Nitric oxide in immunity and inflammation

Differential effects of Th17 cytokines during the response of neutrophils to Burkholderia cenocepacia outer membrane protein A

T helper 17 cells are involved in the immunopathology of cystic fibrosis. They play a key role in recruitment of neutrophils, which is the first line of defence against bacteria. Additionally, Burkholderia cenocepacia outer membrane protein A (OmpA) BCAL2958 is considered a potential protective epitope for vaccine development. The present study aimed to investigate the neutrophil response to OmpA in the presence of Th17 cytokines, IL-17 and IL-22 at different times of activation. Neutrophils were isolated from whole blood of healthy volunteers and activated with OmpA in the presence of IL-17, IL-22 or both cytokines together. Supernatant was collected after 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 8 h, and 12 h. Neutrophil activation was assessed by measuring MPO, TNF-α, elastase, hydrogen peroxide, catalase and NO. The results revealed that the combination of IL-17 and IL-22 cytokines induced the release of NE, catalase, H₂O₂ and TNF-α from neutrophils activated with Burkholderia OmpA at late stages of activation. However, IL-22 alone or IL-17 alone decreased the myeloperoxidase (MPO), catalase and NE levels at early stages of neutrophil activation. The presence of IL-17 alone led to a significant increase in TNF-α level after 1 h and 12 h. However, the presence of IL-22 alone led to a significant increase in TNF-α level after only 1 h but a significant decrease after 8 h of activation was observed as compared to OmpA stimulated neutrophils. In conclusion, Th17 cytokines IL-17 and IL-22, have differential effects during the neutrophil response to Burkholderia OmpA.

Nasal Nitric Oxide in Chronic Rhinosinusitis with or without Nasal Polyps: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Background and Aims: There has been a recent growing interest in the role of nasal nitric oxide (nNO) as a biomarker for osteomeatal complex obstruction in paranasal sinus diseases. By using meta-analysis, we systematically reviewed the literature to establish the possible link between nNO concentration and chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP) or without (CRSsNP). Methods: We systematically searched the EMBASE, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for related studies. Differences between controls and cases were reported as standardized mean difference (SMD), with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), using the random-effects method. Results: We selected 23 articles for the final analysis: 15 with data on 461 CRSwNP patients and 384 healthy controls, 10 with data on 183 CRSsNP patients and 260 controls, and 14 studies on 372 CRSwNP and 297 CRSsNP patients. CRSwNP patients showed significantly lower nNO values when compared to both healthy controls (SMD: −1.495; 95% CI: −2.135, −0.854; p < 0.0001) and CRSsNP patients (SMD: −1.448; 95% CI: −2.046, −0.850; p < 0.0001). Sensitivity and subgroup analyses confirmed the results, which were further refined by regression models. They showed that an increasing aspiration flow is related to a greater difference in nNO levels between cases and control subjects. We also documented lower nNO levels in CRSsNP patients with respect to controls (SMD: −0.696; 95% CI: −1.189, −0.202; p = 0.006), being this result no longer significant when excluding patients in therapy with intranasal corticosteroids. As shown by regression models, the increased Lund–Mackay score indicates a high effect size. Conclusions: nNO levels are significantly lower in CRSwNP, especially when using higher aspiration flows. Additional studies are needed to define one single standardized method and normal reference values for nNO.

Therapeutic effects of AdipoRon on liver inflammation and fibrosis induced by CCl4 in mice

OBJECTIVE

The present work aimed to investigate the effects of AdipoRon against acute hepatitis and liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) in mice.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into five groups: control, model, AdipoRon groups (three different dosages), CCl₄ was administered to induce acute hepatitis or liver fibrosis except for control group. The liver function, inflammatory and fibrotic profiles were evaluated by histology, immunohistochemistry and expression analysis, respectively.

RESULTS

AdipoRon pretreatment effectively attenuated oxidative stress and hepatocellular damage in acute CCl₄ intoxication, demonstrated by marked reduction in peroxidation indexes [hepatic malonaldehyde (MDA), total nitric oxide synthase (tNOS), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)] and serum transaminases [alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST)]. Moreover, AdipoRon attenuated the severity of fibrosis induced by sustaining CCl₄ challenge, with the alleviation of fibrous deposit and architecture distortion. The levels of canonical fibrosis markers (aminotransferases, hydroxyproline, hyaluronic acid, laminin) were also dose-dependently modulated by AdipoRon. Immunochemistry and expression analysis showed AdipoRon restrained the proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokines (TNF-α, TGF-β1, α-SMA, COL1A1), which somehow, ascribed the anti-fibrotic action to inhibiting hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation and quenching specific inflammation-fibrogenesis pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

AdipoRon demonstrates a remedial capacity against hepatitis and fibrosis induced by CCl₄, potentially by inflammation restraint and HSC deactivation, which might pave the way for its therapeutical application in hepatic fibrosis.

Serotonin and its metabolites reduce oxidative stress in murine RAW264.7 macrophages and prevent inflammation

In this study, we focused on comparing the effects of serotonin and its metabolites on the functions of RAW264.7 cells (emphasis on oxidative burst and production of nitric oxide and cytokines), thereby expanding the scope of existing knowledge with advent of novel findings in this field. Changes in production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by RAW264.7 cells after treatment with serotonin, N-acetylserotonin and melatonin were determined using the chemiluminescence (CL) assay. To exclude the direct scavenging effects of the studied compounds on the CL response, the antioxidant properties of all respective compounds were measured using TRAP and amperometrical method. Nitric oxide (NO) production was measured by Griess reagent and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression by Western blot. Cytokine production was assessed using the Mouse Cytokine Panel A Array kit and ELISA. We showed that all tested compounds were able to reduce oxidative stress, as well as inhibit production of inflammatory cytokines by macrophages. Of the tested compounds, serotonin and N-acetylserotonin were markedly better antioxidants than melatonin. In comparison, other effects of tested compounds were very similar. It can be concluded that antioxidant capacity of tested compounds is a major advantage in the early stages of inflammation. Since plasma concentrations of N-acetylserotonin and melatonin are lower than serotonin, it can be deduced that serotonin plays a key role in modulation of inflammation and the regulatory functions of immune cells, while also protecting cells against oxidative stress.

Early Growth Response 1 Deficiency Protects the Host against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Lung Infection

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen that is a common cause of nosocomial infections. The molecular mechanisms governing immune responses to P. aeruginosa infection remain incompletely defined. Early growth response 1 (Egr-1) is a zinc-finger transcription factor that controls inflammatory responses. Here, we characterized the role of Egr-1 in host defense against P. aeruginosa infection in a mouse model of acute bacterial pneumonia. Egr-1 expression was rapidly and transiently induced in response to P. aeruginosa infection. Egr-1-deficient mice displayed decreased mortality, reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF], interleukin-1β [IL-1β], IL-6, IL-12, and IL-17), and enhanced bacterial clearance from the lung. Egr-1 deficiency caused diminished NF-κB activation in P. aeruginosa-infected macrophages independently of IκBα phosphorylation. A physical interaction between Egr-1 and NF-κB p65 was found in P. aeruginosa-infected macrophages, suggesting that Egr-1 could be required for assembly of heterodimeric transcription factors that direct synthesis of inflammatory mediators. Interestingly, Egr-1 deficiency had no impact on neutrophil recruitment in vivo due to its differential effects on chemokine production, which included diminished accumulation of KC (CXCL1), MIP2 (CXCL2), and IP-10 (CXCL10) and increased accumulation of LIX (CXCL5). Importantly, Egr-1-deficient macrophages and neutrophils displayed significant increases in nitric oxide production and bacterial killing ability that correlated with enhanced bacterial clearance in Egr-1-deficient mice. Together, these findings suggest that Egr-1 plays a detrimental role in host defense against P. aeruginosa acute lung infection by promoting systemic inflammation and negatively regulating the nitric oxide production that normally assists with bacterial clearance.

Inflammatory Pathways Following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is an acute cerebrovascular emergency resulting from the rupture of a brain aneurysm. Despite only accounting for 5% of all strokes, SAH imposes a significant health burden on society due to its relatively young age at onset. Those who survive the initial bleed are often afflicted with severe disabilities thought to result from delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI). Consequently, elucidating the underlying mechanistic pathways implicated in DCI development following SAH remains a priority. Neuroinflammation has recently been implicated as a promising new theory for the development of SAH complications. However, despite this interest, clinical trials have failed to provide consistent evidence for the use of anti-inflammatory agents in SAH patients. This may be explained by the complexity of SAH as a plethora of inflammatory pathways have been shown to be activated in the disease. By determining how these pathways may overlap and interact, we hope to better understand the developmental processes of SAH complications and how to prevent them. The goal of this review is to provide insight into the available evidence regarding the molecular pathways involved in the development of inflammation following SAH and how SAH complications may arise as a result of these inflammatory pathways.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha regulates the expression of the immune response mediators in the porcine endometrium during the estrous cycle and early pregnancy

PROBLEM

Cytokines are immune response mediators that play an important role in the regulation of reproductive functions. An association between cytokines and peroxisome proliferator receptors (PPARs) has been reported in various tissues, including the endometrium. The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of PPARα ligands on the expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and LIF) in the porcine endometrium in different reproductive stages.

METHODS OF STUDY

Endometrial slices were collected from gilts on days 10-12 or 14-16 of the estrous cycle and pregnancy. Endometrial tissue explants were incubated in vitro in the presence or absence of PPARα agonist WY-14643 and antagonist MK886. Expression of mRNA and protein for NF-ĸB and selected cytokines was evaluated by real-time PCR and immunoblot.

RESULTS

PPARα agonist WY-14643 decreased the mRNA expression of NF-κB in most of the analyzed stages (excluding days 10-12 of the estrous cycle), but increased the expression of NF-κB protein (excluding days 14-16 of pregnancy). The WY-14643 increased expression of IL-1β and IL-6 proteins, and the mRNA expression of IL-8 and LIF, decreased IL-4 expression, and did not affect the mRNA and protein expression of IL-10.

CONCLUSION

The obtained results demonstrate that PPARα is involved in the regulation of NF-κB and cytokine expression in the porcine endometrium. PPARα ligands exert a varied influence on immune system components, which could be attributed to differences in the receptivity of porcine endometrial tissue during the reproductive cycle.

The role of nitric oxide during embryonic wound healing

Background

The study of the mechanisms controlling wound healing is an attractive area within the field of biology, with it having a potentially significant impact on the health sector given the current medical burden associated with healing in the elderly population. Healing is a complex process and includes many steps that are regulated by coding and noncoding RNAs, proteins and other molecules. Nitric oxide (NO) is one of these small molecule regulators and its function has already been associated with inflammation and angiogenesis during adult healing.

Results

Our results showed that NO is also an essential component during embryonic scarless healing and acts via a previously unknown mechanism. NO is mainly produced during the early phase of healing and it is crucial for the expression of genes associated with healing. However, we also observed a late phase of healing, which occurs for several hours after wound closure and takes place under the epidermis and includes tissue remodelling that is dependent on NO. We also found that the NO is associated with multiple cellular metabolic pathways, in particularly the glucose metabolism pathway. This is particular noteworthy as the use of NO donors have already been found to be beneficial for the treatment of chronic healing defects (including those associated with diabetes) and it is possible that its mechanism of action follows those observed during embryonic wound healing.

Conclusions

Our study describes a new role of NO during healing, which may potentially translate to improved therapeutic treatments, especially for individual suffering with problematic healing.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Vaccinium oldhamii stems through inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK/ATF2 signaling activation in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Background

Vaccinium oldhamii (V. oldhamii) has been reported to exert a variety of the pharmacological properties such as anti-oxidant activity, anti-cancer activity, and inhibitory activity of α-amylase and acetylcholinesterase. However, the anti-inflammatory activity of V. oldhamii has not been studied. In this study, we aimed to investigate anti-inflammatory activity of the stem extracts from V. oldhamii, and to elucidate the potential mechanisms in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.

Methods

Cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay. The determination of NO and PGE2 production was performed using Griess reagent and Prostaglandin E₂ ELISA Kit, respectively. The change of mRNA or protein level was evaluated by RT-PCR and Western blot.

Results

Among VOS, VOL and VOF, the inhibitory effect of NO and PGE₂ production induced by LPS was highest in VOS treatment. Thus, VOS was selected for the further study. VOS dose-dependently blocked LPS-induced NO and PGE₂ production by inhibiting iNOS and COX-2 expression, respectively. VOS inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α. In addition, VOS suppressed TRAP activity and attenuated the expression of the osteoclast-specific genes such as NFATc1, c-FOS, TRAP, MMP-9, cathepsin K, CA2, OSCAR and ATPv06d2. VOS inhibited LPS-induced NF-κB signaling activation through blocking IκB-α degradation and p65 nuclear accumulation. VOS inhibited MAPK signaling activation by attenuating the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38 and JNK. Furthermore, VOS inhibited ATF2 phosphorylation and blocked ATF2 nuclear accumulation.

Conclusions

These results indicate that VOS may exert anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting NF-κB and MAPK/ATF2 signaling. From these findings, VOS has potential to be a candidate for the development of chemopreventive or therapeutic agents for the inflammatory diseases.

Arginase Isoform Expression in Chronic Rhinosinusitis

Nitric oxide (NO) has emerged as an important regulator of upper airway inflammation, mainly as part of the local naso-sinusal defense mechanisms. Increased arginase activity can reduce NO levels by decreasing the availability of its precursor, L-arginine. Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) has been associated with low levels of nasal nitric oxide (nNO). Thus, the present study investigates the activity of arginase I (ARG1) and II (ARG2) in CRS and its possible involvement in the pathogenesis of this disease. Under endoscopic view, tissue samples of pathologic (n = 36) and normal (n = 29) rhinosinusal mucosa were collected. Arginase I and II mRNA levels were measured using real-time PCR. Our results showed low arginase I activity in all samples. The levels of ARG2 were significantly higher in patients with chronic rhinosinusitis compared to the control group (fold regulation (FR) 2.22 ± 0.42 vs. 1.31 ± 0.21, p = 0.016). Increased ARG2 expression was found in patients with CRS without nasal polyposis (FR 3.14 ± 1.16 vs. 1.31 ± 0.21, p = 0.0175), in non-allergic CRS (FR 2.55 ± 0.52 vs. 1.31 ± 0.21, p = 0.005), and non-asthmatic CRS (FR 2.42 ± 0.57 vs. 1.31 ± 0.21, p = 0.028). These findings suggest that the upregulation of ARG2 may play a role in the pathology of a distinctive phenotype of CRS.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Formononetin 7-O-phosphate, a Novel Biorenovation Product, on LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Macrophage Cells

Biorenovation is a microbial enzyme-catalyzed structural modification of organic compounds with the potential benefits of reduced toxicity and improved biological properties relative to their precursor compounds. In this study, we synthesized a novel compound verified as formononetin 7-O-phosphate (FMP) from formononetin (FM) using microbial biotransformation. We further compared the anti-inflammatory properties of FMP to FM in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 macrophage cells. We observed that cell viabilities and inhibitory effects on LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production were greater in FMP-treated RAW 264.7 cells than in their FM-treated counterparts. In addition, FMP treatment suppressed the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as prostaglandin-E₂ (PGE₂), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in a dose-dependent manner and concomitantly decreased the mRNA expression of inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). We also found that FMP exerted its anti-inflammatory effects through the downregulation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways. In conclusion, we generated a novel anti-inflammatory compound using biorenovation and demonstrated its efficacy in cell-based in vitro assays.

An Ugi-like Biosynthetic Pathway Encodes Bombesin Receptor Subtype-3 Agonists

Isocyanide functional groups can be found in a variety of natural products. Rhabduscin is one such isocyanide-functionalized immunosuppressant produced in Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus gammaproteobacterial pathogens, and deletion of its biosynthetic gene cluster inhibits virulence in an invertebrate animal infection model. Here, we characterized the first "opine-glycopeptide" class of natural products termed rhabdoplanins, and strikingly, these molecules are spontaneously produced from rhabduscin via an unprecedented multicomponent "Ugi-like" reaction sequence in nature. The rhabdoplanins also represent new lead G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists, stimulating the bombesin receptor subtype-3 (BB3) GPCR.

Ceria Nanoparticles Meet Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury: The Perfect Imperfection

The mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS, e.g., liver, spleen) is often treated as a "blackbox" by nanoresearchers in translating nanomedicines. Often, most of the injected nanomaterials are sequestered by the MPS, preventing their delivery to the desired disease areas. Here, this imperfection is exploited by applying nano-antioxidants with preferential liver uptake to directly prevent hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), which is a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related disease. Ceria nanoparticles (NPs) are selected as a representative nano-antioxidant and the detailed mechanism of preventing IRI is investigated. It is found that ceria NPs effectively alleviate the clinical symptoms of hepatic IRI by scavenging ROS, inhibiting activation of Kupffer cells and monocyte/macrophage cells. The released pro-inflammatory cytokines are then significantly reduced and the recruitment and infiltration of neutrophils are minimized, which suppress subsequent inflammatory reaction involved in the liver. The protective effect of nano-antioxidants against hepatic IRI in living animals and the revealed mechanism herein suggests their future use for the treatment of hepatic IRI in the clinic.

Phagocytosis checkpoints as new targets for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapies targeting adaptive immune checkpoints have substantially improved patient outcomes across multiple metastatic and treatment-refractory cancer types. However, emerging studies have demonstrated that innate immune checkpoints, which interfere with the detection and clearance of malignant cells through phagocytosis and suppress innate immune sensing, also have a key role in tumour-mediated immune escape and might, therefore, be potential targets for cancer immunotherapy. Indeed, preclinical studies and early clinical data have established the promise of targeting phagocytosis checkpoints, such as the CD47-signal-regulatory protein α (SIRPα) axis, either alone or in combination with other cancer therapies. In this Review, we highlight the current understanding of how cancer cells evade the immune system by disrupting phagocytic clearance and the effect of phagocytosis checkpoint blockade on induction of antitumour immune responses. Given the role of innate immune cells in priming adaptive immune responses, an improved understanding of the tumour-intrinsic processes that inhibit essential immune surveillance processes, such as phagocytosis and innate immune sensing, could pave the way for the development of highly effective combination immunotherapy strategies that modulate both innate and adaptive antitumour immune responses.

Dietary N-carbamylglutamate and rumen-protected L-arginine supplementation during intrauterine growth restriction in undernourished ewes improve fetal thymus development and immune function

The aims of the present study were to determine whether dietary supplementation with N-carbamylglutamate (NCG) and rumen-protected l-arginine (RP-Arg) to underfed Hu sheep would improve fetal thymus development and immune function. From Day 35 to Day 110 of gestation, 32 Hu ewes carrying twin fetuses were randomly allocated to one of four groups (n=8 per group): 100% National Research Council (NRC)-recommended nutrient requirements (CON), 50% NRC recommendations (RES), 50% NRC recommendations supplemented with 20gday-1 RP-Arg (RES+ARG), and 50% NRC recommendations supplemented with 5gday-1 NCG (RES+NCG). Medullary thickness was increased (P<0.05) in RES compared with CON ewes, but was reduced (P<0.05) in both RES+ARG and RES+NCG ewes compared with RES ewes. There were no differences in superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity or malondialdehyde levels in the RES+ARG and RES+NCG groups compared with the CON group (P>0.05). Concentrations of IgA, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-10 in fetal umbilical cord blood were reduced (P<0.05) in RES compared with CON ewes, but were increased (P<0.05) in both RES+ARG and RES+NCG ewes. Expression of Bax, Fas and p53 mRNA was increased (P<0.05) in RES compared with CON ewes, but were reduced (P>0.05) in both RES+ARG and RES+NCG ewes. These results indicate that dietary supplementation with NCG and RP-Arg could help alleviate the negative effects of intrauterine growth restriction on fetal thymus development and immune function.

Nitric Oxide-Mediated Enhancement and Reversal of Resistance of Anticancer Therapies

In the last decade, immune therapies against human cancers have emerged as a very effective therapeutic strategy in the treatment of various cancers, some of which are resistant to current therapies. Although the clinical responses achieved with many therapeutic strategies were significant in a subset of patients, another subset remained unresponsive initially, or became resistant to further therapies. Hence, there is a need to develop novel approaches to treat those unresponsive patients. Several investigations have been reported to explain the underlying mechanisms of immune resistance, including the anti-proliferative and anti-apoptotic pathways and, in addition, the increased expression of the transcription factor Yin-Yang 1 (YY1) and the programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1). We have reported that YY1 leads to immune resistance through increasing HIF-1α accumulation and PD-L1 expression. These mechanisms inhibit the ability of the cytotoxic T-lymphocytes to mediate their cytotoxic functions via the inhibitory signal delivered by the PD-L1 on tumor cells to the PD-1 receptor on cytotoxic T-cells. Thus, means to override these resistance mechanisms are needed to sensitize the tumor cells to both cell killing and inhibition of tumor progression. Treatment with nitric oxide (NO) donors has been shown to sensitize many types of tumors to chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy. Treatment of cancer cell lines with NO donors has resulted in the inhibition of cancer cell activities via, in part, the inhibition of YY1 and PD-L1. The NO-mediated inhibition of YY1 was the result of both the inhibition of the upstream NF-κB pathway as well as the S-nitrosylation of YY1, leading to both the downregulation of YY1 expression as well as the inhibition of YY1-DNA binding activity, respectively. Also, treatment with NO donors induced the inhibition of YY1 and resulted in the inhibition of PD-L1 expression. Based on the above findings, we propose that treatment of tumor cells with the combination of NO donors, at optimal noncytotoxic doses, and anti-tumor cytotoxic effector cells or other conventional therapies will result in a synergistic anticancer activity and tumor regression.

Redox interactions and genotoxicity of metal-based nanoparticles: A comprehensive review

Nanotechnology is a growing science that may provide several new applications for medicine, food preservation, diagnostic technologies, and sanitation. Despite its beneficial applications, there are several questions related to the safety of nanomaterials for human use. The development of nanotechnology is associated with some concerns because of the increased risk of carcinogenesis following exposure to nanomaterials. The increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are due to exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) are primarily responsible for the genotoxicity of metal NPs. Not all, but most metal NPs are able to directly produce free radicals through the release of metal ions and through interactions with water molecules. Furthermore, the increased production of free radicals and the cell death caused by metal NPs can stimulate reduction/oxidation (redox) reactions, leading to the continuous endogenous production of ROS in a positive feedback loop. The overexpression of inflammatory mediators, such as NF-kB and STATs, the mitochondrial malfunction and the increased intracellular calcium levels mediate the chronic oxidative stress that occurs after exposure to metal NPs. In this paper, we review the genotoxicity of different types of metal NPs and the redox mechanisms that amplify the toxicity of these NPs.

Functional Relationship between Leptin and Nitric Oxide in Metabolism

Leptin, the product of the ob gene, was originally described as a satiety factor, playing a crucial role in the control of body weight. Nevertheless, the wide distribution of leptin receptors in peripheral tissues supports that leptin exerts pleiotropic biological effects, consisting of the modulation of numerous processes including thermogenesis, reproduction, angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, osteogenesis, neuroendocrine, and immune functions as well as arterial pressure control. Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical synthesized from L-arginine by the action of the NO synthase (NOS) enzyme. Three NOS isoforms have been identified: the neuronal NOS (nNOS) and endothelial NOS (eNOS) constitutive isoforms, and the inducible NOS (iNOS). NO mediates multiple biological effects in a variety of physiological systems such as energy balance, blood pressure, reproduction, immune response, or reproduction. Leptin and NO on their own participate in multiple common physiological processes, with a functional relationship between both factors having been identified. The present review describes the functional relationship between leptin and NO in different physiological processes.

Nitric Oxide Metabolites and Lung Cancer Incidence: A Matched Case-Control Study Nested in the ESTHER Cohort

Studies suggest that nitric oxide (NO) may have a possible role in lung carcinogenesis. This study is aimed to evaluate the association of the NO metabolites, namely, nitrite and nitrate, with lung cancer incidence. We conducted a matched case-control study (n = 245 incident lung cancer cases and n = 735 controls) based on the German ESTHER cohort (n = 9,940). Controls were matched to cases on age, sex, smoking status (never/former/current smoking), and pack-years of smoking. The sum of nitrite and nitrate was measured in urine samples using a colorimetric assay and was standardized for renal function by urinary creatinine. Conditional logistic regression models, adjusted for lifestyle factors, asthma prevalence, and family history of lung cancer, were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Among incident lung cancer cases, high nitrite/nitrate levels were statistically significantly associated with current smoking, a low BMI, and the oxidative stress biomarker 8-isoprostane levels. Nitrite/nitrate levels in the top quintile were statistically significantly associated with lung cancer incidence: the OR (95% CI) was 1.37 (1.04-1.82) for comparison with the bottom quintile. This association was unaltered after additional adjustment for 8-isoprostane levels and C-reactive protein (CRP). In conclusion, this large cohort study suggested that subjects with high urinary nitrite/nitrate concentrations had an increased risk of lung cancer and this association was independent of smoking, CRP, 8-isoprostane levels, and other established lung cancer risk factors. Further studies are needed to validate these findings and to confirm the hypothesis that pathologically high levels of NO are involved in lung cancer development.

Free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory potential of a protein hydrolysate derived from salmon bones on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

BACKGROUND

Salmon bones, a waste by-product from the salmon industry, were used as a protein hydrolysate source for the production of bioactive peptides. The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of salmon bone protein hydrolysate (SBPH).

RESULTS

Salmon bones were hydrolyzed by separately using one of four proteases (Alcalase, Favourzyme, Neutrase and papain) at various concentrations (10, 25 and 50 mg mL^-1 ), where the SBPH derived from 10 mg mL^-1 papain hydrolysis exhibited the highest nitric oxide (NO) radical scavenging activity. After ultrafiltration, the MW < 0.65 kDa fraction showed the strongest NO inhibitory activity and was further fractionated by gel filtration chromatography (G1 and G2 fractions) and reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatographic fractionation of the G1 fraction, from which the three main peaks (H1, H2 and H3) were found to have a marked NO-inhibitory activity and their peptide sequences were determined. Moreover, the G1 fraction was shown to inhibit both the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NO production and the LPS-induced inducible NO synthase , interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and induced NO production and the LPSCOX-2 mRNA levels in RAW 264.7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Salmon bones from the salmon fisheries and farming industry were utilized by enzymatic hydrolysis for the production of valuable peptides. The results of this study suggested that bioactive peptides derived from salmon bones would be alternative anti-inflammation materials in functional resources. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Hepatorenal protective effects of protocatechuic acid in rats administered with anticancer drug methotrexate

The efficacy of methotrexate (MTX) as an anticancer drug is limited by some adverse effects including hepatic and renal toxicities. The present study investigated the possible protective effect of protocatechuic acid (PCA), a phenolic phytochemical widely present in several edible vegetables and fruits, on hepatorenal toxicity associated with MTX treatment in rats. Male Wistar rats were randomly assigned to five groups ( n = 10), namely control, MTX alone (20 mg/kg), PCA alone (50 mg/kg), and rats that were coadministered MTX and PCA at 25 and 50 mg/kg. The MTX was administered as a single intraperitoneal dose on the first day, whereas PCA treatment lasted 7 days. Results indicated that PCA significantly ( p < 0.05) abrogated MTX-mediated elevation in indices of hepatorenal toxicity. Furthermore, PCA protected against MTX-induced decreases in glutathione level and antioxidant enzyme activities as well as the increase in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and lipid peroxidation in the liver and kidney of the treated rats. Administration of PCA markedly abated MTX-induced increases in interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and caspase 3 activity in the rats. The biochemical data on the hepatorenal protective effects of PCA were well supported by the histological data. Collectively, PCA protected against MTX-induced hepatorenal toxicity via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic mechanisms.

Inhibition of nitric oxide production and free radical scavenging activities of four South African medicinal plants

Introduction

Traditional healing is often the preferred form of therapy especially in rural and resource-limited communities. The extracts of plants are used to treat many diseases such as arthritis and chronic pain. Four medicinal plant species, namely, Acokanthera oppositifolia, Plantago lanceolata, Conyza canadensis and Artemisia vulgaris used in Southern Africa to treat pain and inflammation-related diseases were selected for evaluation in laboratory-based experiments.

Methods

The selected plant species were evaluated for phytochemical content, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, as well as cytotoxicity effects against mammalian cells in culture.

Results

The results indicated that the n-hexane and chloroform extracts of P. lanceolata had the best antioxidant activities with an IC₅₀=0.41 μg/mL. Also, the acetone extracts of P. lanceolata had 93.76% nitric oxide (NO) inhibition. However, the chloroform and n-hexane extracts of C. canadensis produced NO inhibition of 98.53% and 99.2%, respectively, at 100 μg/mL with IC₅₀=17.69 μg/mL. Furthermore, the ethyl acetate extracts also had promising NO inhibitory activity (96.33%), but the cytotoxicity results with cell viabilities of 5.31%, 5.7% and 5.89%, respectively, suggested that the observed activity was due to a cytotoxic effect. Acetone extracts of C. canadensis were also cytotoxic at 30 µg/mL with 6.07–6.67% cell viabilities compared with the acetone extracts of P. lanceolata (99.57%).

Conclusion

The results partially validate the ethnomedicinal uses of the selected plant species used for inflammation-related conditions. However, because some of the extracts had potential cytotoxic effects, caution is advised in their use, especially those consumed orally.

Regulation of Inflammatory Response and the Production of Reactive Oxygen Species by a Functional Cooked Ham Reformulated with Natural Antioxidants in a Macrophage Immunity Model

Nowadays, more consumers demand healthier products. A way to offer such products is to functionalize them using health-promoting bioactive compounds. Meat and meat products are high in essential nutrients; however, their excessive consumption implies a high intake of other substances that, at levels above recommended uptake limits, have been linked to certain non-communicable chronic diseases. An effective way to reduce this danger is to reformulate meat products. In this study, natural botanical extracts rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds were used to improve the health properties of a cooked ham with an optimal nutritional profile (i.e., low in fat and salt). The RAW 264.7 mouse cell line was used as an inflammatory model and was stimulated with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide to evaluate changes in inflammatory biomarkers such as tumour necrosis factor alpha, the interleukins (ILs) IL-1β and IL-6, nitric oxide and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results showed that the use of natural extracts in optimized cooked ham significantly downregulated inflammatory markers and reduced the levels of intracellular ROS. Thus, the present study proposed a new functional cooked ham with potential health properties via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant in vitro activity.

Copper ion vs copper metal-organic framework catalyzed NO release from bioavailable S-Nitrosoglutathione en route to biomedical applications: Direct 1H NMR monitoring in water allowing identification of the distinct, true reaction stoichiometries and thiol dependencies

Copper containing compounds catalyze decomposition of S-Nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) in the presence of glutathione (GSH) yielding glutathione disulfide (GSSG) and nitric oxide (NO). Extended NO generation from an endogenous source is medically desirable to achieve vasodilation, reduction in biofilms on medical devices, and antibacterial activity. Homogeneous and heterogeneous copper species catalyze release of NO from endogenous GSNO. One heterogeneous catalyst used for GSNO decomposition in blood plasma is the metal-organic framework (MOF), H₃[(Cu₄Cl)₃-(BTTri)₈, H₃BTTri = 1,3,5-tris(¹H-1,2,3-triazol-5-yl) benzene] (CuBTTri). Fundamental questions about these systems remain unanswered, despite their use in biomedical applications, in part because no method previously existed for simultaneous tracking of [GSNO], [GSH], and [GSSG] in water. Tracking these reactions in water is a necessary step towards study in biological media (blood is approximately 80% water) where NO release systems must operate. Even the balanced stoichiometry remains unknown for copper-ion and CuBTTri catalyzed GSNO decomposition. Herein, we report a direct ¹H NMR method which: simultaneously monitors [GSNO], [GSH], and [GSSG] in water; provides the experimentally determined stoichiometry for copper-ion vs CuBTTri catalyzed GSNO decomposition; reveals that the CuBTTri-catalyzed reaction reaches 10% GSNO decomposition (16 h) without added GSH, yet the copper-ion catalyzed reaction reaches 100% GSNO decomposition (16 h) without added GSH; and shows 100% GSNO decomposition upon addition of stoichiometric GSH to the CuBTTri catalyzed reaction. These observations provide evidence that copper-ion and CuBTTri catalyzed GSNO decomposition in water operate through different reaction mechanisms, the details of which can now be probed by ¹H NMR kinetics and other needed studies.

Selective and Sensocompatible Electrochemical Nitric Oxide Sensor with a Bilaminar Design

Macrophages mediate mammalian inflammation in part by the release of the gasotransmitter, nitric oxide (NO). Electrochemical methods represent the best means of direct, continuous measurement of NO, but monitoring continuous release from immunostimulated macrophages remains analytically challenging. Long release durations necessitate consistent sensor performance (i.e., sensitivity and selectivity for NO) in proteinaceous media. Herein, we describe the fabrication of an electrochemical sensor modified by an electropolymerized 5-amino-1-naphthol (poly(5A1N)) film in conjunction with a fluorinated xerogel topcoat. The unique combination of these membranes ensures selective detection of NO that is maintained over extended periods of use (>24 h) in biological media without performance deterioration. The hydrophobic xerogel topcoat protects the underlying NO-selective poly(5A1N) film from hydration-induced desorption. The bilaminar sensor is then readily adapted for measurement of the temporal NO-release profiles from immunostimulated macrophages.

Zerumbone from Zingiber zerumbet inhibits innate and adaptive immune responses in Balb/C mice

Zerumbone exhibited various biological properties including in vitro immunosuppressive effects. However, its modulatory activity on the immune responses in experimental animal model is largely unknown. This investigation was conducted to explore the effects of daily treatment of zerumbone (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) isolated from Zingiber zerumbet rhizomes for 14 days on various cellular and humoral immune responses in Balb/C mice. For measurement of adaptive immunity, sheep red blood cells (sRBC) were used to immunize the mice on day 0 and orally fed with similar doses of zerumbone for 14 days. The effects of zerumbone on phagocytosis, nitric oxide (NO) release, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, proliferation of T and B cells, lymphocyte phenotyping, cytokines release in serum by activated T cells, delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) and immunoglobulins production (IgG and IgM) were investigated. Zerumbone downregulated the engulfment of E. coli by peritoneal macrophages and the release of NO and MPO in a concentration-dependent manner. Zerumbone showed significant and concentration-dependent suppression of T and B lymphocytes proliferation and inhibition of the Th1 and Th2 cytokines release. At higher concentrations of zerumbone, the % expression of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ in splenocytes was significantly inhibited. Zerumbone also concentration-dependently demonstrated strong suppression on sRBC-triggered swelling of mice paw in DTH. Substantial suppression of anti-sRBC immunoglobulins antibody titer was noted in immunized and zerumbone-treated mice in a concentration-dependent manner. The potent suppressive effects of zerumbone on the immune responses suggest that zerumbone can be a potential candidate for development of immunosuppressive agent.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects of combination between sulforaphane and acetaminophen in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

Objectives: Accumulating evidence indicates that combination of therapeutic agents may increase their pharmacological properties with fewer undesired side effects. Acetaminophen (APAP) has been widely used to treat pain and fever in many countries. However, APAP only possesses a weak anti-inflammatory property at therapeutic dose, and exhibits hepatotoxicity at high dose. On other hand, sulforaphane (SFN) has been well-known as a potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agent. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of combination between APAP and SFN in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Methods: Nitric oxide (NO) assay was determined using the Griess assay. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation was measured using an ROS-sensitive fluorescence indicator, DCFH-DA. The protein expression was determined by western blot analysis. Results: Our results showed that the combination of SFN and APAP exhibited an inhibitory effect on inflammatory markers such as NO, iNOS, COX-2, and IL-1β, and this effect was more pronounced than the compound was used alone. In addition, the combination of SFN and APAP at low doses decreased intracellular ROS formation and increased the protein levels of CAT, GPx, Nrf2, NQO1, and HO-1, which were much better than APAP alone and were equivalent to SFN at full dose. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the combination of APAP and SFN enhanced anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities in stimulated macrophages, which provide an important rationale to utilize drug and food in combination for prevention and/or treatment inflammation-related diseases.

Development, Characterization, and In Vitro Evaluation of Resveratrol-Loaded Poly-(ε-caprolactone) Microcapsules Prepared by Ultrasonic Atomization for Intra-Articular Administration

: Intra-articular administration of drugs to the joint in the treatment of joint disease has the potential to minimize the systemic bioavailability and the usual side-effects associated with oral drug administration. In this work, a drug delivery system is proposed to achieve an anti-inflammatory local effect using resveratrol (RSV). This study aims to develop microcapsules made of poly-(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) by ultrasonic atomization to preserve the antioxidant activity of RSV, to prevent its degradation and to suppress the inflammatory response in activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. An experimental design was performed to build a mathematical model that could estimate the effect of nozzle power and polymer concentration on particle size and encapsulation efficiency. RSV-loaded microcapsules showed adequate morphology, particle size, and loading efficiency properties. RSV formulations exhibited negligible cytotoxicity and an efficient amelioration of inflammatory responses, in terms of Nitric Oxide (NO), ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species), and lipid peroxidation in macrophages. Thus, RSV-loaded microcapsules merit consideration as a drug delivery system suitable for intra-articular administration in inflammatory disorders affecting the joint.

Aminoguanidine affects systemic and lung inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide in rats

BACKGROUND

Nitric oxide is a mediator of potential importance in numerous physiological and inflammatory processes in the lung. Aminoguanidine (AG) has been shown to have anti-inflammation and radical scavenging properties. This study aimed to investigate the effects of AG, an iNOS inhibitor, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced systemic and lung inflammation in rats.

METHODS

Male Wistar rats were divided into control, LPS (1 mg/kg/day i.p.), and LPS groups treated with AG 50, 100 or 150 mg/kg/day i.p. for five weeks. Total nitrite concentration, total and differential white blood cells (WBC) count, oxidative stress markers, and the levels of IL-4, IFN-γ, TGF-β1, and PGE2 were assessed in the serum or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF).

RESULTS

Administration of LPS decreased IL-4 level (p < 0.01) in BALF, total thiol content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities (p < 0.001) in BALF and serum, and increased total nitrite, malondialdehyde (MDA), IFN-γ, TGF-β1 and PGE2 (p < 0.001) concentrations in BALF. Pre-treatment with AG increased BALF level of IL-4 and total thiol as well as SOD and CAT activities (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001), but decreased BALF levels of total nitrite, MDA, IFN-γ, TGF-β1, and PGE2 (p < 0.01 to p < 0.001). AG treatment decreased total WBC count, lymphocytes and macrophages in BALF (p < 0.01 to p < 0.001) and improved lung pathological changes including interstitial inflammation and lymphoid infiltration (p < 0.05 to p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

AG treatment reduced oxidant markers, inflammatory cytokines and lung pathological changes but increased antioxidants and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, AG may play a significant protective role against inflammation and oxidative stress that cause lung injury.

Evidence for Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Isoliquiritigenin, 18β Glycyrrhetinic Acid, Ursolic Acid, and the Traditional Chinese Medicine Plants Glycyrrhiza glabra and Eriobotrya japonica, at the Molecular Level

Background: We investigated the effect of root extracts from the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) plants Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Paeonia lactiflora Pall., and the leaf extract of Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl., and their six major secondary metabolites, glycyrrhizic acid, 18β glycyrrhetinic acid, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin, paeoniflorin, and ursolic acid, on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NF-κB expression and NF-κB-regulated pro-inflammatory factors in murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. Methods: The cytotoxicity of the substances was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) method. RAW 264.7 cells were treated with LPS (1 μg/mL) or LPS plus single substances; the gene expression levels of NF-κB subunits (RelA, RelB, c-Rel, NF-κB1, and NF-κB2), and of ICAM-1, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 were measured employing real-time PCR; nitric oxide (NO) production by the cells was quantified with the Griess assay; nuclear translocation of NF-κB was visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy with NF-κB (p65) staining. Results: All the substances showed moderate cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 cells except paeoniflorin with an IC₅₀ above 1000 μM. Glycyrrhiza glabra extract and Eriobotrya japonica extract, as well as 18β glycyrrhetinic acid and isoliquiritigenin at low concentrations, inhibited NO production in a dose-dependent manner. LPS upregulated gene expressions of NF-κB subunits and of ICAM-1, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 within 8 h, which could be decreased by 18β glycyrrhetinic acid, isoliquiritigenin and ursolic acid similarly to the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone. NF-κB translocation from cytoplasm to nucleus was observed after LPS stimulation for 2 h and was attenuated by extracts of Glycyrrhiza glabra and Eriobotrya japonica, as well as by 18β glycyrrhetinic acid, isoliquiritigenin, and ursolic acid. Conclusions: 18β glycyrrhetinic acid, isoliquiritigenin, and ursolic acid inhibited the gene expressions of ICAM-1, TNF-α, COX-2, and iNOS, partly through inhibiting NF-κB expression and attenuating NF-κB nuclear translocation. These substances showed anti-inflammatory activity. Further studies are needed to elucidate the exact mechanisms and to assess their usefulness in therapy.

Dysregulation of stress systems and nitric oxide signaling underlies neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease

Stress is a multimodal response involving the coordination of numerous body systems in order to maximize the chance of survival. However, long term activation of the stress response results in neuronal oxidative stress via reactive oxygen and nitrogen species generation, contributing to the development of depression. Stress-induced depression shares a high comorbidity with other neurological conditions including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and dementia, often appearing as one of the earliest observable symptoms in these diseases. Furthermore, stress and/or depression appear to exacerbate cognitive impairment in the context of AD associated with dysfunctional catecholaminergic signaling. Given there are a number of homologous pathways involved in the pathophysiology of depression and AD, this article will highlight the mechanisms by which stress-induced perturbations in oxidative stress, and particularly NO signaling, contribute to neurodegeneration.

Hepatocellular carcinoma-associated antigen 59 of Haemonchus contortus modulates the functions of PBMCs and the differentiation and maturation of monocyte-derived dendritic cells of goats in vitro

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma-associated antigen 59 (HCA59), which is one of the most important excretory/secretory products of Haemonchus contortus (HcESPs), is known to have antigenic functions. However, its immunomodulatory effects on host cells are poorly understood.

METHODS

Here, we cloned the HCA59 gene and expressed the recombinant protein of HCA59 (rHCA59). Binding activities of rHCA59 to goat peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and dendritic cells (DCs) were checked by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and the immunoregulatory effects of rHCA59 on cytokine secretions, cell migration, cell proliferation, nitric oxide production, and changes in expression of genes in related pathways were observed by co-incubation of rHCA59 with goat PBMCs and DCs. Monocyte phagocytosis and characterization of goat blood DC subsets were detected by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The IFA results revealed that rHCA59 could bind to PBMCs and DCs. Treatment of PBMCs with rHCA59 significantly increased cellular proliferation and NO production in a dose-dependent manner, while cell migration was vigorously blocked. Treatment with rHCA59 significantly suppressed monocytes phagocytosis. The quantity of surface marker CD80 on DCs increased significantly after rHCA59 treatment. In addition, the expression of genes included in the WNT pathway was related to the differentiation and maturation of DCs, and the production of IL-10 and IL-17 produced by PBMCs was altered.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings illustrated that rHCA59 could enhance host immune responses by regulating the functions of goat PBMCs and DCs, which would benefit our understanding of HCA59 from parasitic nematodes contributing to the mechanism of parasitic immune evasion.

Correlation Between Smoking and Passive Smoking with Multiple Sclerosis and the Underlying Molecular Mechanisms

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic immune-mediated disease of the spinal cord and brain. Many studies have shown that smoking and passive smoking are key environmental risk factors for MS.

Here, we provide an overview of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) gene studies on smoking and MS risk, and we discuss recent studies on between epigenetics and smoking-induced MS. In addition, in this review we also summarize current research advances in biological pathways and smoking-induced MS.

This review provides an overview of studies on the association between smoking, passive smoking, and MS susceptibility, and the underlying molecular mechanism.

Ulcerative colitis: functional analysis of the in-depth proteome

Background

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is one major form of inflammatory bowel disease. The cause and the pathophysiology of the disease are not fully understood and we therefor aim in this study to identify important pathophysiological features in UC from proteomics data.

Methods

Colon mucosa biopsies from inflamed tissue of untreated UC patients at diagnosis and from healthy controls were obtained during colonoscopy. Quantitative protein data was acquired by bottom-up proteomics and furthermore processed with MaxQuant. The quantitative proteome data was analyzed with Perseus and enrichment data was analyzed by ClueGO for Cytoscape.

Results

The generated proteome dataset is to-date the deepest from colon mucosa biopsies with 8562 identified proteins whereof 6818 were quantified in > 70% of the samples. We report abundance differences between UC and healthy controls and the respective p values for all quantified proteins in the supporting information. From this data set enrichment analysis revealed decreased protein abundances in UC for metallothioneins, PPAR-inducible proteins, fibrillar collagens and proteins involved in bile acid transport as well as metabolic functions of nutrients, energy, steroids, xenobiotics and carbonate. On the other hand increased abundances were enriched in immune response and protein processing in the endoplasmic reticulum, e.g. unfolded protein response and signal peptidase complex proteins.

Conclusions

This explorative study describes the most affected functions in UC tissue. Our results complemented previous findings substantially. Decreased abundances of signal peptidase complex proteins in UC are a new discovery.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12014-019-9224-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Systems Pharmacology Dissection of Multi-Scale Mechanisms of Action of Huo-Xiang-Zheng-Qi Formula for the Treatment of Gastrointestinal Diseases

Multi-components Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) treats various complex diseases (multi-etiologies and multi-symptoms) via herbs interactions to exert curative efficacy with less adverse effects. However, the ancient Chinese compatibility theory of herbs formula still remains ambiguous. Presently, this combination principle is dissected through a systems pharmacology study on the mechanism of action of a representative TCM formula, Huo-xiang-zheng-qi (HXZQ) prescription, on the treatment of functional dyspepsia (FD), a chronic or recurrent clinical disorder of digestive system, as typical gastrointestinal (GI) diseases which burden human physical and mental health heavily and widely. In approach, a systems pharmacology platform which incorporates the pharmacokinetic and pharmaco-dynamics evaluation, target fishing and network pharmacological analyses is employed. As a result, 132 chemicals and 48 proteins are identified as active compounds and FD-related targets, and the mechanism of HXZQ formula for the treatment of GI diseases is based on its three function modules of anti-inflammation, immune protection and gastrointestinal motility regulation mainly through four, i.e., PIK-AKT, JAK-STAT, Toll-like as well as Calcium signaling pathways. In addition, HXZQ formula conforms to the ancient compatibility rule of "Jun-Chen-Zuo-Shi" due to the different, while cooperative roles that herbs possess, specifically, the direct FD curative effects of GHX (serving as Jun drug), the anti-bacterial efficacy and major accompanying symptoms-reliving bioactivities of ZS and BZ (as Chen), the detoxication and ADME regulation capacities of GC (as Shi), as well as the minor symptoms-treating efficacy of the rest 7 herbs (as Zuo). This work not only provides an insight of the therapeutic mechanism of TCMs on treating GI diseases from a multi-scale perspective, but also may offer an efficient way for drug discovery and development from herbal medicine as complementary drugs.

Purification and Characterization of a Novel Pentadecapeptide from Protein Hydrolysates of Cyclina sinensis and Its Immunomodulatory Effects on RAW264.7 Cells

In the present study, peptide fractions of Cyclina sinensis hydrolysates, with molecular weight (MW) < 3 kDa and highest relative proliferation rate of murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7, were purified by a series of chromatographic purification methods, to obtain peptide fractions with immunomodulatory activity. The amino acid sequence of the peptide was identified to be Arg-Val-Ala-Pro-Glu-Glu-His-Pro-Val-Glu-Gly-Arg-Tyr-Leu-Val (RVAPEEHPVEGRYLV) with MW of 1750.81 Da, and the novel pentadecapeptide (named SCSP) was synthesized for subsequent immunomodulatory activity experiments. Results showed the SCSP enhanced macrophage phagocytosis, increased productions of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and up-regulated the protein level of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), and NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) in RAW 264.7 cells. Furthermore, the expression of inhibitor of nuclear factor κB-α (IκB-α) was down-regulated. These findings suggest that SCSP might stimulate macrophage activities by activating the NF-κB signaling pathway and can be used as a potential immunomodulatory agent in functional food or medicine.

Innate immunity and cnidarian-Symbiodiniaceae mutualism

The phylum Cnidaria (sea anemones, corals, hydra, jellyfish) is one the most distantly related animal phyla to humans, and yet cnidarians harbor many of the same cellular pathways involved in innate immunity in mammals. In addition to its role in pathogen recognition, the innate immune system has a role in managing beneficial microbes and supporting mutualistic microbial symbioses. Some corals and sea anemones undergo mutualistic symbioses with photosynthetic algae in the family Symbiodiniaceae. These symbioses can be disrupted by anthropogenic disturbances of ocean environments, which can have devastating consequences for the health of coral reef ecosystems. Several studies of cnidarian-Symbiodiniaceae symbiosis have implicated proteins in the host immune system as playing a role in both symbiont tolerance and loss of symbiosis (i.e., bleaching). In this review, we critically evaluate current knowledge about the role of host immunity in the regulation of symbiosis in cnidarians.

Nasal Nitric Oxide Is Correlated With Nasal Patency and Nasal Symptoms

PURPOSE

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important endogenous mediator in both upper and lower respiratory systems. The purpose of the present study was to extract nasal NO (nNO) normal range of Chinese adults and the internal influencing factors. The differences in nNO levels between rhinitis and asymptomatic atopic subjects, and the diagnostic value of nNO in allergic rhinitis (AR) were further investigated.

METHODS

One thousand adults were recruited from the general public. Participants were divided into different subgroups according to the questionnaires and skin prick tests. In all of these subjects, nNO, fractional exhaled NO (FeNO) and nasal airflow resistance were measured. The normal ranges of nNO and FeNO, the differences between subgroups, and the correlations between NO (nNO and FeNO) and other internal factors were analyzed.

RESULTS

Both nNO and FeNO levels were significantly higher in AR patients than in healthy and asymptomatic atopic subjects. The nNO levels were significantly lower in asymptomatic atopic subjects than in normal adults. FeNO levels were significantly higher in non-AR patients than in the healthy and asymptomatic atopic adults. The cutoff value of nNO for the diagnosis of AR was 117.5 ppb (sensitivity, 50.9%; specificity, 63.9%). The nNO levels were correlated with FeNO levels, total nasal resistance measured at 75Pa, nasal volume within 0-7 cm from the anterior nares (V_0-7cm) and nasal symptom visual analogue scale (VAS) scores, while the FeNO levels were correlated with age, height, weight, body surface area, nasal volume of V_0-7cm and the nasal symptom VAS score.

CONCLUSIONS

The nNO level can be significantly different between healthy and AR patients and may be significantly correlated with nasal symptoms and nasal patency of rhinitis patients. However, the clinical value of nNO is still in the exploration stage.