Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination

Thermal Decontamination Technologies for Microorganisms and Mycotoxins in Low-Moisture Foods

The contamination risks of microorganisms and mycotoxins in low-moisture foods have heightened public concern. Developing novel decontamination technologies to improve the safety of low-moisture foods is of great interest in both economics and public health. This review summarizes the working principles and applications of novel thermal decontamination technologies such as superheated steam, infrared, microwave, and radio-frequency heating as well as extrusion cooking. These methods of decontamination can effectively reduce the microbial load on products andmoderately destruct the mycotoxins. Meanwhile, several integrated technologies have been developed that take advantage of synergistic effects to achieve the maximum destruction of contaminants and minimize the deterioration of products.

Aptamer-based detection of fumonisin B1: A critical review

Mycotoxin contamination is a current issue affecting several crops and processed products worldwide. Among the diverse mycotoxin group, fumonisin B1 (FB1) has become a relevant compound because of its adverse effects in the food chain. Conventional analytical methods previously proposed to quantify FB1 comprise LC-MS, HPLC-FLD and ELISA, while novel approaches integrate different sensing platforms and fluorescently labelled agents in combination with antibodies. Nevertheless, such methods could be expensive, time-consuming and require experience. Aptamers (ssDNA) are promising alternatives to overcome some of the drawbacks of conventional analytical methods, their high affinity through specific aptamer-target binding has been exploited in various designs attaining favorable limits of detection (LOD). So far, two aptamers specific to FB1 have been reported, and their modified and shortened sequences have been explored for a successful target quantification. In this critical review spanning the last eight years, we have conducted a systematic comparison based on principal component analysis of the aptamer-based techniques for FB1, compared with chromatographic, immunological and other analytical methods. We have also conducted an in-silico prediction of the folded structure of both aptamers under their reported conditions. The potential of aptasensors for the future development of highly sensitive FB1 testing methods is emphasized.

A Recent Overview of Producers and Important Dietary Sources of Aflatoxins

Aflatoxins (AFs) are some of the most agriculturally important and harmful mycotoxins. At least 20 AFs have been identified to this date. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the most potent fungal toxin, can cause toxicity in many species, including humans. AFs are produced by 22 species of Aspergillus section Flavi, 4 species of A. section Nidulantes, and 2 species of A. section Ochraceorosei. The most important and well-known AF-producing species of section Flavi are Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. nomius. AFs contaminate a wide range of crops (mainly groundnuts, pistachio nuts, dried figs, hazelnuts, spices, almonds, rice, melon seeds, Brazil nuts, and maize). Foods of animal origin (milk and animal tissues) are less likely contributors to human AF exposure. Despite the efforts to mitigate the AF concentrations in foods, and thus enhance food safety, AFs continue to be present, even at high levels. AFs thus remain a current and continuously pressing problem in the world.

Mycotoxin Removal by Lactobacillus spp. and Their Application in Animal Liquid Feed

The removal of mycotoxins from contaminated feed using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) has been proposed as an inexpensive, safe, and promising mycotoxin decontamination strategy. In this study, viable and heat-inactivated L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T cells were investigated for their ability to remove aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) from MRS medium and PBS buffer over a 24 h period at 37 °C. LAB decontamination activity was also assessed in a ZEA-contaminated liquid feed (LF). Residual mycotoxin concentrations were determined by UHPLC-FLD/DAD analysis. In PBS, viable L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T cells removed up to 57% and 30% of ZEA and DON, respectively, while AFB₁ and OTA reductions were lower than 15%. In MRS, 28% and 33% of ZEA and AFB₁ were removed, respectively; OTA and DON reductions were small (≤15%). Regardless of the medium, heat-inactivated cells produced significantly lower mycotoxin reductions than those obtained with viable cells. An adsorption mechanism was suggested to explain the reductions in AFB₁ and OTA, while biodegradation could be responsible for the removal of ZEA and DON. Both viable LAB strains reduced ZEA by 23% in contaminated LF after 48 h of incubation. These findings suggest that LAB strains of L. acidophilus CIP 76.13T and L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus CIP 101027T may be applied in the feed industry to reduce mycotoxin contamination.

Metataxonomic analysis of bacterial communities and mycotoxin reduction during processing of three millet varieties into ogi, a fermented cereal beverage

Ogi is a fermented cereal beverage, made primarily from maize (Zea mays) and rarely from millets. Unlike maize-based ogi, little is known about the bacterial community and mycotoxin profile during the production of millet-based ogi. Therefore, the bacterial community dynamics and mycotoxin reduction during ogi processing from three millet varieties were investigated using next-generation sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. A total of 1163 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) were obtained, with ASV diversity across time intervals influenced by processing stage and millet variety. ASV distribution among samples suggested that the souring stage was more influenced by millet variety than the steeping stage, and that souring may be crucial for the quality attributes of the ogi. Furthermore, bacterial community structure during steeping and souring was significantly differentiated (PERMANOVA, P < 0.05) between varieties, with close associations observed for closely-related millet varieties. Taxonomically, Firmicutes, followed by Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria phyla were relatively abundant (>1%). Lactic acid bacteria, such as Burkholderia-Caballeronia-Paraburkholderia, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus and Pediococcus, dominated most fermentation stages, suggesting their roles as key fermentative and functional bacteria in relation to mycotoxin reduction. About 52-100%, 58-100% and 100% reductions in mycotoxin (aflatoxins, beauvericin, citrinin, moniliformin, sterigmatocystin and zearalenone) concentrations were recorded after processing of white fonio, brown fonio and finger millet, respectively, into ogi. This study provides new knowledge of the dominant bacterial genera vital for the improvement of millet-based ogi through starter culture development and as well, elucidates the role of processing in reducing mycotoxins in millet ogi.

Simultaneous determination of zearalenone and ochratoxin A based on microscale thermophoresis assay with a bifunctional aptamer

Nowadays, contamination of various mycotoxins in crops and their products exposes increasing risks to human health. Efficient determination methods are urgently needed. Herein, a bifunctional aptamer and a simple aptasensor based on microscale thermophoresis assay (MST) were constructed for the first time for simultaneous determination of two mycotoxins, i.e. zearalenone (ZEN) and ochratoxin A (OTA). The bifunctional aptamer was engineered by splicing a ZEN aptamer and an OTA aptamer with a linker according to the structure analysis of aptamers. The binding mechanism of the bifunctional aptamer to ZEN and OTA were revealed basing on the molecular docking studies. The MST assay proved that the bifunctional aptamer showed high affinity and specificity towards ZEN and OTA. Furthermore, a bifunctional aptamer-based MST-aptasensor was developed for simultaneous detection of ZEN and OTA in corn oil sample. The MST-aptasensor provided a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.12 nM, with satisfactory recoveries of 93.31-104.19% and excellent selectivity, indicating that the bifunctional aptamer and MST-aptasensor had great potential in practical applications.

Aflatoxin contamination and recommendations to improve its control: a review

Aflatoxin producing fungi cause contamination of food and feed resulting in health hazards and economic loss. It is imperative to develop workable control measures throughout the food chain to prevent and reduce aflatoxin contamination. This is a critical review of contemporary published papers in the field. It is a review of reports from the original aflatoxin researches conducted on foods, from 2015-2020. Most of the reports show high aflatoxin contaminations in food at levels that exceed a regulatory limit of 20 μg/kg and 4 μg/kg set for foods for human consumption in the USA and European Union, respectively. The highest aflatoxin concentration (3,760 μg/kg) was observed in maize. Some of the strategies being deployed in aflatoxin control include application of biocontrol agents, specifically of Aflasafe™, development of resistant crop varieties, and application of other good agricultural practices. We recommend the adoption of emerging technologies such as combined methods technology (CMT) or hurdle technology, one health concept (OHC), improved regulations, on-line monitoring of aflatoxins, and creative art intervention (CAI) to prevent or restrict the growth of target aflatoxin causative fungi.

Application of laccases for mycotoxin decontamination

Several food commodities can be infected by filamentous fungi, both in the field and during storage. Some of these fungi, under appropriate conditions, are capable of producing a wide range of secondary metabolites, including mycotoxins, which may resist food processing and arise in the final feed and food products. Contamination of these products with mycotoxins still occurs very often and that is why research in this area is valuable and still evolving. The best way to avoid contamination is prevention; however, when it is not possible, remediation is the solution. Enzymatic biodegradation of mycotoxins is a green solution for removal of these compounds that has attracted growing interest over recent years. Due to their ability to detoxify a wide variety of recalcitrant pollutants, laccases have received a lot of attention. Laccases are multi-copper proteins that use molecular oxygen to oxidise various aromatic and non-aromatic compounds, by a radical-catalysed reaction mechanism. Being non-specific, they are capable of degrading a wide range of compounds and the radical species formed can evolve towards both synthetic and degradative processes. The present review provides an overview of structural features, biological functions and catalytic mechanisms of laccases. The utilisation of laccases for mycotoxin degradation is reviewed, as well as shortcomings and future needs related with the use of laccases for mycotoxin decontamination from food and feed.

Impact of Mycotoxins on Animals' Oxidative Status

Mycotoxins appear to be the "Achilles' heel" of the agriculture sector inducing enormous economic losses and representing a severe risk to the health of humans and animals. Although novel determination protocols have been developed and legislation has been implemented within Europe, the side effects of mycotoxins on the homeostatic mechanisms of the animals have not been extensively considered. Feed mycotoxin contamination and the effects on the antioxidant status of livestock (poultry, swine, and ruminants) are presented. The findings support the idea that the antioxidant systems in both monogastrics and ruminants are challenged under the detrimental effect of mycotoxins by increasing the toxic lipid peroxidation by-product malondialdehyde (MDA) and inhibiting the activity of antioxidant defense mechanisms. The degree of oxidative stress is related to the duration of contamination, co-contamination, the synergetic effects, toxin levels, animal age, species, and productive stage. Since the damaging effects of MDA and other by-products derived by lipid peroxidation as well as reactive oxygen species have been extensively studied on human health, a more integrated monitoring mechanism (which will take into account the oxidative stability) is urgently required to be implemented in animal products.

Metabolism of Zearalenone in the Rumen of Dairy Cows with and without Application of a Zearalenone-Degrading Enzyme

The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN) is a frequent contaminant of animal feed and is well known for its estrogenic effects in animals. Cattle are considered less sensitive to ZEN than pigs. However, ZEN has previously been shown to be converted to the highly estrogenic metabolite α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) in rumen fluid in vitro. Here, we investigate the metabolism of ZEN in the reticulorumen of dairy cows. To this end, rumen-fistulated non-lactating Holstein Friesian cows (n = 4) received a one-time oral dose of ZEN (5 mg ZEN in 500 g concentrate feed) and the concentrations of ZEN and ZEN metabolites were measured in free rumen liquid from three reticulorumen locations (reticulum, ventral sac and dorsal mat layer) during a 34-h period. In all three locations, α-ZEL was the predominant ZEN metabolite and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) was detected in lower concentrations. ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL were eliminated from the ventral sac and reticulum within 34 h, yet low concentrations of ZEN and α-ZEL were still detected in the dorsal mat 34 h after ZEN administration. In a second step, we investigated the efficacy of the enzyme zearalenone hydrolase ZenA (EC 3.1.1.-, commercial name ZENzyme^®, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Getzersdorf, Austria) to degrade ZEN to the non-estrogenic metabolite hydrolyzed zearalenone (HZEN) in the reticulorumen in vitro and in vivo. ZenA showed a high ZEN-degrading activity in rumen fluid in vitro. When ZenA was added to ZEN-contaminated concentrate fed to rumen-fistulated cows (n = 4), concentrations of ZEN, α-ZEL and β-ZEL were significantly reduced in all three reticulorumen compartments compared to administration of ZEN-contaminated concentrate without ZenA. Upon ZenA administration, degradation products HZEN and decarboxylated HZEN were detected in the reticulorumen. In conclusion, endogenous metabolization of ZEN in the reticulorumen increases its estrogenic potency due to the formation of α-ZEL. Our results suggest that application of zearalenone hydrolase ZenA as a feed additive may be a promising strategy to counteract estrogenic effects of ZEN in cattle.

Ochratoxin A and its reaction products affected by sugars during heat processing

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxin produced by many species in two fungal genera of Aspergillus and Penicillium under virtually all agricultural environments. Hence, OTA occurs frequently in agricultural commodities and their downstream products worldwide. In this study, thermal stability of OTA in the presence of sugars commonly added to food products including glucose, fructose, and sucrose was investigated by analyzing their reaction products with HPLC-FLD and LC-MS/MS. Samples were heated at three different temperatures (100, 125, and 150 °C) in 10-min intervals for up to 60 min in the absence of food matrix. Analysis showed increased OTα and OTα-amide and decreased OTA isomer (14-R-OTA) formation when OTA was heated with sugars. Among the sugars tested, adding fructose resulted in significantly lower OTA levels than glucose, sucrose, or no sugar added control. Addition of fructose also shifted OTA degradation product profile to less toxic OTα-amide, instead of OTA isomer which has similar toxicity to OTA. These results suggest that added sugars influenced the levels of OTA and its degradation products formed during thermal processing, and may provide a means to reduce the toxicity of OTA in food.

Aflatoxin Detoxification Using Microorganisms and Enzymes

Mycotoxin contamination causes significant economic loss to food and feed industries and seriously threatens human health. Aflatoxins (AFs) are one of the most harmful mycotoxins, which are produced by Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus, and other fungi that are commonly found in the production and preservation of grain and feed. AFs can cause harm to animal and human health due to their toxic (carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic) effects. How to remove AF has become a major problem: biological methods cause no contamination, have high specificity, and work at high temperature, affording environmental protection. In the present research, microorganisms with detoxification effects researched in recent years are reviewed, the detoxification mechanism of microbes on AFs, the safety of degrading enzymes and reaction products formed in the degradation process, and the application of microorganisms as detoxification strategies for AFs were investigated. One of the main aims of the work is to provide a reliable reference strategy for biological detoxification of AFs.

Multifunctional role of a fungal pathogen-secreted laccase 2 in evasion of insect immune defense

Laccases are widely present in bacteria, fungi, plants and invertebrates and involved in a variety of physiological functions. Here, we report that Beauveria bassiana, an economic important entomopathogenic fungus, secretes a laccase 2 (BbLac2) during infection that detoxifies insect immune response-generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and interferes with host immune phenoloxidase (PO) activation. BbLac2 is expressed in fungal cells during proliferation in the insect haemocoel and can be found to distribute on the surface of haemolymph-derived in vivo fungal hyphal bodies or be secreted. Targeted gene-knockout of BbLac2 increased fungal sensitivity to oxidative stress, decreased virulence to insect, and increased host PO activity. Strains overexpressing BbLac2 showed increased virulence, with reduced host PO activity and lowered ROS levels in infected insects. In vitro assays revealed that BbLac2 could eliminate ROS and oxidize PO substrates (phenols), verifying the enzymatic functioning of the protein in detoxification of cytotoxic ROS and interference with the PO cascade. Moreover, BbLac2 acted as a cell surface protein that masked pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), enabling the pathogen to evade immune recognition. Our data suggest a multifunctional role for fungal pathogen-secreted laccase 2 in evasion of insect immune defenses.

Effect of Selected Cooking Ingredients for Nixtamalization on the Reduction of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Maize and Sorghum

Although previous studies have reported the use of nixtamalization for mycotoxins reduction in maize, the efficacy of calcium hydroxide and other nixtamalization cooking ingredients for mycotoxin reduction/decontamination in sorghum and other cereals still need to be determined. The current study investigated the effect of five nixtamalization cooking ingredients (wood ashes, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and calcium chloride) on the reduction of Fusarium mycotoxins in artificially contaminated maize and sorghum using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. All tested cooking ingredients effectively reduced levels of mycotoxins in the contaminated samples with reduction initiated immediately after the washing step. Except for the calcium chloride nixtamal, levels of fumonisin B₁, B_2, and B₃ in the processed sorghum nixtamal samples were below the limit of detection. Meanwhile, the lowest pH values were obtained from the maize (4.84; 4.99), as well as sorghum (4.83; 4.81) nejayote and nixtamal samples obtained via calcium chloride treatment. Overall, the results revealed that the tested cooking ingredients were effective in reducing the target mycotoxins. In addition, it pointed out the potential of calcium chloride, though with reduced effectiveness, as a possible greener alternative cooking ingredient (ecological nixtamalization) when there are environmental concerns caused by alkaline nejayote.

Fermentative Foods: Microbiology, Biochemistry, Potential Human Health Benefits and Public Health Issues

Fermented foods identify cultures and civilizations. History, climate and the particulars of local production of raw materials have urged humanity to exploit various pathways of fermentation to produce a wide variety of traditional edible products which represent adaptations to specific conditions. Nowadays, industrial-scale production has flooded the markets with ferments. According to recent estimates, the current size of the global market of fermented foods is in the vicinity of USD 30 billion, with increasing trends. Modern challenges include tailor-made fermented foods for people with special dietary needs, such as patients suffering from Crohn's disease or other ailments. Another major challenge concerns the safety of artisan fermented products, an issue that could be tackled with the aid of molecular biology and concerns not only the presence of pathogens but also the foodborne microbial resistance. The basis of all these is, of course, the microbiome, an aggregation of different species of bacteria and yeasts that thrives on the carbohydrates of the raw materials. In this review, the microbiology of fermented foods is discussed with a special reference to groups of products and to specific products indicative of the diversity that a fermentation process can take. Their impact is also discussed with emphasis on health and oral health status. From Hippocrates until modern approaches to disease therapy, diet was thought to be of the most important factors for health stability of the human natural microbiome. After all, to quote Pasteur, "Gentlemen, the microbes will have the last word for human health." In that sense, it is the microbiomes of fermented foods that will acquire a leading role in future nutrition and therapeutics.

Incidence of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Wheat and Maize from Albania

In this study, ten Fusarium toxins were analysed in wheat and maize commodities from Albania. In total, 71 samples of wheat and 45 samples of maize were collected from different producing regions. The analytical procedure consisted of a simple one-step sample extraction followed by the determination of toxins using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Fusarium toxins were found in 23% of the analysed wheat samples and in 78% of maize samples. In maize samples, most often fumonisins B1 (FB1) and B2 (FB2) were found. They were present in 76% of samples. They were detected in all positive samples except in one with concentrations ranging from 59.9 to 16,970 μg/kg. The sum of FB1 and FB2 exceeded the EU maximum permitted level (4000 μg/kg) in 31% of maize samples. In wheat samples, the only detected Fusarium mycotoxin was deoxynivalenol (DON), present in 23% of samples. In one sample with the concentration of 1916 μg/kg, the EU maximum permitted level (1250 μg/kg) was exceeded. This is the first report on the presence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize grains cultivated in Albania.

Fumonisin B1 regulates LDL receptor and ABCA1 expression in an LXR dependent mechanism in liver (HepG2) cells

The metabolic toxicity of Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) converges at the accumulation of sphingoid bases and reduced ceramide levels. Several studies have alluded to a hypercholesterolemic endpoint after FB₁ exposure, yet the molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Cell surface receptors are important regulators of cholesterol metabolism by regulating influx of lipids and efflux of cholesterol. Western blot analysis showed that FB₁ elevates the expression of ABCA1 (a cholesterol efflux promoter) in an LXR dependent mechanism. We further highlight the potential role of PCSK9 in the degradation of LDL receptor. These data provide important evidence for the mechanism underlying hypercholesterolemia in FB₁ treated models. The disruption of lipid homeostasis by FB₁ is beginning to shift away from canonical ceramide synthase inhibition, and this changed perspective may shed light on diseases caused by dysregulated cholesterol metabolism such as cancer initiation and promotion.

Mycobiota in Chilean chilli Capsicum annuum L. used for production of Merkén

This work aims to provide the first study on the mycobiota present in Chilean pepper Capsicum annuum L. cv. "Cacho de Cabra" throughout the early production stages. Two hundred and forty berry fruits were sampled: 1) at the ripe fruits harvest day; 2) during drying; and 3) smoking processes. A total of 192 strains, encompassing 11 genera and 44 species, were identified through analysis of β-tubulin (benA) gene and internal transcribed spacer of ribosomal DNA (ITS) region. All collection points showed samples with high fungal contamination, but the mycobiota composition varied as a result of different environmental conditions. Alternaria spp. and Fusarium spp. were predominantly isolated from fresh fruits of C. annuum. Penicillium spp. was the most frequent genus in all analysed points. Penicillium brevicompactum and P. crustosum were the most abundant species. Among Aspergillus, A. niger and A. flavus were dominant after the drying phase. In our study, none of the analysed strains of Penicillium (113) and Aspergillus (35) produced Ochratoxin A at detectable levels. The broad characterization of the fungal community of C. annuum carried out in this study, could be a guideline for future mycotoxin analyses performed directly on the pod. Understanding the role and dynamics of mycobiota and its relationship with the toxins present in this substrate, will be useful to establish and improve control measures considering the specificities of each point in the C. annuum production chain.

Ochratoxin A-induced genotoxic and epigenetic mechanisms lead to Alzheimer disease: its modulation with strategies

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a naturally occurring mycotoxin mostly found in food items including grains and coffee beans. It induces DNA single-strand breaks and has been considered to be carcinogenic. It is recognized as a serious threat to reproductive health both in males and females. OTA is highly nephrotoxic and carcinogenic, and its potency changes evidently between species and sexes. There is a close association between OTA, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and genotoxicity, but the underlying mechanisms are not clear. Reports regarding genotoxic effects in relation to OTA which leads to the induction of DNA adduct formation, protein synthesis inhibition, perturbation of cellular energy production, initiation of oxidative stress, induction of apoptosis, influences on mitosis, induction of cell cycle arrest, and interference with cytokine pathways. All these mechanisms are associated with nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, teratotoxicity, immunological toxicity, and neurotoxicity. OTA administration activates various mechanisms such as p38 MAPK, JNKs, and ERKs dysfunctions, BDNF disruption, TH overexpression, caspase-3 and 9 activation, and ERK-1/2 phosphorylation which ultimately lead to Alzheimer disease (AD) progression. The current review will focus on OTA in terms of recent discoveries in the field of molecular biology. The main aim is to investigate the underlying mechanisms of OTA in regard to genotoxicity and epigenetic modulations that lead to AD. Also, we will highlight the strategies for the purpose of attenuating the hazards posed by OTA exposure.

Novel strategies for degradation of aflatoxins in food and feed: A review

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites mainly produced by Aspergillus fungi, posing high carcinogenic potency in humans and animals. Dietary exposure to aflatoxins is a global problem in both developed and developing countries especially where there is poor regulation of their levels in food and feed. Thus, academics have been striving over the decades to develop effective strategies for degrading aflatoxins in food and feed. These strategies are technologically diverse and based on physical, chemical, or biological principles. This review summarizes the recent progress on novel aflatoxin degradation strategies including irradiation, cold plasma, ozone, electrolyzed oxidizing water, organic acids, natural plant extracts, microorganisms and enzymes. A clear understanding of the detoxification efficiency, mechanism of action, degradation products, application potential and current limitations of these methods is presented. In addition, the development and future perspective of nanozymes in aflatoxins degradation are introduced.

Effect of microwave, deep frying and oven cooking on destruction of zearalenone in spiked maize oil

Mycotoxins are one of the most common types of chemical hazards related to edible oils. Although the refining process can remove such contaminations, they may still be present in the final oils due to defects during the refining steps. In addition, most oils produced in local manufactories are not refined and as such may be contaminated with mycotoxins. However, the effect of various cooking methods on the stability of mycotoxins in edible oils has rarely been studied. Hence, this study evaluated the impact of microwave, deep frying and oven cooking on the degradation of spiked zearalenone (50, 100 and 200 μg/l) in maize oil. Measurements were done by high performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection. The results showed that the majority of treatments, including time-temperature combinations of frying (130-190 °C for 2.5 and 5 min), oven cooking (110-230 °C for 2.5 and 5 min) and exposure time of microwave (2.5, 5 and 10 min) reduced zearalenone levels. Microwave cooking of samples containing 200 μg/l of zearalenone for 10 min showed the highest degradation of the toxin (~ 38%) following first order kinetics. The extent of destruction achieved by frying and oven cooking was also dependent on the initial concentration of zearalenone. These findings can be helpful to evaluate the chemical safety of edible oils or foods prepared by them.

Simultaneous Quantitative Assessment of Ochratoxin A, Patulin, 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural, and Bisphenol A in Fruit Drinks Using HPLC with Diode Array-Fluorimetric Detection

The analysis of regulated contaminants in fruit drinks often requires suitable validated and rapid analytical methods for cost-effective food control, and is of considerable interest among the fruit beverage industry. This study demonstrated a rapid and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography approach for the simultaneous determination of ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and bisphenol A (BPA) in various fruit drinks. The separations were achieved using a C18 core-shell column with both photo-diode array and fluorimetric detections connected in series. A gradient system consisting of methanol and 0.1% formic acid at a flow rate of 1.2 mL min-1, thermostated at 35 °C, provided fast elution with run time <9 min. Sample pretreatment was optimised to enable extraction of all analytes from fruit drink matrices. The optimised method was validated. Correlation coefficients of R > 0.99 were achieved with detection limits of 0.5 ng mL-1 (OTA), 1.1 ng mL-1 (PAT), 7.9 ng mL-1 (HMF), and 1.0 ng mL-1 (BPA). Recoveries ranged from 82% to 99%. Good relative standard deviations for intraday retention times (≤3.54%) and peak area (≤3.5%) were achieved. The developed multi-contaminants analysis method was successfully applied to determine OTA, PAT, HMF, and BPA in various fruit drinks.

The use of plant extracts and their phytochemicals for control of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins

Mycotoxins present a great concern to food safety and security due to their adverse health and socio-economic impacts. The necessity to formulate novel strategies that can mitigate the economic and health effects associated with mycotoxin contamination of food and feed commodities without any impact on public health, quality and nutritional value of food and feed, economy and trade industry become imperative. Various strategies have been adopted to mitigate mycotoxin contamination but often fall short of the required efficacy. One of the promising approaches is the use of bioactive plant components/metabolites synergistically with mycotoxin-absorbing components in order to limit exposure to these toxins and associated negative health effects. In particular, is the fabrication of β-cyclodextrin-based nanosponges encapsulated with bioactive compounds of plant origin to inhibit toxigenic fungi and decontaminate mycotoxins in food and feed without leaving any health and environmental hazard to the consumers. The present paper reviews the use of botanicals extracts and their phytochemicals coupled with β-cyclodextrin-based nanosponge technology to inhibit toxigenic fungal invasion and detoxify mycotoxins.

Distribution of fungi and their toxic metabolites in melon and sesame seeds marketed in two major producing states in Nigeria

In this study, melon (n = 60) and sesame (n = 60) seeds purchased from markets within Benue and Nasarawa states, respectively, in Nigeria, during two seasons (dry and wet), were analysed for fungal and mycotoxin contamination in order to determine the safety of these foods for human consumption. Molecular analysis revealed the following seven fungal taxonomic groups in the foods: Aspergillus section Candidi, Aspergillus section Flavi, Aspergillus section Nigri, Cladosporium, Fusarium fujikuroi species group, Penicillium, and Pleosporales/Didymellaceae. A total of 78 microbial metabolites, including several mycotoxins, occurred in the foods. The most frequent mycotoxins in melon and sesame were aflatoxin B1 (occurrence: 76%) and alternariol monomethyl ether (occurrence: 59%), respectively. However, higher mean total aflatoxin levels occurred in sesame (17 μg kg-1) than in melon (11 μg kg-1). About 28 and 5% of melon and sesame, respectively, exceeded the 4 μg kg-1 total aflatoxin limit for oilseeds intended for direct human consumption in the European Union. Additionally, fumonisin B1 and moniliformin occurred only in sesame, whilst ochratoxins A and B occurred only in melon; ochratoxin B being reported for the first time in this food. Our data indicated seasonal variations in the fungal and mycotoxin contamination levels in both foods.

Fates of aflatoxin B1 from wheat flour to Iranian traditional cookies: Managing procedures to aflatoxin B1 reduction during traditional processing

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) incidence in cereal, especially in wheat products, is a serious worldwide challenge for human health. The objective of the current study was to survey the effect of various factors, including fermentation times, yeast levels, ingredients, and time/temperature combinations of the baking process on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) reduction in order to modify parameters of the traditional cookie-making process. AFB1 levels were analyzed by an HPLC-fluorescence detector. The results revealed AFB1 levels significantly decreased during fermentation (%23.7), depending on an increase in the yeast level (2%) and fermentation time (90 min). Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between pH reduction and AFB1 decomposition. However, the formulation of the recipe did not show a significant effect on the detoxification of AFB1. The baking temperature increase in an admissible technological range (280°C for 15 min) more effectively reduced AFB1 content (%53.9). As a result, the exact control of the traditional process was able to significantly decreased AFB1 content as a serious health-threatening toxin in the final product (%75.9). However, AFB1 toxicity reduction should be considered seriously in the raw materials and such products.

Mycotoxin Occurrence, Exposure and Health Implications in Infants and Young Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review

Infants and young children (IYC) remain the most vulnerable population group to environmental hazards worldwide, especially in economically developing regions such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). As a result, several governmental and non-governmental institutions including health, environmental and food safety networks and researchers have been proactive toward protecting this group. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary fungal metabolites, contribute largely to the health risks of this young population. In SSA, the scenario is worsened by socioeconomic status, poor agricultural and storage practices, and low level of awareness, as well as the non-establishment and lack of enforcement of regulatory limits in the region. Studies have revealed mycotoxin occurrence in breast milk and other weaning foods. Of concern is the early exposure of infants to mycotoxins through transplacental transfer and breast milk as a consequence of maternal exposure, which may result in adverse health effects. The current paper presents an overview of mycotoxin occurrence in foods intended for IYC in SSA. It discusses the imperative evidence of mycotoxin exposure of this population group in SSA, taking into account consumption data and the occurrence of mycotoxins in food, as well as biomonitoring approaches. Additionally, it discusses the health implications associated with IYC exposure to mycotoxins in SSA.

Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) to Mitigate Emerging Mycotoxins in Juices and Smoothies

The development of innovative food processing technologies has increased to answer the growing demand to supply of fresh-like products. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of pulsed electric fields (PEF) technology on reducing the emerging mycotoxins (enniatins (ENs) and beauvericin (BEA)) contents in juice and smoothie samples. The products of degradation obtained after PEF treatment were identified and their toxicological endpoint toxicities predicted by Pro Tox-II web. Mycotoxin reduction ranged from 43 to 70% in juices and smoothies, but in water the expected effect was lower. The acidified pH increased BEA reduction in water. The degradation products that were produced were the result of the loss of aminoacidic fragments of the original molecules, such as HyLv, Val, Ile, or Phe. Pro Tox-II server assigned a toxicity class I for enniatin B (ENB) degradation products with a predicted LD50 of 3 mg/Kgbw. The other degradation products were classified in toxicity class III and IV.

Levels of Alternaria Toxins in Selected Food Commodities Including Green Coffee

Alternaria toxins are emerging mycotoxins, candidates for regulation by European Authorities. Therefore, highly sensitive, confirmatory, and reliable analytical methodologies are required for their monitoring in food. In that context, an isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method was developed for the analysis of five Alternaria toxins (Altenuene, Alternariol, Alternariol monomethylether, Tentoxin, and Tenuazonic Acid) in a broad range of commodities including cereals and cereal-based products, tomato-based products, tree nuts, vegetable oils, dried fruits, cocoa, green coffee, spices, herbs, and tea. Validation data collected in two different laboratories demonstrated the robustness of the method. Underestimation of Tenuazonic Acid level in dry samples such as cereals was reported when inappropriate extraction solvent mixtures were used as currently done in several published methodologies. An investigation survey performed on 216 food items evidenced large variations of Alternaria toxins levels, in line with data reported in the last EFSA safety assessment. The analysis of 78 green coffee samples collected from 21 producing countries demonstrated that coffee is a negligible source of exposure to Alternaria toxins. Its wide scope of application, adequate sample throughput, and high sensitivity make this method fit for purpose for the regular monitoring of Alternaria toxins in foods.

Protective role of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts as dietary carcinogen-binding agents - a review

The importance of food contaminants in the link between diet and cancer has been widely demonstrated. Therefore, different physical and chemical strategies for the control of human exposure to such dietary carcinogens has been explored; however, most of these strategies are complex, costly, and have low efficiency which limited their applications. Hence, microbiological methods have been receiving more attention. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies have indicated that lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast may act as dietary carcinogen-binding agents. This review describes the promising protective role of strains belonging mainly to the Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Saccharomyces genera by acting as dietary carcinogen-binding agents. This property suggests that these microorganisms may have a protective role by reducing the bioaccessibility of dietary carcinogens, thereby decreasing their toxic effects. The mechanisms by which the binding process takes place have not been completely elucidated; thus, the possible underlying mechanisms and factors influencing carcinogens-binding will be addressed.

A Review: Sample Preparation and Chromatographic Technologies for Detection of Aflatoxins in Foods

As a class of mycotoxins with regulatory and public health significance, aflatoxins (e.g., aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2) have attracted unparalleled attention from government, academia and industry due to their chronic and acute toxicity. Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of various Aspergillus species, which are ubiquitous in the environment and can grow on a variety of crops whereby accumulation is impacted by climate influences. Consumption of foods and feeds contaminated by aflatoxins are hazardous to human and animal health, hence the detection and quantification of aflatoxins in foods and feeds is a priority from the viewpoint of food safety. Since the first purification and identification of aflatoxins from feeds in the 1960s, there have been continuous efforts to develop sensitive and rapid methods for the determination of aflatoxins. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview on advances in aflatoxins analysis and highlights the importance of sample pretreatments, homogenization and various cleanup strategies used in the determination of aflatoxins. The use of liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), solid phase extraction (SPE) and immunoaffinity column clean-up (IAC) and dilute and shoot for enhancing extraction efficiency and clean-up are discussed. Furthermore, the analytical techniques such as gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), mass spectrometry (MS), capillary electrophoresis (CE) and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) are compared in terms of identification, quantitation and throughput. Lastly, with the emergence of new techniques, the review culminates with prospects of promising technologies for aflatoxin analysis in the foreseeable future.

Whole-Genome Sequencing and Bioinformatics Analysis of Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans: Predicting Putative Zearalenone-Degradation Enzymes

Biological detoxification techniques have been developed by using microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi to eliminate mycotoxin contamination. However, due to the lack of molecular details of related enzymes, the underlying mechanism of detoxification of many mycotoxins remain unclear. On the other hand, the next generation sequencing technology provides a large number of genomic data of microorganisms that can degrade mycotoxins, which makes it possible to use bioinformatics technology to study the molecular details of relevant enzymes. In this paper, we report the whole-genome sequencing of Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans (Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans in old taxonomy) and the putative Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) and carboxylester hydrolases for zearalenone (ZEA) degradation through bioinformatic analysis. In particular, we developed a working pipeline for genome-scaled prediction of substrate-specific enzyme (GPSE, available at https://github.com/JinyuanSun/GPSE), which ultimately builds homologous structural and molecular docking models to demonstrate how the relevant degrading enzymes work. We expect that the enzyme-prediction woroflow process GPSE developed in this study might help accelerate the discovery of new detoxification enzymes.

Aflatoxins and the traditional process of nixtamalisation in indigenous communities from the Huasteca Potosina region

Aflatoxins represent one of the biggest public health problems in food safety, due to their toxic potential for humans and animals. They can lead to serious threats, such as hepatotoxicity, teratogenicity and immunotoxicity. Maize is the most important cereal consumed in Mexico, with which tortillas, tamales, flours, toasts and other products are elaborated. The elaboration of tortillas begins with nixtamalisation, which is an ancient maize process, developed and applied by indigenous Mesoamerican population. Some studies have shown the effect of nixtamalisation in the inactivation of aflatoxins. The purpose of this research was to record the traditional nixtamalisation process (TNP) and to register the presence of the aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in tortillas and the exposure to AFB1 in indigenous communities living in the Huasteca Potosina, in central México. To register the nixtamalisation technique, a questionnaire was given to women, to illustrate the process step by step. Digestion, extraction, purification, and identification of the adduct AFB1-lysine (AFB1-Lys) in serum were performed. The TNP was analysed by 51 surveys, 4% of the tortillas was above the maximum permissible levels, according to Mexican guidelines; however, all blood samples showed presence of AFB1. TNP done in indigenous communities in the Huasteca Potosina region is not efficient enough to eliminate aflatoxins present in contaminated maize. It is necessary to improve conditions of places in which the grain is stored and knowledge about the risk of exposure to aflatoxins in rural communities, as key steps for preventing exposure to this type of mycotoxins.

Enzymatic transformation of aflatoxin B1 by Rh_DypB peroxidase and characterization of the reaction products

In some environments, a number of crops, notably maize and nuts can be contaminated by aflatoxin B₁ and related compounds resulting from the growth of aflatoxin-producing Aspergilli. Fungal peroxidases have been shown to degrade a number of mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the in vitro enzymatic degradation AFB₁ by a recombinant type B dye decolorizing peroxidase (Rh_DypB). Analysis of the reaction products by HPLC-MS analysis showed that under optimized conditions AFB₁ was efficiently transformed by Rh_DypB, reaching a maximum of 96% conversion after 4 days of reaction at 25 °C. Based on high resolution mass spectrometry analysis, AFB₁ was demonstrated to be quantitatively converted to AFQ₁, a compound with a significantly lower toxicity. A number of low molecular mass compounds were also present in the final reaction mixture in small quantities. The results presented in this study are promising for a possible application of the enzyme Rh_DypB for aflatoxin reduction in feed.

Reducing Ochratoxin A Content in Grape Pomace by Different Methods

Grape pomace (GP) is the residue of grapes after wine making and is a valuable source of dietary polyphenol and fiber for health promotion. However, studies found the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in GP at very high concentrations, which raises a safety issue in the value-added utilization of GP. This study evaluated the effects of thermal pressure, baking, acid and enzymatic treatments on OTA content in GP. Thermal pressure treatment was conducted with wet GP at 121 °C for 10-30 min in an autoclave; acid treatments were conducted with hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, citric acid, and lactic acid, respectively, at 50 °C for 24 h. Baking was conducted using a cookie model. For enzymatic treatment, purified OTA solution was treated with carboxypeptidase A, alcalase, flavourzyme, pepsin, and lipase, respectively, and the effective enzymes were selected to treat GP. Results show that autoclaving for 10-30 min reduced 19-80% of OTA, varying with treatment time and GP variety. The effectiveness of acid treatment was similar to that of autoclaving and varied with acid type and GP variety. Baking increased the detectable OTA. Among all tested enzymes, carboxypeptidase A was the most effective in reducing OTA, followed by lipase and flavourzyme, but their effects were significantly lower in GP samples.

Review on the Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins Using Lactic Acid Bacteria to Enhance the Sustainability of Foods Supply

The challenges to fulfill the demand for a safe food supply are dramatically increasing. Mycotoxins produced by certain fungi cause great economic loss and negative impact on the sustainability of food supplies. Moreover, the occurrence of mycotoxins at high levels in foods poses a high health threat for the consumers. Biological detoxification has exhibited a high potential to detoxify foodstuffs on a cost-effective and large scale. Lactic acid bacteria showed a good potential as an alternative strategy for the elimination of mycotoxins. The current review describes the health and economic impacts associated with mycotoxin contamination in foodstuffs. Moreover, this review highlights the biological detoxification of common food mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria.