found a moderating effect of all the three infant's variables: infants who were higher in object manipulation increased unilateral pattern earlier and more than lower infants; infants who were higher in alternating the gaze between mother and object and in sharing meanings showed a higher and steeper trend of symmetrical pattern. This study is the first shaping co-regulation changes in their form and rate, so reliably accounting for the developmental nature of this process. It also showed that co-regulation changes related to different age dependent skills, thus contributing to define this process as a complex phenomenon.

Identifying family-child activities among children with prenatal drug exposure in a Tribal Nation: Caregiver perspectives on barriers, facilitators and positive outcomes

BACKGROUND

Native American newborns experience high rates of prenatal drug exposure leading to devastating outcomes within Indigenous communities. Such children are at heightened risk of maladaptive outcomes if early intervention does not occur. A need exists to identify strategies that promote resilience.

OBJECTIVES

Identify barriers and facilitators that families experience in family-child engagement activities across the community, culture, outdoors, and home settings to inform a cultural-sensitive and community-relevant study aimed at quantifying positive family-child engagement activities as a resilience factor in this population.

METHODS

Biological parents and caregivers to children, ages 0-3 years old with or without prenatal drug exposure (N = 15) were recruited from the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes to participate in an in-person semi-structured interview. Data analysis consisted of research yarning and directed content analysis to collect unique stories and to identify common activities, barriers, supports and positive outcomes to families, respectively.

RESULTS

Attending multiple powwows/celebrations, swimming, and reading were the most mentioned activities. Cost and transportation were common barriers. The most common support mechanism provided was having family or friends present to participate in activities. Cultural knowledge and bonding were common positive outcomes for a child engaging in activities. A collection of stories identified both familial barriers to traditional ways of knowing and participation in community, and community-implemented efforts to bridge that gap among families with a history of drug and alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies potential resilience factors specific to families to children with prenatal drug exposure that reside in Indigenous communities.

Dyadic nonverbal synchrony during pre and post music therapy interventions and its relationship to self-reported therapy readiness

Nonverbal interpersonal synchronization has been established as an important factor in therapeutic relationships, and the differentiation of who leads the interaction appears to provide further important information. We investigated nonverbal synchrony - quantified as the coordination of body movement between patient and therapist. This was observed in music therapy dyads, while engaged in verbal interaction before and after a music intervention in the session. We further examined associations with patients' self-reported therapy readiness at the beginning of the session. Eleven neurological in-patients participated in this study. Our results showed an increase in both nonverbal synchrony and patient leading after the music intervention. A significant negative correlation was found between self-reported therapy readiness and nonverbal synchrony after the music intervention. These findings point to the empathic ability of the music therapist to sense patients' therapy readiness. Higher patient leading in nonverbal synchrony after the music intervention may thus indicate that the music intervention may have allowed dyadic entrainment to take place, potentially increasing self-regulation and thus empowering patients.

The nested hierarchy of self and its trauma: In search for a synchronic dynamic and topographical re-organization

The sense of self has always been a topic of high interest in both psychoanalysis and most recently in neuroscience. Nowadays, there is an agreement in psychoanalysis that the self emerges from the relationship with the other (e.g., the caregiver) in terms of his/her capacity to attune, regulate, and synchronize with the emergent self of the infant. The outcome of this relational/intersubjective synchronization is the development of the sense of self and its regulatory processes both in dynamic psychology and neuroscience. In this work, we propose that synchrony is a fundamental biobehavioral factor in these dialectical processes between self and others which shapes the brain-body-mind system of the individuals, including their sense of self. Recently in neuroscience, it has been proposed by the research group around Northoff that the self is constituted by a brain-based nested hierarchical three-layer structure, including interoceptive, proprio-exteroceptive, and mental layers of self. This may be disrupted, though, when traumatic experiences occur. Following the three levels of trauma theorized by Mucci, we here suggest how different levels of traumatic experiences might have an enduring effect in yielding a trauma-based topographic and dynamic re-organization of the nested model of self featured by dissociation. In conclusion, we propose that different levels and degrees of traumatic experience are related to corresponding disruptions in the topography and dynamic of the brain-based three-layer hierarchical structure of the self.

Inter-brain plasticity as a biological mechanism of change in psychotherapy: A review and integrative model

Recent models of psychopathology and psychotherapy highlight the importance of interpersonal factors. The current review offers a biological perspective on these interpersonal processes by examining inter-brain synchrony—the coupling of brain activity between people interacting with one another. High inter-brain synchrony is associated with better relationships in therapy and in daily life, while deficits in the ability to achieve inter-brain synchrony are associated with a variety of psychological and developmental disorders. The review suggests that therapy improves patients’ ability to achieve such synchrony through inter-brain plasticity—a process by which recurring exposure to high inter-brain synchrony leads to lasting change in a person’s overall ability to synchronize. Therapeutic sessions provide repeated situations with high inter-brain synchrony. This can lead to a long-term increase in the ability to synchronize, first with the therapist, then generalized to other interpersonal relationships, ultimately leading to symptom reduction. The proposed inter-brain plasticity model offers a novel biological framework for understanding relational change in psychotherapy and its links to various forms of psychopathology and provides testable hypotheses for future research. Understanding this mechanism may help improve existing psychotherapy methods and develop new ones.

The benefits of learning movement sequences in social interactions

Although we frequently acquire knowledge and skills through social interactions, the focus of most research on learning is on individual learning. Here we characterize Interaction Based Learning (IBL), which represents the acquisition of knowledge or skill through social interactions, and compare it to Observational Learning (OL)—learning by observation. To that end, we designed a movement synchronization paradigm whereby participants learned Tai-Chi inspired movement sequences from trained teachers in two separated sessions. We used a motion capture system to track the movement of 40 dyads comprised of a teacher and learner, who were randomly divided into OL or IBL groups, and calculated time-varying synchrony of three-dimensional movement velocity. While in the IBL group both the learner and the teacher could see each other through a transparent glass, in the OL group dyads interacted through a one-way mirror, such that the learners observed the teacher, but the teacher could not see the learners. Results show that although the number of movements recalled was not different between groups, we found improved movement smoothness in the IBL compared to the OL group, indicating movement acquisition was better in the IBL group. In addition, we found that motor synchronization levels in dyads improved over time, indicating that movement synchronization can be learned and retained. In the first session, the IBL group, but not the OL group, showed a significant improvement in synchronization. This suggests that dyadic interaction is important for learning movement sequences, and that bidirectional communication of signals and mutual feedback are essential for the consolidation of motor learning.

Intergenerational neuroimaging study: mother-infant functional connectivity similarity and the role of infant and maternal factors

Mother and infant neural and behavioral synchrony is important for infant development during the first years of life. Recent studies also suggest that neural risk markers associated with parental psychopathology may be transmitted across generations before symptoms emerge in offspring. There is limited understanding of how early similarity in brain functioning between 2 generations emerges. In the current study, using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we examined the functional connectivity (FC) similarity between mothers and newborns during the first 3 months after the infant's birth. We found that FC similarity between mothers and infants increased as infant age increased. Furthermore, we examined whether maternal factors such as maternal socioeconomic status and prenatal maternal depressive symptoms may influence individual differences in FC similarity. For the whole-brain level, lower maternal education levels were associated with greater FC similarity. In previous literature, lower maternal education levels were associated with suboptimal cognitive and socioemotional development. Greater FC similarity may reflect that the infants develop their FC similarity prematurely, which may suboptimally influence their developmental outcomes in later ages.

Studying the Developing Brain in Real-World Contexts: Moving From Castles in the Air to Castles on the Ground

Most current research in cognitive neuroscience uses standardized non-ecological experiments to study the developing brain. But these approaches do a poor job of mimicking the real-world, and thus can only provide a distorted picture of how cognitive operations and brain development unfold outside of the lab. Here we consider future research avenues which may lead to a better appreciation of how developing brains dynamically interact with a complex real-world environment, and how cognition develops over time. We raise several problems faced by current mainstream methods in the field, before briefly reviewing novel promising approaches that alleviate some of these issues. First, we consider research that examines perception by measuring entrainment between brain activity and temporal patterns in naturalistic stimuli. Second, we consider research that examines our ability to parse our continuous experience into discrete events, and how this ability develops over time. Third, we consider the role of children as active agents in selecting what they sample from the environment from one moment to the next. Fourth, we consider new approaches that measure how mutual influences between children and others are instantiated in suprapersonal brain networks. Finally, we discuss how we may reduce adult biases when designing developmental studies. Together, these approaches have great potential to further our understanding of how the developing brain learns to process information, and to control complex real-world behaviors.

Interpersonal Physiological Synchrony Predicts Group Cohesion

A key emergent property of group social dynamic is synchrony–the coordination of actions, emotions, or physiological processes between group members. Despite this fact and the inherent nested structure of groups, little research has assessed physiological synchronization between group members from a multi-level perspective, thus limiting a full understanding of the dynamics between members. To address this gap of knowledge we re-analyzed a large dataset (N = 261) comprising physiological and psychological data that were collected in two laboratory studies that involved two different social group tasks. In both studies, following the group task, members reported their experience of group cohesion via questionnaires. We utilized a non-linear analysis method-multidimensional recurrence quantification analysis that allowed us to represent physiological synchronization in cardiological interbeat intervals between group members at the individual-level and at the group-level. We found that across studies and their conditions, the change in physiological synchrony from baseline to group interaction predicted a psychological sense of group cohesion. This result was evident both at the individual and the group levels and was not modified by the context of the interaction. The individual- and group-level effects were highly correlated. These results indicate that the relationship between synchrony and cohesion is a multilayered construct. We re-affirm the role of physiological synchrony for cohesion in groups. Future studies are needed to crystallize our understanding of the differences and similarities between synchrony at the individual-level and synchrony at the group level to illuminate under which conditions one of these levels has primacy, or how they interact.

Maternal anxiety symptoms associated with increased behavioral synchrony in the early postnatal period

The presence of perinatal mood and anxiety disorders has typically been associated with decreases in the quality of mother-infant interactions. However, maternal anxiety symptoms during the postpartum period have been less studied than other mental health disorders like depression. In the current study, we examined associations among symptoms of maternal anxiety, maternal perceived stress, and mother-infant behavioral synchrony in the early postnatal period. Eighty-one mother-infant dyads participated in this study when the infants were 3 months old. Surveys were given to obtain demographic information and current maternal mental health symptoms, and dyads completed a 5-min free-play task to measure behavioral synchrony. Results indicated that maternal anxiety symptoms were positively associated with behavioral synchrony, but only for mothers reporting moderate levels of perceived stress. These findings highlight the differential impact of maternal postpartum mental health on behavioral synchrony and suggest that higher maternal anxiety symptoms during the postnatal period may play an adaptive role in fostering more dynamic mother-infant interactions.

Paid maternal leave is associated with infant brain function at 3 months of age

The first months of life are critical for establishing neural connections relevant for social and cognitive development. Yet, the United States lacks a national policy of paid family leave during this important period of brain development. This study examined associations between paid leave and infant electroencephalography (EEG) at 3 months in a sociodemographically diverse sample of families from New York City (N = 80; 53 males; 48% Latine; data collection occurred 05/2018-12/2019). Variable-centered regression results indicate that paid leave status was related to differences in EEG power (ps < .02, R² s > .12). Convergent results from person-centered latent profile analyses demonstrate that mothers with paid leave were 7.39 times as likely to have infants with EEG profiles characterized by increased higher-Hz power (95% CI, 1.9-36.9), potentially reflecting more mature patterns of brain activity.

Infant Social Withdrawal Behavior: A Key for Adaptation in the Face of Relational Adversity

As a result of evolution, human babies are born with outstanding abilities for human communication and cooperation. The other side of the coin is their great sensitivity to any clear and durable violation in their relationship with caregivers. Infant sustained social withdrawal behavior (ISSWB) was first described in infants who had been separated from their caregivers, as in Spitz's description of “hospitalism” and “anaclitic depression.” Later, ISSWB was pointed to as a major clinical psychological feature in failure-to-thrive infants. Fraiberg also described freezing behavior as one of the earliest modes of infant defense in the face of adverse situations threatening the infant's ability to synchronize with caregivers. We hypothesize that ISSWB behaviors are associated with poor vagal brake functioning and that an impaired social engagement system is induced by an impoverished and/or dangerous environment. Recent research using animal models highlight the neurobiology and the genetics of the social Approach/Withdrawal Behavior in infants. The present paper is therefore a plea for social withdrawal behavior to be attributed a more important role as a major psychological defensive mechanism in infancy, and for research into early development and early intervention to make more practical and theoretical use of this concept, thus decreasing the challenge of translation in social neurosciences. This work presents several situations involving developmental hazards in which assessment of ISSWB by means of the Alarm Distress Baby Scale (ADBB) has proven useful, i.e., malnutrition, effects of major maternal depression and or traumatization, assessing social withdrawal in infants with an chronic organic illness (congenital heart disease, Prader-Willi syndrome, cleft lip and/or palate Prader-Willy syndrome, Fetal alcohol syndrome) or assessing ISSWB in out of home placed infants during parental visitation. Relationships between ISSWB and other biophysiological behavioral systems are discussed, particularly links with attachment processes and Porges's polyvagal theory.

A Parent-Mediated Intervention for Newborns at Familial Likelihood of Autism: Initial Feasibility Study in the General Population

OBJECTIVES

Developmental theory and previous studies support the potential value of prodromal interventions for infants at elevated likelihood of developing autism. Past research has supported the efficacy of parent-mediated prodromal therapies with infants from as early as 7 months. We outline the rationale for implementing interventions following this model from even earlier in development and report on the feasibility of a novel intervention developed following this model of parent-mediated infant interventions.

METHODS

We report a feasibility study (n = 13) of a parent-mediated, video-aided intervention, beginning during pregnancy, focussed on parent-infant interactions. The study evaluated the feasibility of this intervention initially with a general population sample. Feasibility was assessed across four domains (acceptability, implementation, practicality and integration) using self-report questionnaire, semi-structured interviews with parents and therapists, attendance and assessment completion.

RESULTS

Feasibility assessment shows that the intervention was acceptable, with all participants reporting that they had benefited from the program, with perceived positive benefits to their understanding of and communication with their infant, and that they had integrated program teachings into everyday life. The intervention was implemented as planned with 100% attendance for the core sessions. Changes to minimise the number of antenatal sessions was suggested to improve practicality.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found initial feasibility for this intervention in a general population sample. This suggests parent-mediated video feedback interventions are a promising format to be implemented within the perinatal developmental time period.

The Components of Interpersonal Synchrony in the Typical Population and in Autism: A Conceptual Analysis

Interpersonal synchrony – the tendency for social partners to temporally co-ordinate their behaviour when interacting – is a ubiquitous feature of social interactions. Synchronous interactions play a key role in development, and promote social bonding and a range of pro-social behavioural outcomes across the lifespan. The process of achieving and maintaining interpersonal synchrony is highly complex, with inputs required from across perceptual, temporal, motor, and socio-cognitive domains. In this conceptual analysis, we synthesise evidence from across these domains to establish the key components underpinning successful non-verbal interpersonal synchrony, how such processes interact, and factors that may moderate their operation. We also consider emerging evidence that interpersonal synchrony is reduced in autistic populations. We use our account of the components contributing to interpersonal synchrony in the typical population to identify potential points of divergence in interpersonal synchrony in autism. The relationship between interpersonal synchrony and broader aspects of social communication in autism are also considered, together with implications for future research.

A Case for Playful Engagement: Synchrony and Interaction Quality During Mirroring in ASD. Conceptual Framework and Case Study

The social challenges in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) can present as qualitative differences in interactions that make individuals on the autism spectrum appear less engaged with others. Limited interactional synchrony and other nonverbal movement patterns may contribute to these qualitative differences. This article uses the case of Hans, an adult on the autism spectrum, to describe patterns of synchrony and interaction quality during mirroring activities in dance/movement therapy. Raters scored videos of Hans and his partners on affective engagement, flow of the interaction, and interpersonal synchrony. They also qualitatively described his movements and interactions. Hans consistently participated in mirroring, but showed different patterns of attention and engagement when leading, following, interacting, or dancing in an open-ended dance. Hans was able to move in synchrony with partners, showed positive affect, and increased his movement repertoire by returning to others’ movements in later sessions. He was the most engaged when following a playful movement theme with a dance/movement therapy student partner. His affective engagement increased, but only in the less structured open-ended dance and only across the five sessions with this same dance/movement therapy student partner, and not when the sessions with his other partners, including others on the autism spectrum, were included. This points to a potential need to have dance/movement therapists model developing a movement relationship using flexible and playful contexts to emotionally engage the individual and reflect the complexity of everyday social situations. We present clinical recommendations and suggestions for future studies.

Movement Synchrony Over Time: What Is in the Trajectory of Dyadic Interactions in Workplace Coaching?

Background

Coaching is increasingly viewed as a dyadic exchange of verbal and non-verbal interactions driving clients' progress. Yet, little is known about how the trajectory of dyadic interactions plays out in workplace coaching.

Method

This paper provides a multiple-step exploratory investigation of movement synchrony (MS) of dyads in workplace coaching. We analyzed a publicly available dataset of 173 video-taped dyads. Specifically, we averaged MS per session/dyad to explore the temporal patterns of MS across (a) the cluster of dyads that completed 10 sessions, and (b) a set of 173 dyadic interactions with a varied number of sessions. Additionally, we linked that pattern to several demographic predictors. The results indicate a differential downward trend of MS.

Results

Demographic factors do not predict best fitting MS curve types, and only client age and coach experience show a small but significant correlation.

Discussion

We provide contextualized interpretations of these findings and propose conceptual considerations and recommendations for future coaching process research and practice.

Rhythmic Relating: Bidirectional Support for Social Timing in Autism Therapies

We propose Rhythmic Relating for autism: a system of supports for friends, therapists, parents, and educators; a system which aims to augment bidirectional communication and complement existing therapeutic approaches. We begin by summarizing the developmental significance of social timing and the social-motor-synchrony challenges observed in early autism. Meta-analyses conclude the early primacy of such challenges, yet cite the lack of focused therapies. We identify core relational parameters in support of social-motor-synchrony and systematize these using the communicative musicality constructs: pulse; quality; and narrative. Rhythmic Relating aims to augment the clarity, contiguity, and pulse-beat of spontaneous behavior by recruiting rhythmic supports (cues, accents, turbulence) and relatable vitality; facilitating the predictive flow and just-ahead-in-time planning needed for good-enough social timing. From here, we describe possibilities for playful therapeutic interaction, small-step co-regulation, and layered sensorimotor integration. Lastly, we include several clinical case examples demonstrating the use of Rhythmic Relating within four different therapeutic approaches (Dance Movement Therapy, Improvisational Music Therapy, Play Therapy, and Musical Interaction Therapy). These clinical case examples are introduced here and several more are included in the Supplementary Material (Examples of Rhythmic Relating in Practice). A suite of pilot intervention studies is proposed to assess the efficacy of combining Rhythmic Relating with different therapeutic approaches in playful work with individuals with autism. Further experimental hypotheses are outlined, designed to clarify the significance of certain key features of the Rhythmic Relating approach.

Dyadic parent-infant interaction patterns at 12 months: Exploring dyadic parent-infant gender compositions

This study investigates differences in dyadic mother-infant and father-infant interaction patterns at infant age 12 months, and the relation between different parent-infant gender compositions and the dyadic interaction. Data were drawn from a large-scale, population-based Norwegian community sample comprising 671 mother-infant and 337 father-infant interactions. The Early Relational Health Screen (ERHS), a screening method for observing dyadic parent-infant interactions, was used to assess the parent-infant interactions. Scores on the ERHS were employed to investigate dyadic differences in the overall interaction scores, and dyadic interaction on seven sub-dimensions between mother-infant and father-infant pairs. The relation between different parent-infant gender compositions and the dyadic interaction scores was also examined. As expected in a normative sample, most parent-infant interactions received scores in the upper rating levels. Differences between mother-infant and father-infant patterns were generally small, but mother-infant dyads tended to obtain slightly higher scores. The mother-infant dyads received higher scores on the dimensions of engagement and enjoyment, but no other significant differences between the parent-infant pairs were found for the remaining dimensions. We did not find evidence for a moderation effect of child gender. However, parent-daughter dyads received somewhat higher scores than the parent-son dyads.

Biological correlates of altered circadian rhythms, autonomic functions and sleep problems in autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by a complex and multifaceted neurobehavioral syndrome. In the last decades, several studies highlighted an increased prevalence of sleep problems in ASD, which would be associated with autonomic system and circadian rhythm disruption. The present review aimed to summarize the available literature about sleep problems in ASD subjects and about the possible biological factors implicated in circadian rhythm and autonomic system deregulation in this population, as well as possible therapeutic approaches. Shared biological underpinnings between ASD symptoms and altered circadian rhythms/autonomic functions are also discussed. Studies on sleep showed how ASD subjects typically report more problems regarding insufficient sleep time, bedtime resistance and reduced sleep pressure. A link between sleep difficulties and irritability, deficits in social skills and behavioral problems was also highlighted. Among the mechanisms implicated, alteration in genes related to circadian rhythms, such as CLOCK genes, and in melatonin levels were reported. ASD subjects also showed altered hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic functions, generally with a tendency towards hyperarousal and hyper sympathetic state. Intriguingly, some of these biological alterations in ASD individuals were not associated only with sleep problems but also with more autism-specific clusters of symptoms, such as communication impairment or repetitive behaviors Although among the available treatments melatonin showed promising results, pharmacological studies for sleep problems in ASD need to follow more standardized protocols to reach more repeatable and reliable results. Further research should investigate the issue of sleep problems in ASD in a broader perspective, taking into account shared pathophysiological mechanisms for core and associated symptoms of ASD.

Silence matters: The role of pauses during dyadic maternal and paternal vocal interactions with preterm and full-term infants

This study examined the characteristics of the vocal behaviors of parents and preterm infants, as compared to their term-born peers, at three months of age. Potential links between specific features of parental IDS and infants' vocal activity were also sought. We analyzed the frequencies and durations of vocalizations and pauses during the dyadic interactions of 19 preterm and 19 full-term infants with their mothers and fathers. The results showed that the duration of the vocalizations was shorter for the preterm than for the full-term infants, regardless of the interactive partner. Mothers vocalized more frequently and for a longer time than fathers, regardless of the group, but only the frequency of paternal utterances was significantly and positively correlated with the frequency and duration of infant vocalizations. Frequent conversational pauses of a relatively short total duration seemed to be related to more active infants' vocal participation, regardless of prematurity and parent gender.

From Micro to Macro: The Combination of Consciousness

Crick and Koch’s 1990 “neurobiological theory of consciousness” sparked the race for the physical correlates of subjective experience. 30 years later, cognitive sciences trend toward consideration of the brain’s electromagnetic field as the primary seat of consciousness, the “to be” of the individual. Recent advancements in laboratory tools have preceded an influx of studies reporting a synchronization between the neuronally generated EM fields of interacting individuals. An embodied and enactive neuroscientific approach has gained traction in the wake of these findings wherein consciousness and cognition are theorized to be regulated and distributed beyond the individual. We approach this frontier to extend the implications of person-to-person synchrony to propose a process of combination whereby coupled individual agents merge into a hierarchical cognitive system to which they are subsidiary. Such is to say, the complex mammalian consciousness humans possess may not be the tip of the iceberg, but another step in a succeeding staircase. To this end, the axioms and conjectures of General Resonance Theory are utilized to describe this phenomenon of interpersonal resonant combination. Our proposal describes a coupled system of spatially distributed EM fields that are synchronized through recurrent, entraining behavioral interactions. The system, having achieved sufficient synchronization, enjoys an optimization of information flow that alters the conscious states of its merging agents and enhances group performance capabilities. In the race for the neurobiological correlates of subjective experience, we attempt the first steps in the journey toward defining the physical basis of “group consciousness.” The establishment of a concrete account of the combination of consciousness at a scale superseding individual human consciousness remains speculation, but our suggested approach provides a framework for empirical testing of these possibilities.

Lower Maternal Chronic Physiological Stress and Better Child Behavior at 18 Months: Follow-Up of a Cluster Randomized Trial of Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Family Integrated Care

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether Family Integrated Care (FICare) in the neonatal intensive care unit improves maternal chronic physiological stress and child behavior at 18 months of corrected age for infants born preterm.

STUDY DESIGN

Follow-up of a multicenter, prospective cluster-randomized controlled trial comparing FICare and standard care of children born at <33 weeks of gestation and parents, stratified by tertiary neonatal intensive care units, across Canada. Primary outcomes at 18 months of corrected age were maternal stress hormones (cortisol, ie, hair cumulative cortisol [HCC], dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA]) assayed from hair samples. Secondary outcomes included maternal reports of parenting stress, child behaviors (Internalizing, Externalizing, Dysregulation), and observer-rated caregiving behaviors. Outcomes were analyzed using multilevel modeling.

RESULTS

We included 126 mother-child dyads from 12 sites (6 FICare sites, n = 83; 6 standard care sites, n = 43). FICare intervention significantly lowered maternal physiological stress as indicated by HCC (B = -0.22 [-0.41, -0.04]) and cortisol/DHEA ratio (B = -0.25 [-0.48, -0.02]), but not DHEA (B = 0.01 [-0.11, 0.14]). Enrollment in FICare led to lower child Internalizing (B = -0.93 [-2.33, 0.02]) and Externalizing behavior T scores (B = -0.91 [-2.25, -0.01]) via improvements to maternal HCC (mediation). FICare buffered the negative effects of high maternal HCC on child Dysregulation T scores (B = -11.40 [-23.01, 0.21]; moderation). For mothers reporting high parenting stress at 18 months, FICare was related to lower Dysregulation T scores via maternal HCC; moderated mediation = -0.17 (-0.41, -0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

FICare has long-term beneficial effects for mother and child, attenuating maternal chronic physiological stress, and improving child behavior in toddlerhood.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT01852695.

Birth, love, and fear: Physiological networks from pregnancy to parenthood

Pregnancy and childbirth are among the most dramatic physiological and emotional transformations of a lifetime. Despite their central importance to human survival, many gaps remain in our understanding of the temporal progression of and mechanisms underlying the transition to new parenthood. The goal of this paper is to outline the physiological and emotional development of the maternal-infant dyad from late pregnancy to the postpartum period, and to provide a framework to investigate this development using non-invasive timeseries. We focus on the interaction among neuroendocrine, emotional, and autonomic outputs in the context of late pregnancy, parturition, and post-partum. We then propose that coupled dynamics in these outputs can be leveraged to map both physiologic and pathologic pregnancy, parturition, and parenthood. This approach could address gaps in our knowledge and enable early detection or prediction of problems, with both personalized depth and broad population scale.

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Giving birth and caring for offspring are dynamic processes that can instill both love and fear.

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Maternal physiology continuously integrates fetal, social, and environmental cues.

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The result is coupled change in hormonal, autonomic nervous, and emotional output.

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Coupling may allow internal state to be assessed from peripheral autonomic markers.

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Such markers may identify healthy or pathologic pregnancy, parturition, and parenting, and enable creation of real-world tools.

Mother-Infant Dyadic Synchrony in the NICU Context

BACKGROUND

Dyadic synchrony is a co-constructed social process relating to the back and forth interactions between mothers and infants that are strongly associated with neurodevelopment, self-regulation, and attachment. In the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), this process may become interrupted because of the physiological state of the infant, the emotional state of the mother, and the physical environment of the NICU.

PURPOSE

In applying Feldman's Biobehavioral Model of Synchrony, this empirical review deconstructs the process of dyadic synchrony in the NICU context and provides a conceptual approach to guide both research and clinical practice.

METHODS

First, we examine the theoretical and empirical literature to explicate the primary structural and biophysiological components of synchrony and relate these constructs to the extant research on premature infants. Next, we synthesize the maternal, infant, and contextual factors that facilitate or inhibit the ontogenesis of dyadic synchrony in the NICU. The final section highlights the state of the science in dyadic synchrony in the NICU including gaps and recommendations for future research.

FINDINGS

An empirical review synthesis presents a visual conceptual framework to illustrate multiple processes that depict maternal, infant, and contextual influences of mother-infant synchrony in the NICU.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE/RESEARCH

Despite the challenges posed to mother-infant relationships in the NICU, high-quality mother-infant interactions are possible, dyadic synchrony can emerge, and premature infants can develop secure attachments. Clinicians and researchers can apply this conceptual framework of mother-infant dyadic synchrony in the NICU to promote evidence-based research and clinical practice.

Bio-behavioral synchrony is a potential mechanism for mate selection in humans

The decision with whom to form a romantic bond is of great importance, yet the biological or behavioral mechanisms underlying this selective process in humans are largely unknown. Classic evolutionary theories of mate selection emphasize immediate and static features such as physical appearance and fertility. However, they do not explain how initial attraction temporally unfolds during an interaction, nor account for mutual physiological or behavioral adaptations that take place when two people become attracted. Instead, recent theories on social bonding emphasize the importance of co-regulation during social interactions (i.e., the social coordination of physiology and behavior between partners), and predict that co-regulation plays a role in bonding with others. In a speed-date experiment of forty-six heterosexual dates, we recorded the naturally occurring patterns of electrodermal activity and behavioral motion in men and women, and calculated their co-regulation during the date. We demonstrate that co-regulation of behavior and physiology is associated with the date outcome: when a man and a woman synchronize their electrodermal activity and dynamically tune their behavior to one another, they are more likely to be romantically and sexually attracted to one another. This study supports the hypothesis that co-regulation of sympathetic and behavioral rhythms between a man and a woman serves as a mechanism that promotes attraction.

A Hierarchical Integrated Model of Self-Regulation

We present a hierarchical integrated model of self-regulation in which executive function is the cognitive component of the model, together with emotional, behavioral, physiological, and genetic components. These five components in the model are reciprocally and recursively related. The model is supported by empirical evidence, primarily from a single longitudinal study with good measurement at each level of the model. We also find that the model is consistent with current thinking on related topics such as cybernetic theory, the theory of allostasis and allostatic load, and the theory of skill development in harsh and unpredictable environments, referred to as “hidden talents.” Next, we present literature that the integrative processes are susceptible to environmental adversity, poverty-related risk in particular, while positive social interactions with caregivers (e.g., maternal sensitivity) would promote self-regulatory processes or mitigate the adverse effect of early risk on the processes. A hierarchical integrative model of self-regulation advances our understanding of self-regulatory processes. Future research may consider broader social contexts of the integrative self-regulation system, such as neighborhood/community contexts and structural racism. This can be an integral step to provide children with equitable opportunities to thrive, even among children living in socioeconomically and psychosocially disadvantaged environments.

Assessing therapist and clinician competency in parent-infant psychotherapy: The REARING coding system (RCS) for the group attachment based intervention (GABI)

The development of fidelity and quality measures for the dissemination of evidence-based practices is an often-neglected, vital step in the implementation of psychological interventions, especially within parent-infant mental health. The current study aims to address this gap by developing a competency-based measure for clinicians delivering the Group Attachment Based Intervention (GABI). GABI is an intervention aimed at supporting family preservation in parents who have experienced disparities across multiple systems of care. After observing over 100 hours of clinical video, the research team, comprised of clinicians and academic researchers, developed a competency coding system to measure clinician efficacy titled the REARING coding system (RCS). This paper outlines the development and structure of the measure, including a detailed discussion of the model of therapeutic action (i.e., REARING: reflective functioning, emotional attunement, affect regulation, reticence, intergenerational transmission of attachment, nurturance, and group therapy context), as well as provides a clinical case study to illustrate the utility, flexibility, and depth of the measure. The case study details a family session consisting of a mother, father, and two children (one infant, one toddler), and how RCS can be used in supervision to foster clinical competency and effectiveness in the GABI model. RCS seeks to address the dissemination gap in Evidence Based Practices (EBPs) by contributing to the limited number of existing fidelity and competency measures in infant mental health and psychodynamic dyadic psychotherapy. RCS is an important tool for monitoring clinical competency in the dissemination of GABI and gives supervisors the ability to provide fidelity-focused supervisions.

Investigating default mode network connectivity disruption in children of mothers with depression

BACKGROUND

Exposure to maternal major depressive disorder (MDD) bears long-term negative consequences for children's well-being; to date, no research has examined how exposure at different stages of development differentially affects brain functioning.

AIMS

Utilising a unique cohort followed from birth to preadolescence, we examined the effects of early versus later maternal MDD on default mode network (DMN) connectivity.

METHOD

Maternal depression was assessed at birth and ages 6 months, 9 months, 6 years and 10 years, to form three groups: children of mothers with consistent depression from birth to 6 years of age, which resolved by 10 years of age; children of mothers without depression; and children of mothers who were diagnosed with MDD in late childhood. In preadolescence, we used magnetoencephalography and focused on theta rhythms, which characterise the developing brain.

RESULTS

Maternal MDD was associated with disrupted DMN connectivity in an exposure-specific manner. Early maternal MDD decreased child connectivity, presenting a profile typical of early trauma or chronic adversity. In contrast, later maternal MDD was linked with tighter connectivity, a pattern characteristic of adult depression. Aberrant DMN connectivity was predicted by intrusive mothering in infancy and lower mother-child reciprocity and child empathy in late childhood, highlighting the role of deficient caregiving and compromised socio-emotional competencies in DMN dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings pinpoint the distinct effects of early versus later maternal MDD on the DMN, a core network sustaining self-related processes. Results emphasise that research on the influence of early adversity on the developing brain should consider the developmental stage in which the adversity occured.

Social EEG: A novel neurodevelopmental approach to studying brain-behavior links and brain-to-brain synchrony during naturalistic toddler-parent interactions

Despite increasing emphasis on emergent brain-behavior patterns supporting language, cognitive, and socioemotional development in toddlerhood, methodologic challenges impede their characterization. Toddlers are notoriously difficult to engage in brain research, leaving a developmental window in which neural processes are understudied. Further, electroencephalography (EEG) and event-related potential paradigms at this age typically employ structured, experimental tasks that rarely reflect formative naturalistic interactions with caregivers. Here, we introduce and provide proof of concept for a new "Social EEG" paradigm, in which parent-toddler dyads interact naturally during EEG recording. Parents and toddlers sit at a table together and engage in different activities, such as book sharing or watching a movie. EEG is time locked to the video recording of their interaction. Offline, behavioral data are microcoded with mutually exclusive engagement state codes. From 216 sessions to date with 2- and 3-year-old toddlers and their parents, 72% of dyads successfully completed the full Social EEG paradigm, suggesting that it is possible to collect dual EEG from parents and toddlers during naturalistic interactions. In addition to providing naturalistic information about child neural development within the caregiving context, this paradigm holds promise for examination of emerging constructs such as brain-to-brain synchrony in parents and children.

How the ghost learns to drive the machine? Oscillatory entrainment to our early social or physical environment and the emergence of volitional control

An individual’s early interactions with their environment are thought to be largely passive; through the early years, the capacity for volitional control develops. Here, we consider: how is the emergence of volitional control characterised by changes in the entrainment observed between internal activity (behaviour, physiology and brain activity) and the sights and sounds in our everyday environment (physical and social)? We differentiate between contingent responsiveness (entrainment driven by evoked responses to external events) and oscillatory entrainment (driven by internal oscillators becoming temporally aligned with external oscillators). We conclude that ample evidence suggests that children show behavioural, physiological and neural entrainment to their physical and social environment, irrespective of volitional attention control; however, evidence for oscillatory entrainment beyond contingent responsiveness is currently lacking. Evidence for how oscillatory entrainment changes over developmental time is also lacking. Finally, we suggest a mechanism through which periodic environmental rhythms might facilitate both sensory processing and the development of volitional control even in the absence of oscillatory entrainment.

How do maternal emotional regulation difficulties modulate the mother-infant behavioral synchrony?

Mother-infant synchrony is one of the most important processes in the development of socio-affective competencies in children. While maternal abilities and psychopathology are related to maladaptive mother-infant synchrony, it is as yet unclear how maternal emotion regulation difficulties contribute to it. Based on a panel of behavioral indicators (i.e., gaze, vocal, and motor), the present study examined mother-infant synchrony at 6 months of age in a modified version of Ainsworth's Strange Situation (n = 72 dyads). Mother-infant interaction sequences were characterized by indicators of complexity (LZ complexity of joint behavioral sequences) and of synchronization quality (cross-recurrence plot quantification). Results showed that mothers' touch was greater in the reunion condition than in the initial condition. Mothers' motor behaviors were associated with the global levels of infants' behavioral involvement in the reunion condition, unlike the symmetrical influence observed between mothers and infants in the initial condition. Results show that maternal anxiety mediates the relationships between mothers' emotion regulation difficulties and gaze, vocal, and motor synchrony between mothers and infants in the initial and reunion conditions. This study emphasizes the central role of maternal emotion regulation difficulties in the establishment of maladaptive synchrony and in the adjustments of maternal physical contacts with infants.

Parent-Child Synchrony After Early Childhood: A Systematic Review

Parent-child synchrony, or the coordination of biological and behavioral processes between parent and child, is thought to promote healthy relationships and support youth adjustment. Although extensive work has been conducted on parent-child synchrony during infancy and early childhood, less is known about synchrony in middle childhood and adolescence and the contextual factors that impact synchrony, particularly physiological synchrony. This is a systematic and qualitative review of 37 studies of behavioral and physiological synchrony in parent-child interactions after early childhood (parents with youth ages 5-18). Behavioral and physiological synchrony were typically identified in youth and their parents beyond early childhood and related to positive outcomes; however, research on father-child synchrony is rarer with mixed findings. Multiple factors are associated with synchrony, including parent and youth psychological symptoms and disorders, parenting factors, such as over-controlling parenting, and parent characteristics, such as interparental aggression and conflict. Few studies have examined behavioral and physiological synchrony simultaneously and longitudinally, limiting our ability to understand the relationship between types of synchrony and later adjustment. Available studies suggest that the context, such as presence of psychopathology or exposure to trauma, influences whether synchrony is associated with positive or negative outcomes. This review highlights the need for additional research to understand the relationship between types of synchrony and the long-term effects and contextual factors that impact youth outcomes.

Multimodal hyperscanning reveals that synchrony of body and mind are distinct in mother-child dyads

Hyperscanning studies have begun to unravel the brain mechanisms underlying social interaction, indicating a functional role for interpersonal neural synchronization (INS), yet the mechanisms that drive INS are poorly understood. The current study, thus, addresses whether INS is functionally-distinct from synchrony in other systems - specifically the autonomic nervous system and motor behavior. To test this, we used concurrent functional near-infrared spectroscopy - electrocardiography recordings, while N = 34 mother-child and stranger-child dyads engaged in cooperative and competitive tasks. Only in the neural domain was a higher synchrony for mother-child compared to stranger-child dyads observed. Further, autonomic nervous system and neural synchrony were positively related during competition but not during cooperation. These results suggest that synchrony in different behavioral and biological systems may reflect distinct processes. Furthermore, they show that increased mother-child INS is unlikely to be explained solely by shared arousal and behavioral similarities, supporting recent theories that postulate that INS is higher in close relationships.