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Abstract
Appropriate food intake requires exquisite coordination between the gut and the brain. Indeed, it has long been known that gastrointestinal signals communicate with the brain to promote or inhibit feeding behavior. Recent advances in the ability to monitor and manipulate neural activity in awake, behaving rodents has facilitated important discoveries about how gut signaling influences neural activity and feeding behavior. This review emphasizes recent studies that have advanced our knowledge of gut-brain signaling and food intake control, with a focus on how gut signaling influences in vivo neural activity in animal models. Moving forward, dissecting the complex pathways and circuits that transmit nutritive signals from the gut to the brain will reveal fundamental principles of energy balance, ultimately enabling new treatment strategies for diseases rooted in body weight control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber L Alhadeff
- Monell Chemical Senses Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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102
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Abstract
We use neural reinforcement learning concepts including Pavlovian versus instrumental control, liking versus wanting, model-based versus model-free control, online versus offline learning and planning, and internal versus external actions and control to reflect on putative conflicts between short-term temptations and long-term goals.
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103
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Fat and Carbohydrate Interact to Potentiate Food Reward in Healthy Weight but Not in Overweight or Obesity. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041203. [PMID: 33917347 PMCID: PMC8067354 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Prior work suggests that actual, but not estimated, energy density drives the reinforcing value of food and that energy from fat and carbohydrate can interact to potentiate reward. Here we sought to replicate these findings in an American sample and to determine if the effects are influenced by body mass index (BMI). Thirty participants with healthy weight (HW; BMI 21.92 ± 1.77; M ± SD) and 30 participants with overweight/obesity (OW/OB; BMI 29.42 ± 4.44) rated pictures of common American snacks in 120-kcal portions for liking, familiarity, frequency of consumption, expected satiety, healthiness, energy content, energy density, and price. Participants then completed an auction task where they bid for the opportunity to consume each food. Snacks contained either primarily carbohydrate, primarily fat, or roughly equal portions of fat and carbohydrate (combo). Replicating prior work, we found that participants with HW bid the most for combo foods in linear mixed model analyses. This effect was not observed among individuals with OW/OB. Additionally, in contrast with previous reports, our linear regression analyses revealed a negative relationship between the actual energy density of the snacks and bid amount that was mediated by food price. Our findings support altered macronutrient reinforcement in obesity and highlight potential influences of the food environment on the regulation of food reward.
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104
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Armitage RM, Iatridi V, Yeomans MR. Understanding sweet-liking phenotypes and their implications for obesity: Narrative review and future directions. Physiol Behav 2021; 235:113398. [PMID: 33771526 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Building on a series of recent studies that challenge the universality of sweet liking, here we review the evidence for multiple sweet-liking phenotypes which strongly suggest, humans fall into three hedonic response patterns: extreme sweet likers (ESL), where liking increases with sweetness, moderate sweet likers (MSL), who like moderate but not intense sweetness, and sweet dislikers (SD), who show increasing aversion as sweetness increases. This review contrasts how these phenotypes differ in body size and composition, dietary intake and behavioural measures to test the widely held view that sweet liking may be a key driver of obesity. Apart from increased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages in ESL, we found no clear evidence that sweet liking was associated with obesity and actually found some evidence that SD, rather than ESL, may have slightly higher body fat. We conclude that ESL may have heightened awareness of internal appetite cues that could protect against overconsumption and increased sensitivity to wider reward. We note many gaps in knowledge and the need for future studies to contrast these phenotypes in terms of genetics, neural processing of reward and broader measures of behaviour. There is also the need for more extensive longitudinal studies to determine the extent to which these phenotypes are modified by exposure to sweet stimuli in the context of the obesogenic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vasiliki Iatridi
- Department of Sport, Health Sciences and Social Work, Oxford Brookes University, UK
| | - Martin R Yeomans
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9QH, UK.
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105
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Moran GW, Thapaliya G. The Gut-Brain Axis and Its Role in Controlling Eating Behavior in Intestinal Inflammation. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13030981. [PMID: 33803651 PMCID: PMC8003054 DOI: 10.3390/nu13030981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Malnutrition represents a major problem in the clinical management of the inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Presently, our understanding of the cross-link between eating behavior and intestinal inflammation is still in its infancy. Crohn's disease patients with active disease exhibit strong hedonic desires for food and emotional eating patterns possibly to ameliorate feelings of low mood, anxiety, and depression. Impulsivity traits seen in IBD patients may predispose them to palatable food intake as an immediate reward rather than concerns for future health. The upregulation of enteroendocrine cells (EEC) peptide response to food intake has been described in ileal inflammation, which may lead to alterations in gut-brain signaling with implications for appetite and eating behavior. In summary, a complex interplay of gut peptides, psychological, cognitive factors, disease-related symptoms, and inflammatory burden may ultimately govern eating behavior in intestinal inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordon William Moran
- National Institute of Health Research Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham, and Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Gita Thapaliya
- Division of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA;
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106
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Hypothalamic detection of macronutrients via multiple gut-brain pathways. Cell Metab 2021; 33:676-687.e5. [PMID: 33450178 PMCID: PMC7933100 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2020.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Food intake is tightly regulated by complex and coordinated gut-brain interactions. Nutrients rapidly modulate activity in key populations of hypothalamic neurons that regulate food intake, including hunger-sensitive agouti-related protein (AgRP)-expressing neurons. Because individual macronutrients engage specific receptors in the gut to communicate with the brain, we reasoned that macronutrients may utilize different pathways to reduce activity in AgRP neurons. Here, we revealed that AgRP neuron activity in hungry mice is inhibited by site-specific intestinal detection of different macronutrients. We showed that vagal gut-brain signaling is required for AgRP neuron inhibition by fat. In contrast, spinal gut-brain signaling relays the presence of intestinal glucose. Further, we identified glucose sensors in the intestine and hepatic portal vein that mediate glucose-dependent AgRP neuron inhibition. Therefore, distinct pathways are activated by individual macronutrients to inhibit AgRP neuron activity.
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107
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Appetite self-regulation declines across childhood while general self-regulation improves: A narrative review of the origins and development of appetite self-regulation. Appetite 2021; 162:105178. [PMID: 33639246 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This narrative review discusses the origins and development of appetite self-regulation (ASR) in childhood (from infancy to age 6 or 7 years). The origins, or foundations, are the biological infrastructure associated with appetite regulation and appetite self-regulation. Homeostatic regulation in infancy is examined and then evidence about developmental change in components of ASR. The main ASR-related components covered are: delay-of-gratification, caloric compensation, eating in the absence of hunger, food responsiveness/hedonics and fussy eating. The research included behavioral measures, parent-reports of appetitive traits and fMRI studies. There were two main trends in the evidence: a decline across childhood in the components of ASR associated with food approach (and therefore an increase in disinhibited eating), and wide individual differences. The decline in ASR contrasts with general self-regulation (GSR) where the evidence is of an improvement across childhood. For many children, bottom-up automatic reactive processes via food reward/hedonics or food avoidance as in fussy eating, appear not to be matched by improvements in top-down regulatory capacities. The prominence of bottom-up processes in ASR could be the main factor in possible differences in developmental paths for GSR and ASR. GSR research is situated in developmental science with its focus on developmental processes, theory and methodology. In contrast, the development of ASR at present does not have a strong developmental tradition to access and there is no unifying model of ASR and its development. We concluded (1) outside of mean-level or normative changes in the components of ASR, individual differences are prominent, and (2) there is a need to formulate models of developmental change in ASR together with appropriate measurement, research designs and data analysis strategies.
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108
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Gearhardt AN, Hebebrand J. The concept of "food addiction" helps inform the understanding of overeating and obesity: YES. Am J Clin Nutr 2021; 113:263-267. [PMID: 33448279 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Addictive substances such as opiates and other drugs are highly reinforcing and some (but not all) individuals consume them compulsively. Highly processed (HP) foods have unnaturally high concentrations of refined carbohydrates and fat. These foods are highly reinforcing and some (but not all) individuals consume them compulsively. HP foods, like addictive substances, are more effective in activating reward-related neural systems than minimally processed foods. More importantly, HP foods are associated with the behavioral indicators of addiction: diminished control over consumption, strong craving, continued use despite negative consequences, and repeated failed attempts to reduce or eliminate intake. Thus, HP foods are key in addictive patterns of food intake. Like addictive drugs, HP foods are complex, human-made substances designed to effectively deliver reinforcing ingredients (e.g., refined carbohydrates, fat). Withdrawal and tolerance are not necessary for an addiction classification; however, HP foods can trigger both these processes. On a public health level, the negative consequences of HP foods are high, even for those without clinically relevant levels of addictive eating. The recognition that some foods can be addictive will inform clinical obesity treatment and underscore the importance of environmentally focused policy interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Johannes Hebebrand
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
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109
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May CE, Dus M. Confection Confusion: Interplay Between Diet, Taste, and Nutrition. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2021; 32:95-105. [PMID: 33384209 PMCID: PMC8021035 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2020.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Although genetics shapes our sense of taste to prefer some foods over others, taste sensation is plastic and changes with age, disease state, and nutrition. We have known for decades that diet composition can influence the way we perceive foods, but many questions remain unanswered, particularly regarding the effects of chemosensory plasticity on feeding behavior. Here, we review recent evidence on the effects of high-nutrient diets, especially high dietary sugar, on sweet taste in vinegar flies, rodents, and humans, and discuss open questions about molecular and neural mechanisms and research priorities. We also consider ways in which diet-dependent chemosensory plasticity may influence food intake and play a role in the etiology of obesity and metabolic disease. Understanding the interplay between nutrition, taste sensation, and feeding will help us define the role of the food environment in mediating chronic disease and design better public health strategies to combat it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina E May
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Monica Dus
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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110
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Hanssen R, Kretschmer AC, Rigoux L, Albus K, Edwin Thanarajah S, Sitnikow T, Melzer C, Cornely OA, Brüning JC, Tittgemeyer M. GLP-1 and hunger modulate incentive motivation depending on insulin sensitivity in humans. Mol Metab 2021; 45:101163. [PMID: 33453418 PMCID: PMC7859312 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2021.101163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To regulate food intake, our brain constantly integrates external cues, such as the incentive value of a potential food reward, with internal state signals, such as hunger feelings. Incentive motivation refers to the processes that translate an expected reward into the effort spent to obtain the reward; the magnitude and probability of a reward involved in prompting motivated behaviour are encoded by the dopaminergic (DA) midbrain and its mesoaccumbens DA projections. This type of reward circuity is particularly sensitive to the metabolic state signalled by peripheral mediators, such as insulin or glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). While in rodents the modulatory effect of metabolic state signals on motivated behaviour is well documented, evidence of state-dependent modulation and the role of incentive motivation underlying overeating in humans is lacking. METHODS In a randomised, placebo-controlled, crossover design, 21 lean (body mass index [BMI] < 25 kg/m2) and 16 obese (BMI³ 30 kg/m2) volunteer participants received either liraglutide as a GLP-1 analogue or placebo on two separate testing days. Incentive motivation was measured using a behavioural task in which participants were required to exert physical effort using a handgrip to win different amounts of food and monetary rewards. Hunger levels were measured using visual analogue scales; insulin, glucose, and systemic insulin resistance as assessed by the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were quantified at baseline. RESULTS In this report, we demonstrate that incentive motivation increases with hunger in lean humans (F(1,42) = 5.31, p = 0.026, β = 0.19) independently of incentive type (food and non-food reward). This effect of hunger is not evident in obese humans (F(1,62) = 1.93, p = 0.17, β = -0.12). Motivational drive related to hunger is affected by peripheral insulin sensitivity (two-way interaction, F(1, 35) = 6.23, p = 0.017, β = -0.281). In humans with higher insulin sensitivity, hunger increases motivation, while poorer insulin sensitivity dampens the motivational effect of hunger. The GLP-1 analogue application blunts the interaction effect of hunger on motivation depending on insulin sensitivity (three-way interaction, F(1, 127) = 5.11, p = 0.026); no difference in motivated behaviour could be found between humans with normal or impaired insulin sensitivity under GLP-1 administration. CONCLUSION We report a differential effect of hunger on motivation depending on insulin sensitivity. We further revealed the modulatory role of GLP-1 in adaptive, motivated behaviour in humans and its interaction with peripheral insulin sensitivity and hunger. Our results suggest that GLP-1 might restore dysregulated processes of midbrain DA function and hence motivational behaviour in insulin-resistant humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Hanssen
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany; Policlinic for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Preventive Medicine (PEPD), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Alina Chloé Kretschmer
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany; Policlinic for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Preventive Medicine (PEPD), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
| | - Lionel Rigoux
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany
| | - Kerstin Albus
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Straße 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Department I of Internal Medicine, Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
| | - Sharmili Edwin Thanarajah
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Frankfurt, Heinrich-Hoffmann-Strasse 10, 60528, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Tamara Sitnikow
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany
| | - Corina Melzer
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany
| | - Oliver A Cornely
- Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Straße 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany; University of Cologne Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Cologne Chair Translational Research, Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), Joseph-Stelzmann-Straße 26, 50931, Cologne, Germany; Department I of Internal Medicine, Excellence Center for Medical Mycology (ECMM), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany; Clinical Trials Centre Cologne (ZKS Köln), University Hospital Cologne, Gleueler Str. 269, 50935 Cologne, Germany
| | - Jens C Brüning
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany; Policlinic for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Preventive Medicine (PEPD), University Hospital Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Straße 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Marc Tittgemeyer
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931, Cologne, Germany; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Joseph-Stelzmann-Straße 26, 50931 Cologne, Germany
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111
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Food Liking but Not Wanting Decreases after Controlled Intermittent or Continuous Energy Restriction to ≥5% Weight Loss in Women with Overweight/Obesity. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13010182. [PMID: 33435287 PMCID: PMC7827400 DOI: 10.3390/nu13010182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Food reward (i.e., liking and wanting) has been shown to decrease after different types of weight management interventions. However, it is unknown whether specific dietary modalities (continuous (CER) vs. intermittent (IER) energy restriction) have differing effects on liking and implicit wanting after weight loss (WL) and whether these changes are sustained after 1-year of no-contact. Women with overweight or obesity (age 18–55 years) were randomly allocated to controlled-feeding CER (25% daily energy restriction) or IER (alternating ad libitum and 75% energy restriction days). Study visits were conducted at baseline, post-WL (to ≥5% WL within 12 weeks) and 1-year post-WL. The main outcomes were liking and implicit wanting for 4 categories of common food varying in fat and taste assessed by the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire. Linear mixed models were conducted on the 30 participants achieving ≥5% WL and 15 returners. After an initial WL of −5.1 ± 0.2 kg, after 1-year 2.6 ± 0.5 kg were regained. Liking but not wanting decreased after WL. Food reward after 1-year did not differ from baseline, but the high loss to follow-up prevents generalization. IER and CER did not differ in their effects on food reward during WL or at 1-year follow-up.
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112
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Gómez-Apo E, Mondragón-Maya A, Ferrari-Díaz M, Silva-Pereyra J. Structural Brain Changes Associated with Overweight and Obesity. J Obes 2021; 2021:6613385. [PMID: 34327017 PMCID: PMC8302366 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6613385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is a global health problem with a broad set of comorbidities, such as malnutrition, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, systemic hypertension, heart failure, and kidney failure. This review describes recent findings of neuroimaging and two studies of cell density regarding the roles of overnutrition-induced hypothalamic inflammation in neurodegeneration. These studies provided consistent evidence of smaller cortical thickness or reduction in the gray matter volume in people with overweight and obesity; however, the investigated brain regions varied across the studies. In general, bilateral frontal and temporal areas, basal nuclei, and cerebellum are more commonly involved. Mechanisms of volume reduction are unknown, and neuroinflammation caused by obesity is likely to induce neuronal loss. Adipocytes, macrophages of the adipose tissue, and gut dysbiosis in overweight and obese individuals result in the secretion of the cytokines and chemokines that cross the blood-brain barrier and may stimulate microglia, which in turn also release proinflammatory cytokines. This leads to chronic low-grade neuroinflammation and may be an important factor for apoptotic signaling and neuronal death. Additionally, significant microangiopathy observed in rat models may be another important mechanism of induction of apoptosis. Neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases (such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases) may be similar to that in metabolic diseases induced by malnutrition. Poor cognitive performance, mainly in executive functions, in individuals with obesity is also discussed. This review highlights the neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative mechanisms linked to obesity and emphasizes the importance of developing effective prevention and treatment intervention strategies for overweight and obese individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick Gómez-Apo
- Servicio de Anatomía Patológica, Hospital General de México “Dr. Eduardo Liceaga”, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Alejandra Mondragón-Maya
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, Mexico
| | - Martina Ferrari-Díaz
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, Mexico
| | - Juan Silva-Pereyra
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, Mexico
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113
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Abstract
Energy balance is centrally regulated by the brain through several interacting neuronal systems involving external, peripheral, and central factors within the brain. The hypothalamus integrates these factors and is the key brain area in the regulation of energy balance. In this review, we will explain the structure of the hypothalamus and its role in the regulation of energy balance. An important part of energy balance regulation is the sensing of nutrient status and availability. This review will focus on the sensing of the two main sources of energy by the hypothalamus: glucose and fat. As many common health problems and chronic diseases can be traced back to a disrupted hypothalamic function, we will also discuss hypothalamic sensing of glucose and fats in these pathologies. Finally, we will summarize the current knowledge and discuss how this may be applied clinically and for future research perspectives.
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114
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Thieleking R, Medawar E, Disch L, Witte AV. art.pics Database: An Open Access Database for Art Stimuli for Experimental Research. Front Psychol 2020; 11:576580. [PMID: 33391092 PMCID: PMC7772247 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.576580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
While art is omnipresent in human history, the neural mechanisms of how we perceive, value and differentiate art has only begun to be explored. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies suggested that art acts as secondary reward, involving brain activity in the ventral striatum and prefrontal cortices similar to primary rewards such as food. However, potential similarities or unique characteristics of art-related neuroscience (or neuroesthetics) remain elusive, also because of a lack of adequate experimental tools: the available collections of art stimuli often lack standard image definitions and normative ratings. Therefore, we here provide a large set of well-characterized, novel art images for use as visual stimuli in psychological and neuroimaging research. The stimuli were created using a deep learning algorithm that applied different styles of popular paintings (based on artists such as Klimt or Hundertwasser) on ordinary animal, plant and object images which were drawn from established visual stimuli databases. The novel stimuli represent mundane items with artistic properties with proposed reduced dimensionality and complexity compared to paintings. In total, 2,332 novel stimuli are available open access as “art.pics” database at https://osf.io/BTWNQ/ with standard image characteristics that are comparable to other common visual stimuli material in terms of size, variable color distribution, complexity, intensity and valence, measured by image software analysis and by ratings derived from a human experimental validation study [n = 1,296 (684f), age 30.2 ± 8.8 y.o.]. The experimental validation study further showed that the art.pics elicit a broad and significantly different variation in subjective value ratings (i.e., liking and wanting) as well as in recognizability, arousal and valence across different art styles and categories. Researchers are encouraged to study the perception, processing and valuation of art images based on the art.pics database which also enables real reward remuneration of the rated stimuli (as art prints) and a direct comparison to other rewards from e.g., food or money. Key Messages: We provide an open access, validated and large set of novel stimuli (n = 2,332) of standardized art images including normative rating data to be used for experimental research. Reward remuneration in experimental settings can be easily implemented for the art.pics by e.g., handing out the stimuli to the participants (as print on premium paper or in a digital format), as done in the presented validation task. Experimental validation showed that the art.pics’ images elicit a broad and significantly different variation in subjective value ratings (i.e., liking, wanting) across different art styles and categories, while size, color and complexity characteristics remained comparable to other visual stimuli databases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronja Thieleking
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Evelyn Medawar
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany.,Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Leonie Disch
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - A Veronica Witte
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
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115
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van den Hoek Ostende MM, Neuser MP, Teckentrup V, Svaldi J, Kroemer NB. Can't decide how much to EAT? Effort variability for reward is associated with cognitive restraint. Appetite 2020; 159:105067. [PMID: 33307115 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.105067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Food intake is inherently variable and often characterized by episodical restraint or overeating (uncontrolled eating). Such heightened variability in intake has been associated with higher variability in the brain response to food reward, but it is an open issue whether comparable associations with elevated variability in reward seeking exist. Here, we assessed whether restraint and uncontrolled eating as markers of trait-like variability in eating are associated with higher intra-individual variability in reward seeking as captured by a cost-benefit paradigm. To test this hypothesis, 81 healthy, overnight-fasting participants (MBMI = 23.0 kg/m2 ± 3.0) completed an effort allocation task (EAT) twice. In the EAT, participants had to exert physical effort to earn monetary and food rewards and indicated levels of wanting through visual analog scales (VAS). As predicted, we found that greater trial-by-trial effort variability was associated with lower scores on cognitive restraint, rp(78) = -0.28, p = .011 (controlled for average effort). In line with previous findings, higher wanting variability was associated with higher BMI, rp(78) = 0.25, p = .026 (controlled for average effort). Collectively, our results support the idea that higher variability in reward seeking is a potential risk factor for eating beyond homeostatic need. Since associations with variability measures of reward exceeded associations with average reward seeking, our findings may indicate that variability in the representation of the reward value could be a crucial aspect driving fluctuations in food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Monja P Neuser
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Vanessa Teckentrup
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jennifer Svaldi
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Schleichstraße 4, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Nils B Kroemer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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116
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Tseng CT, Brougher J, Gaulding SJ, Hassan BS, Thorn CA. Vagus nerve stimulation promotes cortical reorganization and reduces task-dependent calorie intake in male and female rats. Brain Res 2020; 1748:147099. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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117
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Morales I, Berridge KC. 'Liking' and 'wanting' in eating and food reward: Brain mechanisms and clinical implications. Physiol Behav 2020; 227:113152. [PMID: 32846152 PMCID: PMC7655589 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
It is becoming clearer how neurobiological mechanisms generate 'liking' and 'wanting' components of food reward. Mesocorticolimbic mechanisms that enhance 'liking' include brain hedonic hotspots, which are specialized subregions that are uniquely able to causally amplify the hedonic impact of palatable tastes. Hedonic hotspots are found in nucleus accumbens medial shell, ventral pallidum, orbitofrontal cortex, insula cortex, and brainstem. In turn, a much larger mesocorticolimbic circuitry generates 'wanting' or incentive motivation to obtain and consume food rewards. Hedonic and motivational circuitry interact together and with hypothalamic homeostatic circuitry, allowing relevant physiological hunger and satiety states to modulate 'liking' and 'wanting' for food rewards. In some conditions such as drug addiction, 'wanting' is known to dramatically detach from 'liking' for the same reward, and this may also occur in over-eating disorders. Via incentive sensitization, 'wanting' selectively becomes higher, especially when triggered by reward cues when encountered in vulnerable states of stress, etc. Emerging evidence suggests that some cases of obesity and binge eating disorders may reflect an incentive-sensitization brain signature of cue hyper-reactivity, causing excessive 'wanting' to eat. Future findings on the neurobiological bases of 'liking' and 'wanting' can continue to improve understanding of both normal food reward and causes of clinical eating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana Morales
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1043, United States.
| | - Kent C Berridge
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1043, United States
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118
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Fromm S, Perszyk EE, Kanyamibwa A, Wall KM, Hutelin Z, Trinh J, Davis XS, Green BG, Flack KD, DiFeliceantonio A, Small DM. Development of MacroPics: A novel food picture set to dissociate the effects of carbohydrate and fat on eating behaviors. Appetite 2020; 159:105051. [PMID: 33242580 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.105051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests that fat and carbohydrate interact to potentiate the reward value of food (DiFeliceantonio et al., 2018). The primary goal of the current study was to develop a novel picture set to facilitate research into the effects of macronutrient composition on food choice and eating behavior. Toward this aim, we developed "MacroPics." In Experiment 1, we photographed 120-kcal portions of 60 snack foods falling into one of the three macronutrient categories: (1) mostly carbohydrate, (2) mostly fat, or (3) a combination of fat and carbohydrate. Sixty-one participants rated the images for liking, familiarity, frequency of consumption, healthiness, estimated energy content (in kcal), and expected satiation. A subset of these images consisting of 36 items was then selected in an iterative process to minimize differences in ratings between the macronutrient categories while simultaneously ensuring similar within-category variability on a number of food characteristics (e.g., energy density, portion size, retail price) and visual properties (e.g., color, complexity, visual area). In Experiment 2, an independent sample of 67 participants rated the pictures of the final 36-item MacroPics. Both experiments reveal similar participant ratings across categories for item liking, familiarity, frequency, healthiness, and estimated energy content. Protein content was higher in the fat compared to the carbohydrate and combination categories, leading to higher ratings of estimated satiety and energy density for fatty foods. Item and macronutrient category characteristics of the final MacroPics set are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Fromm
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Emily E Perszyk
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Arsene Kanyamibwa
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kathryn M Wall
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Zach Hutelin
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jessica Trinh
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Xue S Davis
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Barry G Green
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Surgery, New Haven, CT, USA; The John B. Pierce Laboratory, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kyle D Flack
- University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Department of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Alexandra DiFeliceantonio
- Virginia Tech, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Human Nutrition, Foods and Exercise, VA, USA; Center for Transformative Research on Health Behaviors, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA, USA
| | - Dana M Small
- Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University, Department of Psychology, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, New Haven, CT, USA.
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119
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An alternative pathway for sweet sensation: possible mechanisms and physiological relevance. Pflugers Arch 2020; 472:1667-1691. [PMID: 33030576 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-020-02467-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sweet substances are detected by taste-bud cells upon binding to the sweet-taste receptor, a T1R2/T1R3 heterodimeric G protein-coupled receptor. In addition, experiments with mouse models lacking the sweet-taste receptor or its downstream signaling components led to the proposal of a parallel "alternative pathway" that may serve as metabolic sensor and energy regulator. Indeed, these mice showed residual nerve responses and behavioral attraction to sugars and oligosaccharides but not to artificial sweeteners. In analogy to pancreatic β cells, such alternative mechanism, to sense glucose in sweet-sensitive taste cells, might involve glucose transporters and KATP channels. Their activation may induce depolarization-dependent Ca2+ signals and release of GLP-1, which binds to its receptors on intragemmal nerve fibers. Via unknown neuronal and/or endocrine mechanisms, this pathway may contribute to both, behavioral attraction and/or induction of cephalic-phase insulin release upon oral sweet stimulation. Here, we critically review the evidence for a parallel sweet-sensitive pathway, involved signaling mechanisms, neural processing, interactions with endocrine hormonal mechanisms, and its sensitivity to different stimuli. Finally, we propose its physiological role in detecting the energy content of food and preparing for digestion.
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120
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Abstract
Internally regulated eating style, the eating style that is driven by internal bodily sensations of hunger and satiation, is a concept that has received increasing attention in the literature and health practice over the last decades. The various attempts that have been made so far to conceptualise internally regulated eating have taken place independently of one another, and each sheds light on only parts of the total picture of what defines internally regulated eating. This has resulted in a literature that is rather fragmented. More importantly, it is not yet clear which are the characteristics that comprise this eating style. In this paper, we identify and describe the full spectrum of these characteristics, namely, sensitivity to internal hunger and satiation signals, self-efficacy in using internal hunger and satiation signals, self-trusting attitude for the regulation of eating, relaxed relationship with food and tendency to savour the food while eating. With this research, we introduce a common language to the field and we present a new theoretical framework that does justice not just to the full breadth of characteristics that are necessary for the internally regulated eating style but also to the associations between them and the potential mechanisms by which they contribute to this eating style.
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121
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Motoki K, Suzuki S. Extrinsic Factors Underlying Food Valuation in the Human Brain. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:131. [PMID: 32848655 PMCID: PMC7396671 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Subjective values for food rewards guide our dietary choices. There is growing evidence that value signals are constructed in the brain by integrating multiple types of information about flavor, taste, and nutritional attributes of the foods. However, much less is known about the influence of food-extrinsic factors such as labels, brands, prices, and packaging designs. In this mini-review article, we outline recent findings in decision neuroscience, consumer psychology, and food science about the effect of extrinsic factors on food value computations in the human brain. To date, studies have demonstrated that, while the integrated value signal is encoded in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, information on the extrinsic factors of the food is encoded in diverse brain regions previously implicated in a wide range of functions: cognitive control, memory, emotion and reward processing. We suggest that a comprehensive understanding of food valuation requires elucidation of the mechanisms behind integrating extrinsic factors in the brain to compute an overall subjective value signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Motoki
- Department of Food Management, School of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Miyagi University, Sendai, Japan.,Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Suzuki
- Brain, Mind and Markets Laboratory, Department of Finance, Faculty of Business and Economics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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122
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Neuser MP, Teckentrup V, Kühnel A, Hallschmid M, Walter M, Kroemer NB. Vagus nerve stimulation boosts the drive to work for rewards. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3555. [PMID: 32678082 PMCID: PMC7366927 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17344-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Interoceptive feedback transmitted via the vagus nerve plays a vital role in motivation by tuning actions according to physiological needs. Whereas vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) reinforces actions in animals, motivational effects elicited by VNS in humans are still largely elusive. Here, we applied non-invasive transcutaneous auricular VNS (taVNS) on the left or right ear while participants exerted effort to earn rewards using a randomized cross-over design (vs. sham). In line with preclinical studies, acute taVNS enhances invigoration of effort, and stimulation on the left side primarily facilitates invigoration for food rewards. In contrast, we do not find conclusive evidence that acute taVNS affects effort maintenance or wanting ratings. Collectively, our results suggest that taVNS enhances reward-seeking by boosting invigoration, not effort maintenance and that the stimulation side affects generalization beyond food reward. Thus, taVNS may enhance the pursuit of prospective rewards which may pave avenues to treat motivational deficiencies. The vagus nerve transmits signals between the gut and the brain thereby tuning motivated behavior to physiological needs. Here, the authors show that acute non-invasive stimulation of the vagus nerve via the ear enhances the invigoration of effort for rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monja P Neuser
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Vanessa Teckentrup
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anne Kühnel
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry and International Max Planck Research School for Translational Psychiatry (IMPRS-TP), Kraeplinstraße 2-10, 80804, Munich, Germany
| | - Manfred Hallschmid
- Department of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Straße 25, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), Otfried-Müller-Straße 10, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Institute for Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases of the Helmholtz Center Munich at the Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Otfried-Müller-Str. 10, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Martin Walter
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Straße 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.,Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital Jena, Philosophenweg 3, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Department of Behavioral Neurology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Brenneckestr 6, 39118, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nils B Kroemer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Tübingen, Calwerstraße 14, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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123
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Tiedemann LJ, Alink A, Beck J, Büchel C, Brassen S. Valence Encoding Signals in the Human Amygdala and the Willingness to Eat. J Neurosci 2020; 40:5264-5272. [PMID: 32457069 PMCID: PMC7329310 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2382-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the strongest drivers of food consumption is pleasure, and with a large variety of palatable food continuously available, there is rarely any necessity to eat something not tasty. The amygdala is involved in hedonic valuation, but its role in valence assignment during food choices is less understood. Given recent evidence for spatially segregated amygdala signatures encoding palatability, we applied a multivariate approach on fMRI data to extract valence-specific signal patterns during an explicit evaluation of food liking. These valence localizers were then used to identify hedonic valuation processes while the same healthy human participants (14 female, 16 male; in overnight fasted state on both scanning days) performed a willingness-to-eat task in a separate fMRI measurement. Valence-specific patterns of amygdala signaling predicted decisions on food consumption significantly. Findings could be validated using the same valence localizers to predict consumption decisions participants made on a separate set of food stimuli that had not been used for localizer identification. Control analyses revealed these findings to be restricted to a multivariate compared with a univariate approach, and to be specific for valence processing in the amygdala. Spatially distributed valuation signals of the amygdala thus appear to modulate appetitive consumption decisions, and may be useful to identify current hedonic valuation processes triggering food choices even when not explicitly instructed.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The expectation of tastiness is a particularly strong driver in everyday decisions on food consumption. The amygdala is important for hedonic valuation processes and involved in valence-related behavior, but the relationship between both processes is less understood. Here, we show that hedonic values of food are represented in spatially distributed activation patterns in the amygdala. The engagement of these patterns during food choices modulates consumption decisions. Findings are stable in a separate stimulus set. These results suggest that valence-specific amygdala signals are integrated into the formation of food choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena J Tiedemann
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, D-20246, Germany
| | - Arjen Alink
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, D-20246, Germany
| | - Judith Beck
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, D-20246, Germany
| | - Christian Büchel
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, D-20246, Germany
| | - Stefanie Brassen
- Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, D-20246, Germany
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124
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Ao H, Li J, Li O, Su M, Gao X. Fructose vs glucose decreased liking/wanting and subsequent intake of high-energy foods in young women. Nutr Res 2020; 78:60-71. [PMID: 32516689 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2020.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent research on the health impacts of added sugar has prompted the comparison of the effects of its 2 major components: glucose and fructose. Fructose was identified as a risk factor for obesity and metabolic syndrome. However, because of the differences in metabolic responses and responsivity of reward circuitry to palatable food, it is unknown if glucose and fructose induce similar appetite-related responses in humans with varying weights. This study compared the behavioral responses to food in young women of a healthy weight (n = 31) and with excess weight (n = 28). We hypothesized that (1) the inhibitory effect of glucose (vs fructose) on food-related responses would be greater in subjects of a healthy weight than in those with overweight/obesity and (2) subjects with overweight/obesity would exhibit a stronger preference for food than subjects with a healthy weight. After an overnight fast, the subjects ingested a glucose or equienergetic fructose beverage on 2 separate days, respectively. Then, they completed liking and wanting ratings and 2 decision-making tasks followed by ad libitum food intake. The results revealed that fructose reduced both liking and wanting for food in subjects with overweight/obesity and also decreased energy intake in all subjects. Relative to the healthy-weight group, subjects with overweight/obesity preferred the immediate reward. Moreover, only in the healthy-weight group were liking and wanting scores for food positively associated with actual food consumption. Overall, fructose (vs glucose) showed an acute inhibitory effect on appetite-related responses in subjects with excess weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Ao
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Jiachun Li
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Ouwen Li
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Manyi Su
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Xiao Gao
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.
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125
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Beaulieu K, Oustric P, Finlayson G. The Impact of Physical Activity on Food Reward: Review and Conceptual Synthesis of Evidence from Observational, Acute, and Chronic Exercise Training Studies. Curr Obes Rep 2020; 9:63-80. [PMID: 32297126 PMCID: PMC7261263 DOI: 10.1007/s13679-020-00372-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review brings together current evidence from observational, acute, and chronic exercise training studies to inform public debate on the impact of physical activity and exercise on food reward. RECENT FINDINGS Low levels of physical activity are associated with higher liking and wanting for high-energy food. Acute bouts of exercise tend to reduce behavioral indices of reward for high-energy food in inactive individuals. A dissociation in liking (increase) and wanting (decrease) may occur during chronic exercise training associated with loss of body fat. Habitual moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is associated with lower liking and wanting for high-fat food, and higher liking for low-fat food. Food reward does not counteract the benefit of increasing physical activity levels for obesity management. Exercise training appears to be accompanied by positive changes in food preferences in line with an overall improvement in appetite control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Beaulieu
- Appetite Control & Energy Balance Research Group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine & Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
| | - Pauline Oustric
- Appetite Control & Energy Balance Research Group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine & Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
| | - Graham Finlayson
- Appetite Control & Energy Balance Research Group, School of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine & Health, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK.
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126
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Wall KM, Farruggia MC, Perszyk EE, Kanyamibwa A, Fromm S, Davis XS, Dalenberg JR, DiFeliceantonio AG, Small DM. No evidence for an association between obesity and milkshake liking. Int J Obes (Lond) 2020; 44:1668-1677. [PMID: 32398755 PMCID: PMC7387147 DOI: 10.1038/s41366-020-0583-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prevailing models of obesity posit that hedonic signals override homeostatic mechanisms to promote overeating in today's food environment. What researchers mean by "hedonic" varies considerably, but most frequently refers to an aggregate of appetitive events including incentive salience, motivation, reinforcement, and perceived pleasantness. Here we define hedonic as orosensory pleasure experienced during eating and set out to test whether there is a relationship between adiposity and the perceived pleasure of a palatable and energy-dense milkshake. METHODS The perceived liking, wanting, and intensity of two palatable and energy-dense milkshakes were assessed using the Labeled Hedonic Scale (1), visual analog scale (VAS), and Generalized Labeled Magnitude Scale (2) in 110 individuals ranging in body mass index (BMI) from 19.3 to 52.1 kg/m2. Waist circumference, waist-hip ratio, and percent body fat were also measured. Importantly, unlike the majority of prior studies, we attempted to standardize internal state by instructing participants to arrive to the laboratory neither hungry nor full and at least 1-h fasted. Data were analyzed with general linear and linear mixed effects models (GLMs). Hunger ratings were also examined prior to hedonic measurement and included as covariates in our analyses. RESULTS We identified a significant association between ratings of hunger and milkshake liking and wanting. By contrast, we found no evidence for a relationship between any measure of adiposity and ratings of milkshake liking, wanting, or intensity. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that adiposity is not associated with the pleasure experienced during consumption of our energy-dense and palatable milkshakes. Our results provide further evidence against the hypothesis that heightened hedonic signals drive weight gain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Wall
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Michael C Farruggia
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA.,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Emily E Perszyk
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA.,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Arsene Kanyamibwa
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Sophie Fromm
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Xue S Davis
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Jelle R Dalenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Alexandra G DiFeliceantonio
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA
| | - Dana M Small
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA. .,Modern Diet and Physiology Research Center, New Haven, CT, 06519, USA. .,Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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127
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Russell CG, Russell A. "Food" and "non-food" self-regulation in childhood: a review and reciprocal analysis. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2020; 17:33. [PMID: 32151265 PMCID: PMC7063723 DOI: 10.1186/s12966-020-00928-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In developmental science, there is an extensive literature on non-food related self-regulation in childhood, where several domains relating to emotions, actions and cognitions have been identified. There is now growing attention to food related self-regulation in childhood, especially difficulties with ASR, and the consequences for weight gain and adiposity. The aim of this narrative review was to conduct a reciprocal analysis of self-regulation in the food and non-food domains in childhood (referred to as appetite self-regulation (ASR) and general self-regulation (GSR) respectively). The focus was on commonalities and differences in key concepts and underpinning processes. METHODS Databases and major journals were searched using terms such as self-regulation, appetite self-regulation, or self-regulation of energy intake, together with associated constructs (e.g., Executive Function, Effortful Control, delay-of-gratification). This was followed by backward and forward snowballing. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The scholarship on GSR in childhood has had a focus on the role of the cognitively-oriented Executive Function (EF), the temperamentally-based Effortful Control (EC) and the recursive interplay between bottom-up (reactive, emotion driven, approach or avoidance) and top-down (cognitive, conscious decision-making) processes. "Hot" and "cool/cold" EF and self-regulation situations have been distinguished. There were some parallels between GSR and ASR in these areas, but uncertainty about the contribution of EF and EC to ASR in young children. Possible differences between the contribution to ASR-related outcomes of delay-of-gratification in food and non-food tasks were apparent. Unique elements of ASR were identified; associated with psychological, biological and neurological responses to food and bottom-up processes. A diverse number of situations or elements connected to ASR exist: for example, energy balance homeostasis, caloric compensation, hunger regulation, satiation, satiety, energy density of food, eating in the absence of hunger, emotional eating, etc. CONCLUSIONS: Self-regulation in food and non-food domains are amenable to a reciprocal analysis. We argue that self-regulation of appetite should be added as a domain under the umbrella of self-regulation in childhood along with the other non-food related domains. This could lead to a broader understanding of self-regulation in childhood, and generate novel lines of enquiry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine G Russell
- Faculty of Health, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, VIC, 3125, Australia.
| | - Alan Russell
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Sturt Rd, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia
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