Therapeutic Properties of Bioactive Compounds from Different Honeybee Products

Drone Brood Homogenate as Natural Remedy for Treating Health Care Problem: A Scientific and Practical Approach

Drone brood homogenate is a little-known bee product used in folk medicine to treat various health problems. It is a very nutritious milky substance with high content of nutrients: proteins, lipids, fatty acids, carbohydrates, vitamins (A, B, E and D), and minerals. Moreover, when collected on early stage of larvae development, it is, most of all, rich source of sex hormone (testosterone, progesterone and estradiol). Some beekeepers consider drone brood as a waste product, although in some countries they use it to fight Varroa. Meanwhile, in many scientific reports a curative effect of bee drone homogenate in treating urgent global health problems have been confirmed, including ovarian dysfunction in women and male infertility, thyroid and immunity disorders, as well as malnutrition in children. A few dietary supplements based on drone brood are available online. Many patents relating to drone brood-based dietary supplements have been filed in Russia, but their prevalence in EU countries is still limited. Further research is needed to fully recognize the pharmacological activity and increase the use of drone brood.

Bee pollens originating from different species have unique effects on ovarian cell functions

CONTEXT

The species-specific differences and mechanisms of action of bee pollen on reproduction have not been well studied.

OBJECTIVE

We compared the effects of bee pollen extracts from different plants on ovarian cell functions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We compared the effects of pollens from black alder, dandelion, maize, rapeseed, and willow at 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, or 100 µg/mL on cultured porcine ovarian granulosa cells. Cell viability was assessed with a Trypan blue test, the cell proliferation marker (PCNA), and an apoptosis marker (BAX) were assessed by immunocytochemistry. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I) release was measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Addition of any bee pollen reduced cell viability, promoted accumulation of both proliferation and apoptosis markers, and promoted IGF-I release. The ability of various pollens to suppress cell viability ranked as follows: rapeseed > dandelion > alder > maize > willow. The biological activity of bee pollens regarding their stimulatory action on ovarian cell proliferation ranked as follows: dandelion > willow > maize > alder > rapeseed. Cell apoptosis was promoted by pollens as follows: range > dandelion > alder > rapeseed > willow > maize. The ability of the pollens to stimulate IGF-I output are as follows: willow > dandelion > rapeseed > maize > alder.

DISCUSSION

Bee pollen can promote ovarian cell proliferation by promoting IGF-I release, but it induces the dominance of apoptosis over proliferation and the reduction in ovarian cell viability in a species-specific manner.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first demonstration of adverse effects of bee pollen on ovarian cell viability and of its direct stimulatory influence on proliferation, apoptosis, and IGF-I release. The biological potency of bee pollen is dependent on the plant species.

Biofilm Formation Reducing Properties of Manuka Honey and Propolis in Proteus mirabilis Rods Isolated from Chronic Wounds

Chronic wound infections are difficult to manage because of the biofilm formation in the wound environment. New measures for eliminating infections are necessary to increase the chance of wound healing. Apitherapy may be the new solution. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of wound infection factors and to examine the impact of Manuka honey and ethanol extract of propolis on biofilm formation of Proteus mirabilis isolated from chronic wound infections. According to the findings, the most frequent factors of infection are Staphylococcus aureus (46.1%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (35.0%), and Proteus mirabilis (10.6%). Minimal inhibitory concentration and minimal bactericidal concentration values were assigned using the microbroth dilution test according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Biofilm of Proteus mirabilis isolates was formed in 96-well polystyrene plates and treated with Manuka honey (concentrations from 1.88% to 30.0%) and ethanol extract of propolis (1.0% to 40.0%). After 24 h, the biofilm viability was expressed by formazan absorbance (λ = 470 nm). Manuka honey reduced the biofilm viability in all, and ethanol extract of propolis in most, of the concentrations tested. Ethanol extract of propolis at the concentrations of 20.0% and 40.0%, reduced biofilm viability stronger than ethanol itself. With these results comes the conclusion that these substances can reduce biofilm formation.

Historical and modern research on propolis and its application in wound healing and other fields of medicine and contributions by Polish studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The history of medical application of propolis (also known as bee glue) dates back to the times of ancient Greeks, Romans, Persians and Egyptians. Honey and other bee products, including propolis, occupy an important place in Polish folk medicine. Scientific research on propolis in Poland began in the early 1960s in Zabrze and continues until now.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this review is to provide an overview of information on Polish research on propolis and its medical application with particular emphasis on studies concerning wound healing. Consequently, our goal is also to shed a new light on therapeutic potential of Polish propolis in order to support future research in the field.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic review of scientific literature on propolis and its medical application was performed by using the literature databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar). We paid special attention to papers describing the effect of propolis on skin wound healing as well as to Polish contribution to research on propolis.

RESULTS

Professor Stan Scheller was the first Polish scientist dealing with propolis and its medical potential. His legacy was continued by several research teams that studied the topic in various aspects. They analyzed propolis composition, its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiapoptotic and anticancer properties as well as its application in dentistry and wound treatment. Burn wound healing physiology after propolis administration was thoroughly studied on pig model, whereas research on patients proved the efficacy of propolis in chronic venous leg ulcer treatment.

CONCLUSION

Polish scientists have made a significant contribution to the research on propolis, its biological properties and influence on wound healing. Propolis ointments can effectively accelerate the healing process and improve healing physiology, so they can be recommended as a promising topical medication for wound treatment in the future clinical and preclinical trials.

Antimicrobial Activity of Bee-Collected Pollen and Beebread: State of the Art and Future Perspectives

Bee-collected pollen (BCP) is a well-known functional food. Honey bees process the collected pollen and store it in the hive, inside the comb cells. The processed pollen is called bee- bread or ambrosia and it is the main source of proteins, lipids, vitamins, macro-and micro-elements in honey bee nutrition. During storage, beebread undergoes solid state fermentation which preserves it and increases the bioavailability of nutrients. Research on beebread has been rather limited until now. In recent years, there is an increasing interest regarding the antimicrobial properties of BCP and beebread, due to emerging antimicrobial resistance by pathogens. Both BCP and beebread exhibit antimicrobial properties against diverse pathogens, like bacteria and fungi. As is the case with other bee products, lack of antimicrobial resistance might be attributed to the synergy of more than one antimicrobial compounds within BCP and beebread. Furthermore, BCP and bee bread exert targeted activity against pathogens and affect the host microbiome in a prebiotic manner. This review aims to present up to date research findings regarding these aspects as well as to discuss current challenges and future perspectives in the field.

Propolis and its potential against SARS-CoV-2 infection mechanisms and COVID-19 disease: Running title: Propolis against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19

Propolis, a resinous material produced by honey bees from plant exudates, has long been used in traditional herbal medicine and is widely consumed as a health aid and immune system booster. The COVID-19 pandemic has renewed interest in propolis products worldwide; fortunately, various aspects of the SARS-CoV-2 infection mechanism are potential targets for propolis compounds. SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells is characterized by viral spike protein interaction with cellular angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and serine protease TMPRSS2. This mechanism involves PAK1 overexpression, which is a kinase that mediates coronavirus-induced lung inflammation, fibrosis, and immune system suppression. Propolis components have inhibitory effects on the ACE2, TMPRSS2 and PAK1 signaling pathways; in addition, antiviral activity has been proven in vitro and in vivo. In pre-clinical studies, propolis promoted immunoregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including reduction in IL-6, IL-1 beta and TNF-α. This immunoregulation involves monocytes and macrophages, as well as Jak2/STAT3, NF-kB, and inflammasome pathways, reducing the risk of cytokine storm syndrome, a major mortality factor in advanced COVID-19 disease. Propolis has also shown promise as an aid in the treatment of various of the comorbidities that are particularly dangerous in COVID-19 patients, including respiratory diseases, hypertension, diabetes, and cancer. Standardized propolis products with consistent bioactive properties are now available. Given the current emergency caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and limited therapeutic options, propolis is presented as a promising and relevant therapeutic option that is safe, easy to administrate orally and is readily available as a natural supplement and functional food.

Bee Venom: An Updating Review of Its Bioactive Molecules and Its Health Applications

Bee venom (BV) is usually associated with pain since, when humans are stung by bees, local inflammation and even an allergic reaction can be produced. BV has been traditionally used in ancient medicine and in acupuncture. It consists of a mixture of substances, principally of proteins and peptides, including enzymes as well as other types of molecules in a very low concentration. Melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) are the most abundant and studied compounds of BV. Literature of the main biological activities exerted by BV shows that most studies focuses on the comprehension and test of anti-inflammatory effects and its mechanisms of action. Other properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective or antitumor effects have also been assessed, both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, human trials are necessary to confirm those clinical applications. However, notwithstanding the therapeutic potential of BV, there are certain problems regarding its safety and the possible appearance of adverse effects. On this perspective, new approaches have been developed to avoid these complications. This manuscript is aimed at reviewing the actual knowledge on BV components and its associated biological activities as well as the latest advances on this subject.

Apitherapy for Parkinson's Disease: A Focus on the Effects of Propolis and Royal Jelly

The vast increase of world's aging populations is associated with increased risk of age-related neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD). PD is a widespread disorder characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, which encompasses a wide range of debilitating motor, emotional, cognitive, and physical symptoms. PD threatens the quality of life of millions of patients and their families. Additionally, public welfare and healthcare systems are burdened with its high cost of care. Available treatments provide only a symptomatic relief and produce a trail of noxious side effects, which increase noncompliance. Hence, researchers have recently focused on the use of nutraceuticals as safe adjunctive treatments of PD to limit its progress and associated damages in affected groups. Propolis is a common product of the beehive, which possesses a large number of therapeutic properties. Royal jelly (RJ) is a bee product that is fed to bee queens during their entire life, and it contributes to their high physical fitness, fertility, and long lifespan. Evidence suggests that propolis and RJ can promote health by preventing the occurrence of age-related debilitating diseases. Therefore, they have been used to treat various serious disorders such as diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Some evolving studies used these bee products to treat PD in animal models. However, a clear understanding of the collective effect of propolis and RJ as well as their mechanism of action in PD is lacking. This review evaluates the available literature for the effects of propolis and RJ on PD. Whenever possible, it elaborates on the underlying mechanisms through which they function in this disorder and offers insights for fruitful use of bee products in future clinical trials.

Caffeic Acid Phenethyl Ester Protects against Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis by Regulating T Cell Activities

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by progressive demyelination and disabling outcomes. CD4⁺ T cells are the most critical driving factor of relapsing MS, but little improvement has been noted upon deletion of the whole T cell population. Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), one of the main active compounds of propolis, exhibits potent antitumour, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties by suppressing nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transactivation. To investigate the therapeutic potential of CAPE in MS, we studied the effects of CAPE on cytokine levels, T cells, and NF-κB activities and in an experimental MS animal model. The results showed that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with relapsing MS is characterized by increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines that preferentially skew towards T helper 1 (Th1) cytokines. In vitro studies demonstrated that CAPE not only inhibited T cell proliferation and activation but also effectively modulated T cell subsets. Under both Th0- and Th1-polarizing conditions, the proportion of CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺ cells was downregulated, while CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ cells were increased. Moreover, nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 was inhibited by CAPE. In a murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model, prophylactic treatment with CAPE significantly decreased the disease incidence and severity. Compared to the vehicle group, mice pretreated with CAPE showed diminished inflammatory cell infiltration, microglia/macrophage activation, and demyelination injury. Additionally, CAPE pretreatment reduced the level of Th1 cells in both spleen and the CNS and increased regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the CNS. In conclusion, our results highlight the potential merit of CAPE in suppressing T cell activity mainly through targeting the pathogenic Th1 lineage, which may be beneficial for MS treatment.

Anthelminthic Activity of Assassin Bug Venom against the Blood Fluke Schistosoma mansoni

Helminths such as the blood fluke Schistosoma mansoni represent a major global health challenge due to limited availability of drugs. Most anthelminthic drug candidates are derived from plants, whereas insect-derived compounds have received little attention. This includes venom from assassin bugs, which contains numerous bioactive compounds. Here, we investigated whether venom from the European predatory assassin bug Rhynocoris iracundus has antischistosomal activity. Venom concentrations of 10–50 µg/mL inhibited the motility and pairing of S. mansoni adult worms in vitro and their capacity to produce eggs. We used EdU-proliferation assays to measure the effect of venom against parasite stem cells, which are essential for survival and reproduction. We found that venom depleted proliferating stem cells in different tissues of the male parasite, including neoblasts in the parenchyma and gonadal stem cells. Certain insect venoms are known to lyse eukaryotic cells, thus limiting their therapeutic potential. We therefore carried out hemolytic activity assays using porcine red blood cells, revealing that the venom had no significant effect at a concentration of 43 µg/mL. The observed anthelminthic activity and absence of hemolytic side effects suggest that the components of R. iracundus venom should be investigated in more detail as potential antischistosomal leads.

Apitherapy for Age-Related Skeletal Muscle Dysfunction (Sarcopenia): A Review on the Effects of Royal Jelly, Propolis, and Bee Pollen

The global pandemic of sarcopenia, skeletal muscle loss and weakness, which prevails in up to 50% of older adults is increasing worldwide due to the expansion of aging populations. It is now striking young and midlife adults as well because of sedentary lifestyle and increased intake of unhealthy food (e.g., western diet). The lockdown measures and economic turndown associated with the current outbreak of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) are likely to increase the prevalence of sarcopenia by promoting sedentarism and unhealthy patterns of eating. Sarcopenia has multiple detrimental effects including falls, hospitalization, disability, and institutionalization. Although a few pharmacological agents (e.g., bimagrumab, sarconeos, and exercise mimetics) are being explored in different stages of trials, not a single drug has been approved for sarcopenia treatment. Hence, research has focused on testing the effect of nutraceuticals, such as bee products, as safe treatments to prevent and/or treat sarcopenia. Royal jelly, propolis, and bee pollen are common bee products that are rich in highly potent antioxidants such as flavonoids, phenols, and amino acids. These products, in order, stimulate larval development into queen bees, promote defenses of the bee hive against microbial and environmental threats, and increase royal jelly production by nurse bees. Thanks to their versatile pharmacological activities (e.g., anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, etc.), these products have been used to treat multiple chronic conditions that predispose to muscle wasting such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disorder, and cancer, to name a few. They were also used in some evolving studies to treat sarcopenia in laboratory animals and, to a limited degree, in humans. However, a collective understanding of the effect and mechanism of action of these products in skeletal muscle is not well-developed. Therefore, this review examines the literature for possible effects of royal jelly, bee pollen, and propolis on skeletal muscle in aged experimental models, muscle cell cultures, and humans. Collectively, data from reviewed studies denote varying levels of positive effects of bee products on muscle mass, strength, and function. The likely underlying mechanisms include amelioration of inflammation and oxidative damages, promotion of metabolic regulation, enhancement of satellite stem cell responsiveness, improvement of muscular blood supply, inhibition of catabolic genes, and promotion of peripheral neuronal regeneration. This review offers suggestions for other mechanisms to be explored and provides guidance for future trials investigating the effects of bee products among people with sarcopenia.

Post grafting time significantly influences royal jelly yield and content of macro and trace elements

Royal jelly (RJ) is commercially harvested after the 4^th day of queen larval age. In the current study, it was harvested after 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours after grafting of 1-day larval age queens to investigate changes in macro and trace elements associated with harvesting time. The RJ yields were significantly affected by harvest time, and the highest yield was obtained 72 hours after grafting. The highest phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn) contents were obtained from RJ harvested 24 hours after grafting. Royal jelly harvested 48 hours after grafting had the highest concentrations of magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn). Likewise, RJ harvested 96 hours after grafting had higher concentrations of copper (Cu). Royal jelly harvested 72 hours after grafting showed the second rank for P, Mg, Ca, K, Na, Fe, Cu, and Mn concentrations. In descending order, P, Mg, Ca, and K were the most dominant elements in RJ harvested at different times after grafting. The Mg, Ca, K, Na, Cu, and Mn concentrations in RJ were all positively correlated, and P, Fe, and Zn were positively correlated. The P and Zn were negatively correlated with Ca, Cu, and Mn. It was concluded that macro and trace element contents in RJ can differ depending on the harvest time after grafting. We recommend harvesting RJ at 72 hours after grafting for possible use as healthy nutritional human food supplement.

Honeybee products and edible insect powders improve locomotive and learning abilities of Ubiquilin-knockdown Drosophila

BACKGROUND

Mutations in the human Ubiquilin 2 gene are associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) with or without frontotemporal dementia (FTD), the fatal neurodegenerative disease that progressively affected neuronal cells in both brain and spinal cord. There is currently no effective therapy for these diseases. Over the last decade, researchers have focused on the potential use of natural products especially in neurodegenerative studies. Insect products have been used as traditional medicines, however, scientific information is still lacking. Fruit fly is recently used as a model organism to investigate degenerative diseases related to the nervous system because it has a short life span and produces a large number of offspring.

METHODS

The present study investigated the effects of honeybee products and edible insect powders on the locomotive and learning abilities, neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) structure, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in larval brains of Ubiquilin- knockdown Drosophila.

RESULTS

dUbqn knockdown flies showed defects in locomotive and learning abilities accompanied with structural defects in NMJs. The results obtained revealed that the recovery of locomotive defects was significantly greater in dUbqn knockdown flies fed with coffee honey from Apis cerana (1% v/v) or Apis dorsata melittin (0.5 μg/ml) or wasp powder (2 mg/ml) than that of in untreated dUbqn knockdown flies. Furthermore, dUbqn knockdown flies fed with coffee honey showed the partial rescue of structural defects in NMJs, improved learning ability, and reduced the accumulation of ROS caused by dUbqn depletion in the brain over the untreated group.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that coffee honey from Apis cerana contains a neuroprotective agent that will contribute to the development of a novel treatment for ALS/FTD.

The key royal jelly component 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid protects against bone loss by inhibiting NF-κB signaling downstream of FFAR4

The supplementation of royal jelly (RJ) is known to provide a variety of health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and anti-obesity effects. RJ treatment also reportedly protects against bone loss, but no single factor in RJ has yet been identified as an anti-osteoporosis agent. Here we fractionated RJ and identified 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10H2DA) as a key component involved in inhibiting osteoclastogenesis based on mass spectrometric analysis. We further demonstrated free fatty acid receptor 4 (FFAR4) as directly interacting with 10H2DA; binding of 10H2DA to FFAR4 on osteoclasts inhibited receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) ligand (RANKL)-induced activation of NF-κB signaling, thereby attenuating the induction of nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) c1, a key transcription factor for osteoclastogenesis. Oral administration of 10H2DA attenuated bone resorption in ovariectomized mice. These results suggest a potential therapeutic approach of targeting osteoclast differentiation by the supplementation of RJ, and specifically 10H2DA, in cases of pathological bone loss such as occur in postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Melissopalynological Study, Phenolic Compounds, and Antioxidant Properties of Heterotrigona itama Honey from Johor, Malaysia

Six honey samples produced by the stingless bee Heterotrigona itama were analyzed for their plant sources, phenolic compositions, and antioxidant activities. The honey samples were acetolyzed and identified microscopically, and the phenolic compounds were identified by using HPLC-DAD. The antioxidant activities were evaluated using three different assays (FRAP, DPPH, and ABTS) by spectrophotometry. The melissopalynological analysis showed that 26 pollen types from 14 plant families were identified in the honey. Cocos nucifera and Rhizophora mucronata presented as predominant pollen. A total of 6 phenolic acids such as catechin, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, protocatechuic acid, p-coumaric acid, and rutin were identified. Rhizophora mucronata honey possessed the highest antioxidant activity in all assays. The result showed the influence of plant sources on the phenolic compounds and the antioxidant properties of stingless bee honey. These findings could be significant contributions for the sustainability of stingless bee industry as well as to promote Malaysian stingless bee honey worldwide.

The Effect of Bee Venom Peptides Melittin, Tertiapin, and Apamin on the Human Erythrocytes Ghosts: A Preliminary Study

Red blood cells (RBCs) are the most abundant cells in the human blood that have been extensively studied under morphology, ultrastructure, biochemical and molecular functions. Therefore, RBCs are excellent cell models in the study of biologically active compounds like drugs and toxins on the structure and function of the cell membrane. The aim of the present study was to explore erythrocyte ghost’s proteome to identify changes occurring under the influence of three bee venom peptides-melittin, tertiapin, and apamin. We conducted preliminary experiments on the erythrocyte ghosts incubated with these peptides at their non-hemolytic concentrations. Such preparations were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. It was found that when higher concentrations of melittin and apamin were used, fewer proteins were identified. Moreover, the results clearly indicated that apamin demonstrates the greatest influence on the RBCs ghosts proteome. Interestingly, the data also suggest that tertiapin exerted a stabilizing effect on the erythrocyte membrane. The experiments carried out show the great potential of proteomic research in the projects focused on the toxin’s properties as membrane active agents. However, to determine the specificity of the effect of selected bee venom peptides on the erythrocyte ghosts, further proteomic research should be focused on the quantitative analysis.

Comparing activity, toxicity and model membrane interactions of Jelleine-I and Trp/Arg analogs: analysis of peptide aggregation

Increasing resistance in antibiotic and chemotherapeutic treatments has been pushing studies of design and evaluation of bioactive peptides. Designing relies on different approaches from minimalist sequences and endogenous peptides modifications to computational libraries. Evaluation relies on microbiological tests. Aiming a deeper understanding, we chose the octapeptide Jelleine-I (JI) for its selective and low toxicity profile, designed small modifications combining the substitutions of Phe by Trp and Lys/His by Arg and tested the antimicrobial and anticancer activity on melanoma cells. Biophysical methods identified environment-dependent modulation of aggregation, but critical aggregation concentrations of JI and analogs in buffer show that peptides start membrane interactions as monomers. The presence of model membranes increases or reduces the partial aggregation of peptides. Compared to JI, analog JIF2WR shows the lowest tendency to aggregation on bacterial model membranes. JI and analogs are lytic to model membranes. Their composition-dependent performance indicates preference for the higher charged anionic bilayers in line with their superior performance toward Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae. JIF2WR presented the higher partitioning, higher lytic activity and lower aggregated contents. Despite these increased membranolytic activities, JIF2WR exhibited comparable antimicrobial activity in relation to JI at the expenses of some loss in selectivity. We found that the substitution Phe/Trp (JIF2W) tends to decrease antimicrobial but to increase anticancer activity and aggregation on model membranes and the toxicity toward human cells. However, the concomitant substitution Lys/His by Arg (JIF2WR) modulates some of these tendencies, increasing both the antimicrobial and the anticancer activity while decreasing the aggregation tendency.

Bee Pollen Supplementation to Aged Horses Influences Several Blood Parameters

In humans and animals, aging leads to a decrease in immune function and an increased susceptibility to infection. Decreased immunity and an increase in the incidence of infectious diseases are particularly notable during the autumn. Bee pollen supplementation improves immunity and antioxidant enzyme activity, as well as general performance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of bee pollen supplementation during the autumn on blood parameters in aged horses. The study was performed on 16 warmblood horses aged 15-26 years. Half of this group received 60 g of bee pollen (soaked in water) daily for 30 days during the autumn season. Blood samples were taken from all horses before and after the supplementation period. Numerous hematological and plasma biochemical parameters including indicators of oxidative stress were determined. The data collected after the supplementation were compared with data collected before the experiment using one-way analysis of variance and paired Student's t-test. In the control group, there was a decline in the total number of red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit and an increase in some lipid parameters, urea, total plasma proteins, and sulfhydryl groups. Supplementation with bee pollen prevented the variation of these parameters, except for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. We believe that bee pollen supplementation for aged horses during autumn has beneficial effects because it inhibited some of the adverse changes observed in the control horses during this season.

Effects of Propolis and Phenolic Acids on Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Lines: Potential Involvement of Epigenetic Mechanisms

Triple-negative breast cancer is an aggressive disease frequently associated with resistance to chemotherapy. Evidence supports that small molecules showing DNA methyltransferase inhibitory activity (DNMTi) are important to sensitize cancer cells to cytotoxic agents, in part, by reverting the acquired epigenetic changes associated with the resistance to therapy. The present study aimed to evaluate if chemical compounds derived from propolis could act as epigenetic drugs (epi-drugs). We selected three phenolic acids (caffeic, dihydrocinnamic, and p-coumaric) commonly detected in propolis and the (−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) from green tea, which is a well-known DNA demethylating agent, for further analysis. The treatment with p-coumaric acid and EGCG significantly reduced the cell viability of four triple-negative breast cancer cell lines (BT-20, BT-549, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-436). Computational predictions by molecular docking indicated that both chemicals could interact with the MTAse domain of the human DNMT1 and directly compete with its intrinsic inhibitor S-Adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH). Although the ethanolic extract of propolis (EEP) did not change the global DNA methylation content, by using MS-PCR (Methylation-Specific Polymerase Chain Reaction) we demonstrated that EEP and EGCG were able to partly demethylate the promoter region of RASSF1A in BT-549 cells. Also, in vitro treatment with EEP altered the RASSF1 protein expression levels. Our data indicated that some chemical compound present in the EEP has DNMTi activity and can revert the epigenetic silencing of the tumor suppressor RASSF1A. These findings suggest that propolis are a promising source for epi-drugs discovery.

The fungicide iprodione affects midgut cells of non-target honey bee Apis mellifera workers

The honey bee Apis mellifera is an important pollinator of agricultural crops and natural forests. Honey bee populations have declined over the years, as a result of diseases, pesticides, and management problems. Fungicides are the main pesticides found in pollen grains, which are the major source of protein for bees. The objective of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of the fungicide iprodione on midgut cells of adult A. mellifera workers. Bees were fed on iprodione (LD₅₀, determined by the manufacturer) for 12 or 24 h, and the midgut was examined using light and transmission electron microscopies. The expression level of the autophagy gene atg1 was assessed in midgut digestive cells. Cells of treated bees had signs of apoptosis: cytoplasmic vacuolization, apical cell protrusions, nuclear fragmentation, and chromatin condensation. Ultrastructural analysis revealed some cells undergoing autophagy and necrosis. Expression of atg1 was similar between treated and control bees, which can be explained by the facts that digestive cells had autolysosomes, whereas ATG-1 is found in the initial phases of autophagy. Iprodione acts by inhibiting the synthesis of glutathione, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species, which in turn can induce different types of cell death. The results indicate that iprodione must be used with caution because it has side effects on non-target organisms, such as pollinator bees.

Oral treatment with royal jelly improves memory and presents neuroprotective effects on icv-STZ rat model of sporadic Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive decline in cognitive function. Intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin (icv-STZ) has been used as an experimental model of Sporadic AD (SAD) in rodents and represents a promising tool for etiopathogenic analysis and evaluation of new therapeutic proposals for AD. The icv-STZ model shows many aspects of SAD abnormalities, resulting in decreased brain glucose and energy metabolism, cognitive impairment, oxidative stress, neuronal loss, and amyloid angiopathy. Royal jelly (RJ), a substance produced by worker honeybees of the Apis mellifera species, has been popularly used for more than 30 years in areas related to health eating and natural medicine. Researches indicate that RJ has a several pharmacological activities, including neuroprotective and improvement of cognitive function. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of oral treatment with royal jelly during 2 weeks in Wistar rats submitted to icv-STZ on a working memory and neuroprotection, as evaluated by neurogenesis, neurodegeneration and oxidative stress. In this study, icv-STZ injection induced deleterious effects in the hippocampus, associated with cognitive impairments, and developed marked neurodegeneration, besides the reduction of neurogenesis and increased oxidative stress. On the other hand, RJ long-term oral administration induced beneficial effects in animals injured by icv-STZ injection, increasing retention time for working spatial memory, reducing neurodegeneration and oxidative stress level and increasing the proliferation of new neurons in the hippocampus. Thus, RJ promotes beneficial effects on cognitive functions and exhibits a neuroprotective action in the STZ experimental model of SAD.

Bee Products in Dermatology and Skin Care

Honey, propolis, bee pollen, bee bread, royal jelly, beeswax and bee venom are natural products which have been used in medicine since ancient times. Nowadays, studies indicate that natural bee products can be used for skin treatment and care. Biological properties of these products are related to flavonoids they contain like: chrysin, apigenin, kaempferol, quercetin, galangin, pinocembrin or naringenin. Several pharmacological activities of phenolic acids and flavonoids, and also 10-hydroxy-trans-2-decenoic acid, which is present in royal jelly, have been reported. Royal jelly has multitude of pharmacological activities: antibiotic, antiinflammatory, antiallergenic, tonic and antiaging. Honey, propolis and pollen are used to heal burn wounds, and they possess numerous functional properties such as: antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, disinfectant, antifungal and antiviral. Beeswax is used for production of cosmetics and ointments in pharmacy. Due to a large number of biological activities, bee products could be considered as important ingredients in medicines and cosmetics applied to skin.

Study of the Royal Jelly Free Fatty Acids by Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS)

The lipidome of royal jelly (RJ) consists of medium-chained (8-12 carbon atoms) free fatty acids. We present herein a liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) method that permits the determination of RJ fatty acids and at the same time the detection of suspect fatty acids. The method allows for the direct quantification of seven free fatty acids of RJ, avoiding any derivatization step. It was validated and applied in seven RJ samples, where the major RJ fatty acid trans-10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA) was found to vary from 0.771 ± 0.08 to 0.928 ± 0.04 g/100 g fresh RJ. Four additional suspect fatty acids were simultaneously detected taking advantage of the HRMS detection.

Gelsedine-type alkaloids: Discovery of natural neurotoxins presented in toxic honey

The fascinating collection and evaluation of natural products with enormous structural and chemical diversity can contribute to ensure human health and inspire potential drug discovery. We reported the identification of 14-(R)-hydroxy-gelsenicine (HGE), a new component from poisonous honey, which has recently caused multiple serious intoxications and deaths up on consumption. The prevalence, toxicity, toxicokinetics and metabolic profile of HGE were evaluated through in vitro and in vivo analyses. HGE is a very toxic substance and shows significant gender difference with LD₅₀ of 0.125 mg kg^-1 and 0.295 mg kg^-1 for the female and male mice, respectively. Toxicokinetics test indicates that HGE has good bioavailability in rats, and is metabolized extensively, in which hydroxylation, reduction, N-demethyl ether and glucuronication are the major metabolic pathways. Additionally, HGE shows specific neurotoxicity by enhancing the binding of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to its receptors. We found that flumazenil, a selective antagonist of GABA receptor, could effectively increase the survival of the tested animals, which provides a potential therapy for future clinical applications.

Apitherapy for Osteoarthritis: Perspectives from Basic Research

Osteoarthritis is one of the most common rheumatic disease in the world and one of the leading causes of disability in the elderly. There is still no curative management for the disease, so the search for new therapeutic alternatives continues. -Apitherapy is a therapeutic tool based on the use of beehive products used since ancient times and, at present, their mechanism of action begins to be known. Many of the mechanisms of action of the beehive products are useful for chronic articular pathophysiological processes such as those described in osteoarthritis. This article presents a review of the current state of understanding of the mechanisms through which bee venom, propolis, honey, pollen, and royal jelly may act on osteoarthritis.

Ethanol extract of propolis prevents high-fat diet-induced insulin resistance and obesity in association with modulation of gut microbiota in mice

Propolis has beneficial effects anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetes and anti-obesity in human or murine models, but its mechanism has not been fully elucidated. This study was to investigate the effects of ethanol extract of propolis (EEP) on the gut microbiota, and to analyze the associations between these alterations of gut microbiota and insulin resistance and obesity in high fat diet (HFD)-fed mice. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed with chow diet, high-fat diet, and high-fat diet supplemented with 1% EEP or 2%EEP. EEP supplementation reduced HFD-induced weight gain and liver fat accumulation, proinflammatory cytokines and insulin resistance, and improved glucose tolerance and lipid profile. Meanwhile, EEP supplementation in HFD-fed mice increased anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory bacteria such as genera Roseburia and Intestinimonas and species Parabacteroides goldsteinii and Parabacteroides distasonis, and reduced pro-inflammatory bacteria such as genera Faecalibaculum and Prevotella and species Bacteroides vulgatus. These dominant bacterial taxa altered by EEP were significantly associated with the metabolic parameters of insulin resistance and obesityin HFD-fed mice. The results in this study indicated that EEP reduced HFD-induced obesity and insulin resistant, which may be mediated by modulating the composition and function of gut microbiota.

[Sebotropic drug eruption after ingestion of bee pollen]

INTRODUCTION

The medical literature contains five cases of exanthema with sebaceous tropism induced by consumption of kava-kava extract filed under the name of sebotropic drug reaction. Herein we report a new case following consumption of bee pollen.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A 37-year-old man consulted for erythemato-papular and fixed plaques of the face, upper trunk and shoulders present for 3 days. Standard blood tests were normal except for neutrophil leukocytosis at 9.8 G/l and eosinophilia at 1.4 G/l. Cutaneous biopsy of a facial plaque revealed folliculocentric lesions with necrosis of sebocytes in the sebaceous gland, associated with an eosinophil-rich infiltrate. The patient had begun consuming bee-pollen granules 3 weeks before the onset of symptoms. The rash regressed within 3 weeks of cessation of pollen consumption. Patch tests (ICDRG battery, propolis 1% Vaseline dilution and bee pollen provided by the patient, both pure and in a 30% dilution in Vaseline) were negative at 48 and 72h.

DISCUSSION

The clinical-pathological correlation was consistent with a diagnosis of sebotropic drug reaction induced by the consumption of bee pollen. The diagnosis was based on papular exanthema of the seborrheic zones occurring 2 to 3 weeks after initial intake of the offending substance, with histological evidence of inflammatory necrosis of the sebaceous glands.

CONCLUSION

We report what is to our knowledge the first case of sebotropic drug reaction following ingestion of bee pollen.

What do we need to know about drone brood homogenate and what is known

ETNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Polish folk customs, bees are surrounded by the nimbus of holiness, which is reflected in a series of proverbs and phrases in colloquial speech (Markiewicowa, 1992). It was believed that products derived from the beehive, resulting from the effort of insects are endowed with special healing and nutritive properties. As such, bee products have been used in natural medicine for centuries (Markiewicowa, 1992). Nowadays, these properties have been confirmed by systematic scientific assessment. The largest number of scientific reports are focused on the nutritive properties and therapeutic action of propolis, royal jelly, honey, bee venom and pollen. Less information can be found about another product of beekeeping which is drone brood. Drones are responsible for the fertilization of a queen bee, thereby prolonging bee species. In addition to reproduction, they do not perform any others important functions in the bee community, except draining food resources collected by worker bees. For this reason, the excess of the drone brood is removed from the hive by the beekeepers. Before the winter bees themselves banish the adult drones from the hive. The removal of drone brood has a function in the prevention and treatment of varroosis, bee parasitic disease caused by the Varroa destructor mites. Beekeepers and scientists have noticed that this parasite accumulates in wax cells in which young drones develop.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this work was to assess the current state of knowledge on the nutritional and biological properties of the drone homogenate (DBH). Information about biological or pharmacological effects of DBH are limited and research results are published in very local scientific journals. The authors tried to gather available information of the chemical composition, methods of storing and preserving the brood, as well as on biological activity and application in nutrition and medicine. The collected facts prove that this product is wrongly regarded by majority of Western beekeepers as waste. Studies carried out on animal models show that the homogenate exhibits androgenic effect and led to improve animals productive capacity. DBH is able to stimulate the immune system (stimulating the production of antibodies by the spleen and the immune response of T lymphocytes) as well as reduction the parameters of oxidative stress and the risk of death due to cardiovascular episode (Bogdanov, 2012).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In searching for information on drone brood, generally available publishing databases such as Scopus, Google scholar, and PubMed were used. Search words were: "drone homogenate", drone brood", "bee brood", "drone larvae", "drone milk". Due to the number of publications available in English, information on the drone homogenate was also searched in Russian. Patent studies of agents containing drone homogenate were searched at http://patents.google.com.

RESULTS

This work gathers information on the chemical composition, methods of storage and preservation as well as the action of the biological drone homogenate. In addition, information on the effect of the drone homogenate on animal organisms and the use of homogenate in various disease entities in humans has been provided. Manuscript also contains information on the use of the drone homogenate as a dietary and food supplement. The critical discussion on available results was provided.

CONCLUSIONS

This paper presents the most important information on the use of drone brood in folk medicine. The studies carried out with the use of animals and humans have shown that the drone brood has an adjuvant effect that improves the efficiency of the organism. Due to its high content of amino acids and proteins, it is used as a tonic and adaptogenic agent. The presence of sex hormones in the homogenate allows its use as a potency raising agent and equalizing the hormonal system in people of both sexes. Based on the facts quoted above, it can be concluded that DBH is a promising nutritional product, an unjustly neglected source of valuable substances not only such as proteins, fatty acids but also vitamins, hormones and antioxidants.

Propolis and Its Combination with Boric Acid Protect Against Ischemia/Reperfusion-Induced Acute Kidney Injury by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, DNA Damage, and Apoptosis in Rats

Ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury which causes kidney dysfunction is one of the most studied diseases directly linked to oxidative stress. In this regard, it is important to protect cells against damage by inducing antioxidant response. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the therapeutic roles and possible mechanisms of propolis and boric acid in kidney I/R injury based on relevant basic research and clinical studies. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 50 min of ischemia followed by 3 h of reperfusion. Animals were randomly divided into a control group (the abdominal wall was just opened and closed), an I/R injury group, the propolis intervention group (200 mg/kg, intragastric administration, 1 h before ischemia), boric acid intervention group (14 mg/kg, intragastric administration 1 h before ischemia), and the propolis + boric acid intervention group (intragastric administration 1 h before ischemia). Kidney function, the antioxidant defensive system, and renal damage were assessed. In addition, the oxidative stress and inflammatory status were estimated in renal tissue. Furthermore, DNA damageand apoptosis were detected by immunohistochemistry. When compared with I/R group, propolis alone and especially propolis + boric acid groups significantly improved functional parameters. While the antioxidant response was increased, renal injury size and apoptosis were significantly decreased in both groups. Also, the MDA and TNF-α levels besides the 8-OHdG formation were downregulated. According to these outcomes, it can be said that especially propolis together with boric acid ameliorates kidney injury caused by I/R through acting as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic agent. In conclusion, propolis alone and its combination with boric acid could be developed as therapeutic agents against serious renal I/R injuries.

Evidence on the Health Benefits of Supplemental Propolis

Propolis is a honey-related product with reported health benefits such as improved immunity, lowered blood pressure, treated allergies and skin conditions. A literature review and narrative synthesis were conducted to investigate the evidence on the reported health benefits and future direction of propolis products. Using a predefined search strategy we searched Medline (OvidSP), Embase and Central for quantitative and qualitative studies (1990-2018). Citation, reference, hand searches and expert consultation were also undertaken. Studies of randomised control trials and observational data on humans with health-related outcomes were included. Collected data were entered into NVivo software (Version 12, QRS International) and analysed using a thematic framework and a narrative synthesis of emergent themes. A total of 63 publications were discussed. The majority were cell-based and animal studies, with a few key human trials conducted. There is significant promise for propolis as an effective antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent with particular promise in cardiometabolic health.

Bioactive constituents, in vitro radical scavenging and antibacterial activities of selected Apis mellifera honey from Kenya

There is limited information about the relative composition and health benefits of various honey consumed across Africa. This study aimed at estimating the bioactive constituents, in vitro radical scavenging and antibacterial activities of 16 kinds of honey obtained from different geographical locations in Kenya. Manuka 5 + honey was included for comparison. Some of the tested honey had biochemicals and bioactivities similar to or higher than Manuka 5 + honey. The honey exhibited DPPH radical scavenging ability, with several types of honey showing superior scavenging potential than Manuka 5 + honey, owing to their high phenol content. All types of honey inhibited the growth of E. coli and further showed a substantial amount of nonperoxide antimicrobial activity. The geographical origin of honey had an influence on its bioactive contents. Overall, these findings suggest that Kenyan honey has great therapeutic potential, and thus, its clinical application should not be overlooked.

Beyond the Biological Effect of a Chemically Characterized Poplar Propolis: Antibacterial and Antiviral Activity and Comparison with Flurbiprofen in Cytokines Release by LPS-Stimulated Human Mononuclear Cells

Bee propolis, especially Euro-Asian poplar propolis, is among the most well-known natural products traditionally used to treat pharyngitis and minor wounds. The aim of this research was to investigate the pharmacological properties responsible for poplar propolis effectiveness using, for the first time, different in vitro approaches applied to a chemically characterized sample. The anti-inflammatory activity was compared with flurbiprofen by determining pro-inflammatory cytokines released by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The antibacterial activity against Gram+ and Gram- bacteria was assessed, as well as antiviral effects on H1N1 influenza a virus. Poplar propolis (5 and 25 µg/mL) exerted a concentration-dependent anti-inflammatory activity. In this range of concentrations, propolis effect was not inferior to flurbiprofen on cytokines released by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated human PBMC. Poplar propolis was found to upregulate IL-6 and IL-1β in non-stimulated PBMC. S. aureus, S. pyogenes, and S. pneumoniae were the most susceptible bacterial strains with inhibitory concentrations ranging from 156 to 625 µg/mL. A direct anti-influenza activity was not clearly seen. Effective anti-inflammatory concentrations of propolis were significantly lower than the antibacterial and antiviral ones and results suggested that the anti-inflammatory activity was the most important feature of poplar propolis linked to its rationale use in medicine.

Physicochemical analyses, antioxidant, antibacterial, and toxicity of propolis particles produced by stingless bee Heterotrigona itama found in Brunei Darussalam

In this study, the physicochemical, antioxidant, antibacterial properties, and the toxicity of propolis particles produced by stingless bee Heterotrigona itama found in Brunei Darussalam were investigated. Propolis particles of different sizes were extracted from raw propolis using various volume fractions of ethanol in water. Spectroscopic analyses were utilized to characterize the chemical structures, functional groups, as well as absorbance and fluorescence properties. The total antioxidant capacity of propolis particles, which was assessed using DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) assay, was found to increase with volume fraction of ethanol. The maximum antioxidant capacity was as high as 317.65 mg ascorbic acid equivalent per gram of propolis particles. All of the propolis particles showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa). The diameters of the inhibition zone were either significantly higher or equivalent to those of two standard antibiotics (rifampicin and streptomycin), suggesting strong antibacterial activity. The toxicity studies of propolis particles against Caenorhabditis elegans revealed that they are non-toxic after 24 h exposure. Overall findings suggest that H. itama propolis particles are not only an important source of natural antioxidants that could be beneficial for human health, but they have potentials as antimicrobial against bacteria.

Comparative evaluation of maceration, microwave and ultrasonic-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from propolis

The aim of this study was to compare different techniques in order to achieve a high extraction of phenolic compounds from propolis. For this purpose, it was investigated the use of double maceration (24 h at room temperature with continuous agitation at 250 rpm), double microwave treatments (1 min at 140 W) and double ultrasound-assisted extraction (15 min at 20 kHz) using 70% ethanol. The extraction efficiency was measured based on extraction yield, total phenolic content, flavones and flavonol content, and flavanone and dihydroflavonol content. The ultrasonic extraction had an extraction yield higher than microwave extraction and maceration. The yield of the propolis ranged between samples and between the years of propolis harvesting. Of the twelve quantified phenolic compounds, p-coumaric acid was the most abundant (271.65 mg/g propolis).

Effect of co-administration of Bee honey and some chemotherapeutic drugs on dissemination of hepatocellular carcinoma in rats

Alternative and complimentary usage of the natural compound has raised hopes of finding curative options for liver hepatocarcinogenesis. In the present study, the curative effect of bee honey against diethylnitrosamine (DEN) (50 mg/kg) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) (2 mg/Kg)-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in male rats in the presence or absence of some chemotherapeutic drugs, Cisplatin (Cis), Cyclophosphamide (CY) and 5- Fluorouracil (5-FU) were investigated. The obtained results demonstrated that treatment with DEN/CCl4 caused oxidative stress as assigned by the increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) and fall in glutathione (GSH) content. Meantime detraction in the antioxidants, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione-s-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) was observed. Also, the results showed induction of inflammation as reflected by an increase in the levels of both α- fetoprotein and α- fucosidase in the liver. This was accompanied by changes in the hepatic function biomarkers which characterized by the increased levels of transaminases (AST, ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and γ-Glutamyl transferase (γ-GT) and decrease in total protein content in the serum. In conclusion, the combination of the selected drugs and bee honey may be an effective chemo- preventive and therapeutic strategy for treating DEN and CCl4-induced HCC.

The Profile of Secondary Metabolites and Other Bioactive Compounds in Cucurbita pepo L. and Cucurbita moschata Pumpkin Cultivars

Plants and animals are sources of various bioactive compounds that exhibit a broad spectrum of health-promoting effects. Scientists continue studies on the chemical composition of many products in search of foods with high nutritional value. The pumpkin (Cucurbita sp.) is unquestionably a source of valuable nutrients. This vegetable is well-known all over the world and it is appreciated due to its high content of carotenoids, but it is still not much used in the processing industry. The aim of present study was to compare the flesh of 15 pumpkin varieties belonging to the Cucurbita pepo and C. moschata species in terms of the bioactive compound content (carotenoids, phenolic acids, flavonols, minerals and vitamins) and to demonstrate whether the variety has an effect on the chemical composition. To date, no such extensive research has been carried out in this area. The research revealed that the pumpkin pulp had high content of carotenoids. In nearly all cases lutein was the most abundant carotenoid. Numerous phenolic acids and flavonols were also identified. All the cultivars contained gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and rutin. The pumpkin pulp also contained alpha- and gamma-tocopherol. No beta- or delta-tocopherol was found. Potassium, calcium, and sodium were the most abundant minerals. The research also proved that the profile of bioactive compounds in the pumpkin pulp was considerably diversified and depended on the species and cultivar

Industrial-Scale Decontamination Procedure Effects on the Content of Acaricides, Heavy Metals and Antioxidant Capacity of Beeswax

Beeswax is useful for the beekeeping sector but also for the agro-food, pharmaceutical or cosmetics sectors. Frequently, this bee product is contaminated with pesticides reducing its utility and causing the decline in its market. This study aimed to prove the effectiveness of an industrial-scale decontamination method in removing acaricides from beeswax. Chlorfenvinphos and coumaphos decrease was higher than 90%, whereas tau fluvalinate decrease was only 30%. No changes were observed in the beeswax content of hydrocarbons and monoesters, whereas a decrease in the concentrations of Ca, Fe, Zn, Hg, Mn and P, and an increase in the concentrations of As and Si were found after the decontamination. Filtration reduced total phenolics, flavonoids and the antioxidant capacity of the lipophilic extract. These results demonstrate that the industrial method used was as effective as the method previously tested on a laboratory scale. The study also contributes to a better knowledge and characterization of beeswax, specially related to trace and ultra-trace elements and antioxidant capacity. Moreover, it offers the chance to further develop a method to effectively detect wax adulterations based on the chemical elements profile.