Review on Mycotoxin Issues in Ruminants: Occurrence in Forages, Effects of Mycotoxin Ingestion on Health Status and Animal Performance and Practical Strategies to Counteract Their Negative Effects

Detoxification Strategies for Zearalenone Using Microorganisms: A Review

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi that is commonly found in cereal crops. ZEA has an estrogen-like effect which affects the reproductive function of animals. It also damages the liver and kidneys and reduces immune function which leads to cytotoxicity and immunotoxicity. At present, the detoxification of mycotoxins is mainly accomplished using biological methods. Microbial-based methods involve zearalenone conversion or adsorption, but not all transformation products are nontoxic. In this paper, the non-pathogenic microorganisms which have been found to detoxify ZEA in recent years are summarized. Then, two mechanisms by which ZEA can be detoxified (adsorption and biotransformation) are discussed in more detail. The compounds produced by the subsequent degradation of ZEA and the heterogeneous expression of ZEA-degrading enzymes are also analyzed. The development trends in the use of probiotics as a ZEA detoxification strategy are also evaluated. The overall purpose of this paper is to provide a reliable reference strategy for the biological detoxification of ZEA.

Do mycotoxin contaminated diets and yeast cell wall adsorbent affect meat quality of Nellore bulls finished in feedlot? - A short communication

Ninety-six Nellore bulls (430 ± 13 kg and 24 months) were assigned to a completely randomized block design (2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments) to evaluate meat quality. Dietary treatments consisted of natural or exogenous contamination with mycotoxins (Factor 1), with or without yeast cell wall adsorbent (10 g/animal/d; Factor 2). The diets were provided during 97 d. The meat chemical composition was unaffected (P ≥ .37) by the factors and the averages of variables were 74.2% moisture, 22.7% protein, 1.04% ether extract, and 2.10% ash. The L*, a*, b*, E*, C* (P ≥ .11), cooking loss (P ≥ .24) and Warner-Bratzler shear force (P ≥ .17) were also similar among factors. In conclusion, low mycotoxin contamination and yeast cell wall based adsorbent do not affect meat quality of Nellore bulls finished in feedlot.

Hydrophobized Reversed-Phase Adsorbent for Protection of Dairy Cattle against Lipophilic Toxins from Diet. Efficiensy in Vitro and in Vivo

The steady growth of inflammatory diseases of the udder in dairy cattle forces us to look for the causes of this phenomenon in the context of growing chemical pollution of the environment and feeds. Within the framework of this concept, an analysis was made of the polarity level of the three toxic impurity groups, which are commonly present in dairy cattle feeds. These impurities are presented by mycotoxins, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and persistent organic pollutants (POP). It has been determined that 46% of studied mycotoxins (n = 1500) and 100% of studied polyaromatic hydrocarbons (n = 45) and persistent organic pollutants (n = 55) are lipophilic compounds, prone to bioaccumulation. A comparative evaluation of the sorption capacity of four adsorbents of a different nature and polarity with respect to the simplest PAH, naphthalene and lipophilic estrogenic mycotoxin, zearalenone in vitro has been carried out. The highest efficiency in these experiments was demonstrated by the reversed-phase polyoctylated polysilicate hydrogel (POPSH). The use of POPSH in a herd of lactating cows significantly reduced the transfer of aldrin, dieldrin and heptachlor, typical POPs from the “dirty dozen”, to the milk. The relevance of protecting the main functional systems of animals from the damaging effects of lipophilic toxins from feeds using non-polar adsorbents, and the concept of evaluating the effectiveness of various feed adsorbents for dairy cattle by their influence on the somatic cell count in the collected milk are discussed.

Precise Modeling of the Protective Effects of Quercetin against Mycotoxin via System Identification with Neural Networks

Cell cytotoxicity assays, such as cell viability and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity assays, play an important role in toxicological studies of pharmaceutical compounds. However, precise modeling for cytotoxicity studies is essential for successful drug discovery. The aim of our study was to develop a computational modeling that is capable of performing precise prediction, processing, and data representation of cell cytotoxicity. For this, we investigated protective effect of quercetin against various mycotoxins (MTXs), including citrinin (CTN), patulin (PAT), and zearalenol (ZEAR) in four different human cancer cell lines (HeLa, PC-3, Hep G2, and SK-N-MC) in vitro. In addition, the protective effect of quercetin (QCT) against various MTXs was verified via modeling of their nonlinear protective functions using artificial neural networks. The protective model of QCT is built precisely via learning of sparsely measured experimental data by the artificial neural networks (ANNs). The neuromodel revealed that QCT pretreatment at doses of 7.5 to 20 μg/mL significantly attenuated MTX-induced alteration of the cell viability and the LDH activity on HeLa, PC-3, Hep G2, and SK-N-MC cell lines. It has shown that the neuromodel can be used to predict the protective effect of QCT against MTX-induced cytotoxicity for the measurement of percentage (%) of inhibition, cell viability, and LDH activity of MTXs.

Differences in Ear Rot Resistance and Fusarium verticillioides-Produced Fumonisin Contamination Between Polish Currently and Historically Used Maize Inbred Lines

Poland is the fifth largest European country, in terms of maize production. Ear rots caused by Fusarium spp. are significant diseases affecting yield and causing grain mycotoxin contamination. Inbred lines, which are commonly used in Polish breeding programs, belong, mostly, to two distinct genetic categories: flint and dent. However, historically used lines belonging to the heterotic Lancaster, IDT and SSS groups were also present in previous Polish breeding programs. In the current study, 98 inbred lines were evaluated across a 2-year-long experiment, after inoculation with F. verticillioides and under natural infection conditions. Lancaster, IDT, SSS and SSS/IDT groups were characterized as the most susceptible ones and flint as the more resistant. Based on the results obtained, the moderately resistant and most susceptible genotypes were defined to determine the content of fumonisins (FBs) in kernel and cob fractions using the HPLC method. Fumonisin's content was higher in the grain samples collected from inoculated plants than in cobs. The association of visible Fusarium symptoms with fumonisin concentration in grain samples was significant. Conversely, the cobs contained more FB₁ under natural infection, which may be related to a pathogen's type of growth, infection time or presence of competitive species. Using ddRADseq genome sampling method it was possible to distinguish a basal relationship between moderately resistant and susceptible genotypes. Genetic distance between maize genotypes was high. Moderately resistant inbreed lines, which belong to IDT and IDT/SSS belong to one haplotype. Genotypes which belong to the flint, dent or Lancaster group, and were characterized as moderately resistant were classified separately as the same susceptible one. This research has demonstrated that currently grown Polish inbred lines, as well the ones used in the past are a valid source of resistance to Fusarium ear rot. A strong association was observed between visible Fusarium symptoms with fumonisin concentration in grain samples, suggesting that selection in maize for reduced visible molds should reduce the risk of mycotoxin contamination. NGS techniques provide new tools for overcoming the long selection process and increase the breeding efficiency.

In vitro evaluation of aflatoxin B1 effect on gas production and ruminal fermentation parameters

BACKGROUND

Aflatoxins are fungal secondary metabolites negatively affecting ruminant performance; however, little information is available on their impact on rumen fermentation.

AIMS

This study aimed at determining the effects of different concentrations of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) from Aspergillus flavus on in vitro gas production and ruminal fermentation parameters using two experiments (Exp.).

METHODS

In Exp. 1, two concentration ranges (0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 µg/ml of rumen inoculum as low and 0, 5, and 10 µg/ml as high concentration ranges) were used to evaluate AFB1 effect on gas production kinetics using 96-h incubations. In Exp. 2, only the high concentration range was used to investigate AFB1 effects on ruminal fermentation parameters using 24-h incubations.

RESULTS

In the low concentration range, the half-time of asymptotic gas production (T_1/2) increased and the fractional rate of gas production (µ) decreased linearly with AFB1 dosage (P<0.05). However, in the high concentration range, the asymptotic gas production (A) and T_1/2 decreased; and the lag time (L) and "µ" increased linearly (P<0.001) by increasing the concentrations of AFB1. In Exp. 2, dry matter (DM) and organic matter (OM) disappearance, microbial biomass (MB) and total volatile fatty acids (TVFA) concentrations were depressed, but pH and ammonia-N concentration increased (P<0.01) by increasing the concentrations of AFB1. The pattern of rumen volatile fatty acids (VFAs) was also modified by AFB1, as the propionate proportion increased at the expense of acetate.

CONCLUSION

Aflatoxin B1 had an adverse effect on in vitro ruminal fermentation parameters in high concentration ranges (5 and 10 µg/ml).

The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics

A clinical case in Belgium demonstrated that feeding a feed concentrate containing considerable levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, 1.13 mg/kg feed) induced severe liver failure in 2- to 3-month-old beef calves. Symptoms disappeared by replacing the highly contaminated corn and by stimulating ruminal development via roughage administration. A multi-mycotoxin contamination was demonstrated in feed samples collected at 15 different veal farms in Belgium. DON was most prevalent, contaminating 80% of the roughage samples (mixed straw and maize silage; average concentration in positives: 637 ± 621 µg/kg, max. 1818 µg/kg), and all feed concentrate samples (411 ± 156 µg/kg, max. 693 µg/kg). In order to evaluate the impact of roughage provision and its associated ruminal development on the gastro-intestinal absorption and biodegradation of DON and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-ADON) in calves, a toxicokinetic study was performed with two ruminating and two non-ruminating male calves. Animals received in succession a bolus of DON (120 µg/kg bodyweight (BW)), 15-ADON (50 µg/kg BW), and 3-ADON (25 µg/kg) by intravenous (IV) injection or per os (PO) in a cross-over design. The absolute oral bioavailability of DON was much higher in non-ruminating calves (50.7 ± 33.0%) compared to ruminating calves (4.1 ± 4.5%). Immediately following exposure, 3- and 15-ADON were hydrolysed to DON in ruminating calves. DON and its acetylated metabolites were mainly metabolized to DON-3-glucuronide, however, also small amounts of DON-15-glucuronide were detected in urine. DON degradation to deepoxy-DON (DOM-1) was only observed to a relevant extent in ruminating calves. Consequently, toxicity of DON in calves is closely related to roughage provision and the associated stage of ruminal development.

Status of aflatoxin contamination in cow milk produced in smallholder dairy farms in urban and peri-urban areas of Nairobi County: a case study of Kasarani sub county, Kenya

Introduction: Milk consumption in Kenya supersedes other countries in East Africa. However, milk contamination with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is common, but the magnitude of this exposure and the health risks are poorly understood and need to be monitored routinely. This study aimed at assessing the awareness, knowledge and practices of urban and peri-urban farmers about aflatoxins and determining the levels of aflatoxin contamination in on-farm milk in a selected area within Nairobi County. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional study was undertaken to assess aflatoxin contamination levels of milk in Kasarani sub-county. A total of 84 milk samples were collected from small-holder dairy farms and analyzed for AFM1 using Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Results and Discussion: Ninety nine percent of the samples (83/84) analysed were contaminated with AFM1. The mean aflatoxin level was 84 ng/kg with 64% of the samples exceeding the EU legal limit of 50 ng/kg. Whereas 80% of the farmers were aware of aflatoxin, there was no correlation between farmers' knowledge and gender with AFM1 prevalence. Conclusion: This study concludes that AFM1 is a frequent contaminant in milk and there is need to enhance farmers awareness on mitigation.

The Protective Role of Bacillus velezensis A2 on the Biochemical and Hepatic Toxicity of Zearalenone in Mice

Zearalenone (ZEN) is an estrogen-like mycotoxin produced by Fusarium that seriously compromises the safety of animal and human health. In this study, our aim was to evaluate the protective effect of Bacillus velezensis A2 against biochemical and pathological changes induced by zearalenone in mice. Kunming mice (n = 40; 25 ± 2 g) were allotted to four treatment groups: a control group (basic feed); a ZEN group (basic feed with a ZEN dose of 60 mg/kg); an A2 strain fermented feed group (150 g of feed mixed with 150 mL of sterile distilled water and inoculated with 5 mL of phosphate buffer salt (PBS) resuspended A2 strain); and an A2 strain fermented ZEN-contaminated feed group. (A2 strain group 150 mL pure bacterial distilled water system mixed with 150 g ZEN-contaminated feed.) Our results showed that the Bacillus velezensis A2 strain can completely degrade the ZEN-contaminated feed within 5 days. (The concentration of ZEN in fermentation was 60 μg/mL.) After the mice fed for 28 days, compared with the control group, the activities of AST and ALT were increased, the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) were decreased, and the amount of creatinine (CRE), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), uric acid (UA), and malondialdehyde (MDA) in the ZEN group were increased in the mice serum (p < 0.05; p < 0.01). However, compared with the ZEN group, these biochemical levels were reversed in the A2 strain fermented feed group and in the A2 strain fermented ZEN-contaminated feed group (p < 0.05; p < 0.01). Furthermore, histopathological analysis only showed pathological changes of the mice liver in the ZEN group. The results showed that Bacillus velezensis A2 as additive could effectively remove ZEN contamination in the feed and protect the mice against the toxic damage of ZEN. In conclusion, Bacillus velezensis A2 has great potential use as a microbial feed additive to detoxify the toxicity of zearalenone in production practice.

Intestinal toxicity of deoxynivalenol is limited by supplementation with Lactobacillus plantarum JM113 and consequentially altered gut microbiota in broiler chickens

Background

Limited research has focused on the effect of Lactobacillus on the intestinal toxicity of deoxynivalenol (DON). The present study was conducted to investigate the role of Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) JM113 in protecting against the intestinal toxicity caused by DON.

Methods

A total of 144 one-day-old healthy Arbor Acres broilers were randomly distributed into 3 treatments, including the CON (basal diet), the DON (extra 10 mg/kg deoxynivalenol), and the DL (extra 1 × 10⁹ CFU/ kg L. plantarum JM113 based on DON group) treatments. The growth performance, organ indexes, intestinal morphology, pancreatic digestive enzymes, intestinal secreted immunoglobulin A (sIgA), jejunal transcriptome, and intestinal microbiota were evaluated.

Results

Compared with the CON and DL groups, the DON supplementation altered intestinal morphology, especially in duodenum and jejunum, where villi were shorter and crypts were deeper (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, the significantly decreased mRNA expression of jejunal claudin-1 and occludin (P < 0.05), ileal rBAT and jejunal GLUT1 of 21-day-old broilers (P < 0.05), as well as duodenal PepT1 and ileal rBAT of 42-day-old broilers were identified in the DON group. Moreover, supplementation with L. plantarum JM113 could increase duodenal expression of IL-10 and IL-12 of 21-day-old broilers, ileal sIgA of 42-day-old broilers, and the bursa of Fabricius index of 21-day-old broilers. Further jejunal transcriptome proved that the genes related to the intestinal absorption and metabolism were significantly reduced in the DON group but a significant increase when supplemented with extra L. plantarum JM113. Furthermore, the bacteria related to nutrient utilization, including the Proteobacteria, Escherichia, Cc-115 (P < 0.05), Lactobacillus and Prevotella (P < 0.1) were all decreased in the DON group. By contrast, supplementation with L. plantarum JM113 increased the relative abundance of beneficial bacterium, including the Bacteroidetes, Roseburia, Anaerofustis, Anaerostipe, and Ruminococcus bromii (P < 0.05). Specifically, the increased abundance of bacteria in the DL group could be proved by the significantly increased caecal content of propionic acid, n-Butyric acid, and total short-chain fatty acid.

Conclusions

L. plantarum JM113 enhanced the digestion, absorption, and metabolic functions of the gut when challenged with DON by reducing the injury to intestinal barriers and by increasing the abundance of beneficial bacterium.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40104-018-0286-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation

Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.

Effect of Penicillium roqueforti mycotoxins on Caco-2 cells: Acute and chronic exposure

Penicillium roqueforti is a common food and feed contaminant. However, it is also worldwide renowned for its use as a technological culture responsible for the typicity of blue-veined cheese. Members of the P. roqueforti species are also known to be able to produce secondary metabolites including mycophenolic acid (MPA) and roquefortine C (ROQ C) mycotoxins. In order to more closely simulate the reality of mycotoxin exposure through contaminated food consumption, this work investigated the toxicological effects of MPA and ROQ C not only in acute but also in chronic (i.e. 21-days continuous exposure) conditions on Caco-2 cells. Acute exposure to high MPA or ROQ C concentrations induced an increase of IL-8 secretion. Effects of 21-days continuous exposure on barrier integrity, based on concentrations found in blue-veined cheese and mean of blue cheese intake by French consumers, were monitored. Concerning exposure to ROQ C, no alteration of the intestinal barrier was observed. In contrast, the highest tested MPA concentration (780 μM) induced a decrease in the barrier function of Caco-2 cell monolayers, but no paracellular passage of bacteria was observed. This study highlighted that exposure to MPA and ROQ C average concentrations found in blue-veined cheese does not seem to induce significant toxicological effects in the tested conditions.

Current Status of Mycotoxin Contamination of Food Commodities in Zimbabwe

Agricultural products, especially cereal grains, serve as staple foods in sub-Saharan Africa. However, climatic conditions in this region can lead to contamination of these commodities by moulds, with subsequent production of mycotoxins posing health risks to both humans and animals. There is limited documentation on the occurrence of mycotoxins in sub-Saharan African countries, leading to the exposure of their populations to a wide variety of mycotoxins through consumption of contaminated foods. This review aims at highlighting the current status of mycotoxin contamination of food products in Zimbabwe and recommended strategies of reducing this problem. Zimbabwe is one of the African countries with very little information with regards to mycotoxin contamination of its food commodities, both on the market and at household levels. Even though evidence of multitoxin occurrence in some food commodities such as maize and other staple foods exist, available published research focuses only on Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins, namely aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON), trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone (ZEA). Occurrence of mycotoxins in the food chain has been mainly associated with poor agricultural practices. Analysis of mycotoxins has been done mainly using chromatographic and immunological methods. Zimbabwe has adopted European standards, but the legislation is quite flexible, with testing for mycotoxin contamination in food commodities being done voluntarily or upon request. Therefore, the country needs to tighten its legislation as well as adopt stricter standards that will improve the food safety and security of the masses.

PR Toxin - Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicological Potential, Prevention and Control Measures: Overview and Challenges

Out of the various mycotoxigenic food and feed contaminant, the fungal species belonging to Penicillium genera, particularly Penicillium roqueforti is of great economic importance, and well known for its crucial role in the manufacturing of Roquefort and Gorgonzola cheese. The mycotoxicosis effect of this mold is due to secretion of several metabolites, of which PR toxin is of considerable importance, with regard to food quality and safety challenges issues. The food products and silages enriched with PR toxin could lead into damage to vital internal organs, gastrointestinal perturbations, carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, necrosis, and enzyme inhibition. Moreover, it also has the significant mutagenic potential to disrupt/alter the crucial processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation at the molecular level. The high genetic diversities in between the various strains of P. roqueforti persuaded their nominations with Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), accordingly to the cheese type, they have been employed. Recently, the biosynthetic mechanism and toxicogenetic studies unraveled the role of ari1 and prx gene clusters that cross-talk with the synthesis of other metabolites or involve other cross-regulatory pathways to negatively regulate/inhibit the other biosynthetic route targeted for production of a strain-specific metabolites. Interestingly, the chemical conversion that imparts toxic properties to PR toxin is the substitution/oxidation of functional hydroxyl group (-OH) to aldehyde group (-CHO). The rapid conversion of PR toxin to the other derivatives such as PR imine, PR amide, and PR acid, based on conditions available reflects their unstability and degradative aspects. Since the PR toxin-induced toxicity could not be eliminated safely, the assessment of dose-response and other pharmacological aspects for its safe consumption is indispensable. The present review describes the natural occurrences, diversity, biosynthesis, genetics, toxicological aspects, control and prevention strategies, and other management aspects of PR toxin with paying special attention on economic impacts with intended legislations for avoiding PR toxin contamination with respect to food security and other biosafety purposes.

A critical review of producers of small lactone mycotoxins: patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin

A very large number of filamentous fungi has been reported to produce the small lactone mycotoxins patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin. Among the 167 reported fungal producers of patulin, only production by 29 species could be confirmed. Patulin is produced by 3 Aspergillus species, 3 Paecilomyces species, 22 Penicillium species from 7 sections of Penicillium, and one Xylaria species. Among 101 reported producers of penicillic acid, 48 species could produce this mycotoxin. Penicillic acid is produced by 23 species in section Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati section Circumdati, by Malbranchea aurantiaca and by 24 Penicillium species from 9 sections in Penicillium and one species that does not actually belong to Penicillium (P. megasporum). Among 40 reported producers of moniliformin, five species have been regarded as doubtful producers of this mycotoxin or are now regarded as taxonomic synonyms. Moniliformin is produced by 34 Fusarium species and one Penicillium species. All the accepted producers of patulin, penicillic acid and moniliformin were revised according to the new one fungus – one name nomenclatural system, and the most recently accepted taxonomy of the species.

Protective and Detoxifying Effects Conferred by Dietary Selenium and Curcumin against AFB1-Mediated Toxicity in Livestock: A Review

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), among other aflatoxins of the aflatoxin family, is the most carcinogenic and hazardous mycotoxin to animals and human beings with very high potency leading to aflatoxicosis. Selenium is an essential trace mineral possessing powerful antioxidant functions. Selenium is widely reported as an effective antioxidant against aflatoxicosis. By preventing oxidative liver damage, suppressing pro-apoptotic proteins and improving immune status in AFB1 affected animals; selenium confers specific protection against AFB1 toxicity. Meticulous supplementation of animal feed by elemental selenium in the organic and inorganic forms has proven to be effective to ameliorate AFB1 toxicity. Curcumin is another dietary agent of importance in tackling aflatoxicosis. Curcumin is one of the major active ingredients in the tubers of a spice Curcuma longa L., a widely reported antioxidant, anticarcinogenic agent with reported protective potential against aflatoxin-mediated liver damage. Curcumin restricts the aflatoxigenic potential of Aspergillusflavus. Curcumin inhibits cytochrome P450 isoenzymes, particularly CYP2A6 isoform; thereby reducing the formation of AFB1-8, 9-epoxide and other toxic metabolites causing aflatoxicosis. In this review, we have briefly reviewed important aflatoxicosis symptoms among animals. With the main focus on curcumin and selenium, we have reviewed their underlying protective mechanisms in different animals along with their extraction and production methods for feed applications.

Effect of PR toxin on THP1 and Caco-2 cells: an in vitro study

Penicillium roqueforti produces mycotoxins including PR toxin, which is a food and feed contaminant. In this study, PR toxin was purified from culture material of the Penicillium roqueforti F43-1 strain. Toxic effects were evaluated in undifferentiated human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells and THP-1 monocytic immune cells. To understand the mechanisms involved in PR-toxin toxicity, cell death and pro-inflammatory gene expression were studied. In addition, PR toxin degradation was assessed. Cytotoxicity studies showed a dose-dependent effect of PR toxin and the calculated mean cytotoxic concentration (IC50) concentrations were for Caco-2 and THP-1 cells >12.5 and 0.83 μM, respectively. Gene expression studies showed that tumour necrosis factor-α expression was significantly increased after 24 h exposure to 312 μM PR toxin. PR toxin induced necrosis on THP-1 cells after 3 h exposure. In the cell culture system, the PR toxin showed a 10-fold reduction in PR toxin concentration within 48 h, indicating that PR toxin was degraded by THP-1. To conclude, PR toxin appears to be one of the most cytotoxic P. roqueforti mycotoxins on Caco-2 and/or THP-1 cells and induces in THP-1 cells both necrosis and an inflammatory response.

Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Determination for Food Monitoring via Microchip

Mycotoxins are one of the main factors impacting food safety. Mycotoxin contamination has threatened the health of humans and animals. Conventional methods for the detection of mycotoxins are gas chromatography (GC) or liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS), or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). However, all these methods are time-consuming, require large-scale instruments and skilled technicians, and consume large amounts of hazardous regents and solvents. Interestingly, a microchip requires less sample consumption and short analysis time, and can realize the integration, miniaturization, and high-throughput detection of the samples. Hence, the application of a microchip for the detection of mycotoxins can make up for the deficiency of the conventional detection methods. This review focuses on the application of a microchip to detect mycotoxins in foods. The toxicities of mycotoxins and the materials of the microchip are firstly summarized in turn. Then the application of a microchip that integrates various kinds of detection methods (optical, electrochemical, photo-electrochemical, and label-free detection) to detect mycotoxins is reviewed in detail. Finally, challenges and future research directions in the development of a microchip to detect mycotoxins are previewed.

Recent trends in common chemical feed and food contaminants in Israel

In February 2014 a new law was approved by the Israeli parliament, namely the Control of Animal Feed Law. The law intends to regulate the production and marketing of animal feed. In preparation for the law's implementation in 2017, we have assessed the current feed and food safety challenges in Israel in recent years in association with the presence of common undesirable contaminants in various common feed and food commodities. Tight collaboration between regulatory authorities and feed/food industry, enhanced feed and food quality monitoring, transparency of survey results and readily accessible and reliable information for the public about health hazards of chemical contaminants, will guarantee the safety and quality of food and feed.

Grasslands: A Source of Secondary Metabolites for Livestock Health

The need for environmentally friendly practices in animal husbandry, in conjunction with the reduction of the use of synthetic chemicals, leads us to reconsider our agricultural production systems. In that context, grassland secondary metabolites (GSMs) could offer an alternative way to support to livestock health. In fact, grasslands, especially those with high dicotyledonous plant species, present a large, pharmacologically active reservoir of secondary metabolites (e.g., phenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponins, terpenoids, carotenoids, and quinones). These molecules have activities that could improve or deteriorate health and production. This Review presents the main families of GSMs and uses examples to describe their known impact on animal health in husbandry. Techniques involved for their study are also described. A particular focus is put on anti-oxidant activities of GSMs. In fact, numerous husbandry pathologies, such as inflammation, are linked to oxidative stress and can be managed by a diet rich in anti-oxidants. The different approaches and techniques used to evaluate grassland quality for livestock health highlight the lack of efficient and reliable technics to study the activities of this complex phytococktail. Better knowledge and management of this animal health resource constitute a new multidisciplinary research field and a challenge to maintain and valorize grasslands.

Isolation, Characterization, and Selection of Molds Associated to Fermented Black Table Olives

Table olives are one of the most important fermented food in the Mediterranean countries. Apart from lactic acid bacteria and yeasts that mainly conduct the olive fermentation, molds can develop on the brine surface, and can have either deleterious or useful effects on this process. From the food safety point of view, occurring molds could also produce mycotoxins, so, it is important to monitor and control them. In this respect, identification of molds associated to two Italian and two Greek fermented black table olives cultivars, was carried out. Sixty strains were isolated and molecularly identified as Penicillium crustosum (21), P. roqueforti (29), P. paneum (1), P. expansum (6), P. polonicum (2), P. commune (1). A group of 20 selected isolates was subjected to technological (beta-glucosidase, cellulolytic, ligninolytic, pectolytic, and xylanolytic activities; proteolytic enzymes) and safety (biogenic amines and secondary metabolites, including mycotoxins) characterization. Combining both technological (presence of desired and absence of undesired enzymatic activities) and safety aspects (no or low production of biogenic amines and regulated mycotoxins), it was possible to select six strains with biotechnological interest. These are putative candidates for future studies as autochthonous co-starters with yeasts and lactic acid bacteria for black table olive production.

Portable Infrared Laser Spectroscopy for On-site Mycotoxin Analysis

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of fungi that spoil food, and severely impact human health (e.g., causing cancer). Therefore, the rapid determination of mycotoxin contamination including deoxynivalenol and aflatoxin B1 in food and feed samples is of prime interest for commodity importers and processors. While chromatography-based techniques are well established in laboratory environments, only very few (i.e., mostly immunochemical) techniques exist enabling direct on-site analysis for traders and manufacturers. In this study, we present MYCOSPEC - an innovative approach for spectroscopic mycotoxin contamination analysis at EU regulatory limits for the first time utilizing mid-infrared tunable quantum cascade laser (QCL) spectroscopy. This analysis technique facilitates on-site mycotoxin analysis by combining QCL technology with GaAs/AlGaAs thin-film waveguides. Multivariate data mining strategies (i.e., principal component analysis) enabled the classification of deoxynivalenol-contaminated maize and wheat samples, and of aflatoxin B1 affected peanuts at EU regulatory limits of 1250 μg kg-1 and 8 μg kg-1, respectively.

The new Israeli feed safety law: challenges in relation to animal and public health

The Israeli feed safety legislation, which came to prominence in the early 1970s, has undergone a major change from simple feed safety and quality regulations to a more holistic concept of control of feed safety and quality throughout the whole feed production chain, from farm to the end user table. In February 2014, a new law was approved by the Israeli parliament, namely the Control of Animal Feed Law, which is expected to enter into effect in 2017. The law is intended to regulate the production and marketing of animal feed, guaranteeing the safety and quality of animal products throughout the production chain. The responsibility on the implementation of the new feed law was moved from the Plant Protection Inspection Service to the Veterinary Services and Animal Health. In preparation for the law's implementation, we have characterized the various sources and production lines of feed for farm and domestic animals in Israel and assessed the current feed safety challenges in terms of potential hazards or undesirable substances. Moreover, the basic requirements for feed safety laboratories, which are mandatory for analyzing and testing for potential contaminants, are summarized for each of the contaminants discussed. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Abuse of anabolic agents in beef cattle: Could bile be a possible alternative matrix?

European Union prohibited the use of anabolic agents in food producing animals since 1988. An efficient control of abuses is guaranteed not only by highly performing analytical methods, but also by knowledge of metabolic pathways, kinetics of elimination and tissue distribution. To obtain data concerning metabolites production and accumulation in bile, two typical growth promoting treatments are carried out in cattle. In the first study, sixteen beef cattle were implanted with trenbolone acetate and estradiol. In the second one, three animals were implanted with zeranol and three were fed a diet containing zearalenone. Methods based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) were developed and validated to quantify the analytes of interest. The results evidenced that the biliary concentrations of the marker residues were always higher than those determined at the same time in urine and liver which are the matrices generally collected within the official monitoring programmes.

Rumen methanogens and mitigation of methane emission by anti-methanogenic compounds and substances

Methanogenic archaea reside primarily in the rumen and the lower segments of the intestines of ruminants, where they utilize the reducing equivalents derived from rumen fermentation to reduce carbon dioxide, formic acid, or methylamines to methane (CH₄). Research on methanogens in the rumen has attracted great interest in the last decade because CH₄ emission from ruminants contributes to global greenhouse gas emission and represents a loss of feed energy. Some DNA-based phylogenetic studies have depicted a diverse and dynamic community of methanogens in the rumen. In the past decade, researchers have focused on elucidating the underpinning that determines and affects the diversity, composition, structure, and dynamics of methanogen community of the rumen. Concurrently, many researchers have attempted to develop and evaluate interventions to mitigate enteric CH₄ emission. Although much work has been done using plant secondary metabolites, other approaches such as using nitrate and 3-nitrooxy propanol have also yielded promising results. Most of these antimethanogenic compounds or substances often show inconsistent results among studies and also lead to adverse effects on feed intake and digestion and other aspects of rumen fermentation when fed at doses high enough to achieve effective mitigation. This review provides a brief overview of the rumen methanogens and then an appraisal of most of the antimethanogenic compounds and substances that have been evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. Knowledge gaps and future research needs are also discussed with a focus on methanogens and methane mitigation.

Biofilm compartmentalisation of the rumen microbiome: modification of fermentation and degradation of dietary toxins

Many deleterious chemicals in plant materials ingested by ruminants produce clinical effects, varying from losses of production efficiency through to death. Many of the effects are insidious, often going unrecognised by animal managers. When secondary plant compounds enter the rumen, they may undergo modification by rumen microbes, which often removes the deleterious compounds, but in specific instances, the deleterious effect may be enhanced. Improved understanding of rumen ecology, particularly concerning the biofilm mode of microbial fermentation, has led to major advances in our understanding of fermentation. In the present review, the potential impact of the physical structuring of the rumen microbiome is discussed in relation to how several economically important secondary plant compounds and other toxins are metabolised by the rumen microbiome and how their toxic effects may be remedied by providing inert particles with a large surface area to weight ratio in the diet. These particles provide additional surfaces for attachment of rumen microorganisms that help alleviate toxicity problems associated with deleterious compounds, including fluoroacetate, mimosine, mycotoxins, cyanoglycosides and hydrogen cyanide. The review first summarises the basic science of biofilm formation and describes the properties of biofilms and their roles in the rumen. It then addresses how biofilms on inert solids and fermentable particulates may assist in detoxification of potentially toxic compounds. A hypothesis that explains how nitrate poisoning may occur as a result of compartmentalisation of nitrate and nitrite reduction in the rumen is included.

Current Understanding of Acute Bovine Liver Disease in Australia

Acute bovine liver disease (ABLD) is a hepatotoxicity principally of cattle which occurs in southern regions of Australia. Severely affected animals undergo rapid clinical progression with mortalities often occurring prior to the recognition of clinical signs. Less severely affected animals develop photosensitization and a proportion can develop liver failure. The characteristic histopathological lesion in acute fatal cases is severe, with acute necrosis of periportal hepatocytes with hemorrhage into the necrotic areas. Currently there are a small number of toxins that are known to cause periportal necrosis in cattle, although none of these have so far been linked to ABLD. Furthermore, ABLD has frequently been associated with the presence of rough dog’s tail grass (Cynosurus echinatus) and Drechslera spp. fungi in the pasture system, but it is currently unknown if these are etiological factors. Much of the knowledge about ABLD is contained within case reports, with very little experimental research investigating the specific cause(s). This review provides an overview of the current and most recently published knowledge of ABLD. It also draws on wider research and unpublished reports to suggest possible fungi and mycotoxins that may give rise to ABLD.

Aflatoxin B1 contamination in feed from Puglia and Basilicata regions (Italy): 5 years monitoring data

During a 5-year period from 2010 to 2014, n = 919 samples of feed and raw materials were analyzed for aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) contamination using accredited ELISA screening methods. Only 0.76 % of these samples were non-compliant with maximum levels set by the European Union Regulation 32/2002. Non-compliant samples were mainly from the province of Bari (n = 3 samples, mean AFB₁ value 7.03 μg/kg), although the highest AFB₁ levels were found in two samples from the provinces of Foggia and Brindisi, at 32.6 ± 3.6 μg/kg and 31.0 ± 4.0 μg/kg, respectively. Mean AFB₁ levels in samples contaminated but compliant with the limits ranged from 1.4 to 2.2 μg/kg. Considering the great importance of climate conditions in mycotoxins production, during crops production and during the critical phases of materials storage and/or transport, to better understand the variability in contamination levels, the analytical results were reviewed in term of temperature and relative environmental humidity in the sampling areas. Correlations between aflatoxin B₁ levels in feed and these climate factors might explain seasonal and annual variations in contamination levels. The data from the present study provide useful suggestions for the organization of targeted monitoring plans and the protection of consumers, as well as for improvement in the quality standards of zootechnological activities and feed industry.

Occurrence of Fusarium langsethiae and T-2 and HT-2 Toxins in Italian Malting Barley

T-2 and HT-2 toxins are two of the most toxic members of type-A trichothecenes, produced by a number of Fusarium species. The occurrence of these mycotoxins was studied in barley samples during a survey carried out in the 2011-2014 growing seasons in climatically different regions in Italy. The percentage of samples found positive ranges from 22% to 53%, with values included between 26 and 787 μg/kg. The percentage of samples with a T-2 and HT-2 content above the EU indicative levels for barley of 200 μg/kg ranges from 2% to 19.6% in the 2011-2014 period. The fungal species responsible for the production of these toxins in 100% of positive samples has been identified as Fusarium langsethiae, a well-known producer of T-2 and HT-2 toxins. A positive correlation between the amount of F. langsethiae DNA and of the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins was found. This is the first report on the occurrence of F. langsethiae-and of its toxic metabolites T-2 and HT-2-in malting barley grown in Italy.

No Association between Mycotoxin Exposure and Autism: A Pilot Case-Control Study in School-Aged Children

Evaluation of environmental risk factors in the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is needed for a more complete understanding of disease etiology and best approaches for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. A pilot experiment in 54 children (n = 25 ASD, n = 29 controls; aged 12.4 ± 3.9 years) screened for 87 urinary mycotoxins via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to assess current exposure. Zearalenone, zearalenone-4-glucoside, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, and altenuene were detected in 9/54 (20%) samples, most near the limit of detection. No mycotoxin/group of mycotoxins was associated with ASD-diagnosed children. To identify potential correlates of mycotoxin presence in urine, we further compared the nine subjects where a urinary mycotoxin was confirmed to the remaining 45 participants and found no difference based on the presence or absence of mycotoxin for age (t-test; p = 0.322), gender (Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.456), exposure or not to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.367), or to other medications (Fisher’s exact test; p = 1.00). While no positive association was found, more sophisticated sample preparation techniques and instrumentation, coupled with selectivity for a smaller group of mycotoxins, could improve sensitivity and detection. Further, broadening sampling to in utero (mothers) and newborn-toddler years would cover additional exposure windows.

Fermentation Quality and Additives: A Case of Rice Straw Silage

Rice cultivation generates large amount of crop residues of which only 20% are utilized for industrial and domestic purposes. In most developing countries especially southeast Asia, rice straw is used as part of feeding ingredients for the ruminants. However, due to its low protein content and high level of lignin and silica, there is limitation to its digestibility and nutritional value. To utilize this crop residue judiciously, there is a need for improvement of its nutritive value to promote its utilization through ensiling. Understanding the fundamental principle of ensiling is a prerequisite for successful silage product. Prominent factors influencing quality of silage product include water soluble carbohydrates, natural microbial population, and harvesting conditions of the forage. Additives are used to control the fermentation processes to enhance nutrient recovery and improve silage stability. This review emphasizes some practical aspects of silage processing and the use of additives for improvement of fermentation quality of rice straw.

Recent Advances in Measurement and Dietary Mitigation of Enteric Methane Emissions in Ruminants

Methane (CH4) emission, which is mainly produced during normal fermentation of feeds by the rumen microorganisms, represents a major contributor to the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Several enteric CH4 mitigation technologies have been explored recently. A number of new techniques have also been developed and existing techniques have been improved in order to evaluate CH4 mitigation technologies and prepare an inventory of GHG emissions precisely. The aim of this review is to discuss different CH4 measuring and mitigation technologies, which have been recently developed. Respiration chamber technique is still considered as a gold standard technique due to its greater precision and reproducibility in CH4 measurements. With the adoption of recent recommendations for improving the technique, the SF6 method can be used with a high level of precision similar to the chamber technique. Short-term measurement techniques of CH4 measurements generally invite considerable within- and between-animal variations. Among the short-term measuring techniques, Greenfeed and methane hood systems are likely more suitable for evaluation of CH4 mitigation studies, if measurements could be obtained at different times of the day relative to the diurnal cycle of the CH4 production. Carbon dioxide and CH4 ratio, sniffer, and other short-term breath analysis techniques are more suitable for on farm screening of large number of animals to generate the data of low CH4-producing animals for genetic selection purposes. Different indirect measuring techniques are also investigated in recent years. Several new dietary CH4 mitigation technologies have been explored, but only a few of them are practical and cost-effective. Future research should be directed toward both the medium- and long-term mitigation strategies, which could be utilized on farms to accomplish substantial reductions of CH4 emissions and to profitably reduce carbon footprint of livestock production systems. This review presents recent developments and critical analysis on different measurements and dietary mitigation of enteric CH4 emissions technologies.

Occurrence, prevention and remediation of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in silage: a review

Ruminants are considered to be less sensitive towards mycotoxins than monogastric animals because rumen microbiota have mycotoxin-detoxifying capacities. Therefore the effect of mycotoxins towards ruminants has been studied to a lesser extent compared with monogastric animals. Worldwide, a high proportion of the ruminant diet consists of silages made of forage crops (i.e. all parts of the crop above the stubble are harvested). In practice, silages are often contaminated with multiple mycotoxins. Exposure to a cocktail of mycotoxins can hamper animal production and have severe health consequences. In this article the different aspects associated with mycotoxin contamination of silage are reviewed 'from seed to feed'. An overview is given on the occurrence of toxigenic fungal species and their concomitant mycotoxins in forage crops before and after ensiling. The mycotoxin load of visually non-mouldy samples and mouldy hot spots within the same silo is also compared. Subsequently, this review delves into different problem-solving strategies. A logical first step is prevention of mould growth and mycotoxin production in the field, during harvest and during ensiling. If prevention should fail, several remediation strategies are available. These are listed, mainly focusing on the possibilities of microbial degradation of mycotoxins in vivo in silage. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Natural Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds and Their in vitro Combined Toxicological Effects

Some foods and feeds are often contaminated by numerous mycotoxins, but most studies have focused on the occurrence and toxicology of a single mycotoxin. Regulations throughout the world do not consider the combined effects of mycotoxins. However, several surveys have reported the natural co-occurrence of mycotoxins from all over the world. Most of the published data has concerned the major mycotoxins aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisins (FUM) and trichothecenes (TCTs), especially deoxynivalenol (DON). Concerning cereals and derived cereal product samples, among the 127 mycotoxin combinations described in the literature, AFs+FUM, DON+ZEA, AFs+OTA, and FUM+ZEA are the most observed. However, only a few studies specified the number of co-occurring mycotoxins with the percentage of the co-contaminated samples, as well as the main combinations found. Studies of mycotoxin combination toxicity showed antagonist, additive or synergic effects depending on the tested species, cell model or mixture, and were not necessarily time- or dose-dependent. This review summarizes the findings on mycotoxins and their co-occurrence in various foods and feeds from all over the world as well as in vitro experimental data on their combined toxicity.

Environment contamination by mycotoxins and their occurrence in food and feed: Physiological aspects and economical approach

The contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins as toxic metabolites of fungi is a risk not only for consumers resulting in various embarrassment regarding health status and well-being, but also for producers, companies and export market on the ground of economic losses and ruined stability of economic trade. As it is given in historical evidence, the contamination of food by mycotoxins is a topic as old as a history of mankind, finding some evidence even in the ancient books and records. Nowadays, the mycotoxins are used in modern biotechnological laboratories and are considered an agent for targeting the specific cells (e.g., defected cells to eliminate them). However, this promising procedure is only the beginning. More concern is focused on mycotoxins as abiotic hazard agents. The dealing with them, systematic monitoring, and development of techniques for their elimination from agricultural commodities are worldwide issues concerning all countries. They can be found alone or in co-occurrence with other mycotoxins. Thus, this review aims to provide widened information regarding mycotoxins contamination in environment with the consequences on health of animals and humans. The inevitability for more data that correctly determine the risk points linked to mycotoxins occurrence and their specific reactions in the environment is demonstrated. This review includes various symptoms in animals and humans that result from mycotoxin exposure. For better understanding of mycotoxin's impact on animals, the sensitivities of various animal species to various mycotoxins are listed. Strategies for elimination and preventing the risks of mycotoxins contamination as well as economical approach are discussed. To complete the topic, some data from past as historical evidences are presented.