201
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Borst K, Prinz M. Deciphering the heterogeneity of myeloid cells during neuroinflammation in the single-cell era. Brain Pathol 2020; 30:1192-1207. [PMID: 33058309 PMCID: PMC8018048 DOI: 10.1111/bpa.12910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disabling neuroinflammatory disease, which is little understood and lacks a sufficient therapeutic regimen. Myeloid cells have repeatedly shown to play a pivotal role in the disease progression. During homeostasis, only the CNS‐resident microglia and CNS‐associated macrophages are present in the CNS. Neuroinflammation causes peripheral immune cells to infiltrate the CNS contributing to disease progression and neurological sequelae. The differential involvement of the diverse peripheral and resident myeloid cell subsets to the disease pathogenesis and outcome are highly debated and difficult to assess. However, novel technological advances (new mouse models, single‐cell RNA‐Sequencing, and CYTOF) have improved the depth of immune profiling, which allows the characterization of distinct myeloid subsets. This review provides an overview of current knowledge on the phenotypes and roles of these different myeloid subsets in neuroinflammatory disease and their therapeutic relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Borst
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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202
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Ellman DG, Lund MC, Nissen M, Nielsen PS, Sørensen C, Lester EB, Thougaard E, Jørgensen LH, Nedospasov SA, Andersen DC, Stubbe J, Brambilla R, Degn M, Lambertsen KL. Conditional Ablation of Myeloid TNF Improves Functional Outcome and Decreases Lesion Size after Spinal Cord Injury in Mice. Cells 2020; 9:E2407. [PMID: 33153044 PMCID: PMC7692197 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition consisting of an instant primary mechanical injury followed by a secondary injury that progresses for weeks to months. The cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF) plays an important role in the pathophysiology of SCI. We investigated the effect of myeloid TNF ablation (peripheral myeloid cells (macrophages and neutrophils) and microglia) versus central myeloid TNF ablation (microglia) in a SCI contusion model. We show that TNF ablation in macrophages and neutrophils leads to reduced lesion volume and improved functional outcome after SCI. In contrast, TNF ablation in microglia only or TNF deficiency in all cells had no effect. TNF levels tended to be decreased 3 h post-SCI in mice with peripheral myeloid TNF ablation and was significantly decreased 3 days after SCI. Leukocyte and microglia populations and all other cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, and IFNγ) and chemokines (CCL2, CCL5, and CXCL1) investigated, in addition to TNFR1 and TNFR2, were comparable between genotypes. Analysis of post-SCI signaling cascades demonstrated that the MAPK kinase SAPK/JNK decreased and neuronal Bcl-XL levels increased post-SCI in mice with ablation of TNF in peripheral myeloid cells. These findings demonstrate that peripheral myeloid cell-derived TNF is pathogenic in SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ditte Gry Ellman
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Minna Christiansen Lund
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Maiken Nissen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Pernille Sveistrup Nielsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Charlotte Sørensen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Emilie Boye Lester
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Estrid Thougaard
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
| | - Louise Helskov Jørgensen
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (L.H.J.); (D.C.A.)
| | - Sergei A. Nedospasov
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences and Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Ditte Caroline Andersen
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (L.H.J.); (D.C.A.)
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense, Denmark
- Danish Center for Regenerative Medicine, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense, Denmark
| | - Jane Stubbe
- Department of Cardiovascular and Renal Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark;
| | - Roberta Brambilla
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Matilda Degn
- Pediatric Oncology Laboratory, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital Rigshospitalet, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Kate Lykke Lambertsen
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark; (D.G.E.); (M.C.L.); (M.N.); (P.S.N.); (C.S.); (E.B.L.); (E.T.); (R.B.)
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, 5000 Odense, Denmark
- BRIGDE—Brain Research—Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, 5000 Odense, Denmark
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203
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Lyu J, Jiang X, Leak RK, Shi Y, Hu X, Chen J. Microglial Responses to Brain Injury and Disease: Functional Diversity and New Opportunities. Transl Stroke Res 2020; 12:474-495. [PMID: 33128703 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-020-00857-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
As an integral part of the innate immune system of the brain, resident microglia must react rapidly to the onset of brain injury and neurological disease. These dynamic cells then continue to shift their phenotype along a multidimensional continuum with overlapping pro- and anti-inflammatory states, allowing them to adapt to microenvironmental changes during the progression of brain disorders. However, the ability of microglia to shift phenotype through nimble molecular, structural, and functional changes comes at a cost, as the extreme pro-inflammatory states may prevent these professional phagocytes from clearing toxic debris and secreting tissue-repairing neurotrophic factors. Evolution has strongly favored heterogeneity in microglia in both the spatial and temporal dimensions-they can assume diverse roles in different brain regions, throughout the course of brain development and aging, and during the spatiotemporal progression of brain injuries and neurological diseases. Age and sex differences add further diversity to microglia functional status under physiological and pathological conditions. This article reviews recent advances in our knowledge of microglia with emphases on molecular mediators of phenotype shifts and functional diversity. We describe microglia-targeted therapeutic opportunities, including pharmacologic modulation of phenotype and repopulation of the brain with fresh microglia. With the advent of powerful new tools, research on microglia has recently accelerated in pace and may translate into potential therapeutics against brain injury and neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxuan Lyu
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Xiaoyan Jiang
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA
| | - Yejie Shi
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Xiaoming Hu
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Jun Chen
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA. .,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
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204
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Béchade C, D'Andrea I, Etienne F, Verdonk F, Moutkine I, Banas SM, Kolodziejczak M, Diaz SL, Parkhurst CN, Gan WB, Maroteaux L, Roumier A. The serotonin 2B receptor is required in neonatal microglia to limit neuroinflammation and sickness behavior in adulthood. Glia 2020; 69:638-654. [PMID: 33095507 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Severe peripheral infections induce an adaptive sickness behavior and an innate immune reaction in various organs including the brain. On the long term, persistent alteration of microglia, the brain innate immune cells, is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders. It is thus critical to identify genes and mechanisms controlling the intensity and duration of the neuroinflammation induced by peripheral immune challenges. We tested the hypothesis that the 5-HT2B receptor, the main serotonin receptor expressed by microglia, might represent a valuable candidate. First, we observed that Htr2b-/- mice, knock-out for the 5-HT2B receptor gene, developed, when exposed to a peripheral lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge, a stronger weight loss compared to wild-type mice; in addition, comparison of inflammatory markers in brain, 4 and 24 hr after LPS injection, showed that Htr2b deficiency leads to a prolonged neuroinflammation. Second, to assess the specific contribution of the microglial 5-HT2B receptor, we investigated the response to LPS of conditional knock-out mice invalidated for Htr2b in microglia only. We found that deletion of Htr2b in microglia since birth is sufficient to cause enhanced weight loss and increased neuroinflammatory response upon LPS injection at adult stage. In contrast, mice deleted for microglial Htr2b in adulthood responded normally to LPS, revealing a neonatal developmental effect. These results highlight the role of microglia in the response to a peripheral immune challenge and suggest the existence of a developmental, neonatal period, during which instruction of microglia through 5-HT2B receptors is necessary to prevent microglia overreactivity in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Béchade
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Ivana D'Andrea
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Fanny Etienne
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Franck Verdonk
- Experimental Neuropathology, Infection and Epidemiology Department, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Imane Moutkine
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Sophie M Banas
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Marta Kolodziejczak
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Silvina L Diaz
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Christopher N Parkhurst
- Molecular Neurobiology Program, The Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Wenbiao B Gan
- Molecular Neurobiology Program, The Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Luc Maroteaux
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
| | - Anne Roumier
- INSERM UMR-S 1270, Paris, France.,Sorbonne Université, Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, Paris, France.,Institut du Fer à Moulin, Paris, France
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205
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Hausmann A, Hardt WD. Elucidating host-microbe interactions in vivo by studying population dynamics using neutral genetic tags. Immunology 2020; 162:341-356. [PMID: 32931019 PMCID: PMC7968395 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Host–microbe interactions are highly dynamic in space and time, in particular in the case of infections. Pathogen population sizes, microbial phenotypes and the nature of the host responses often change dramatically over time. These features pose particular challenges when deciphering the underlying mechanisms of these interactions experimentally, as traditional microbiological and immunological methods mostly provide snapshots of population sizes or sparse time series. Recent approaches – combining experiments using neutral genetic tags with stochastic population dynamic models – allow more precise quantification of biologically relevant parameters that govern the interaction between microbe and host cell populations. This is accomplished by exploiting the patterns of change of tag composition in the microbe or host cell population under study. These models can be used to predict the effects of immunodeficiencies or therapies (e.g. antibiotic treatment) on populations and thereby generate hypotheses and refine experimental designs. In this review, we present tools to study population dynamics in vivo using genetic tags, explain examples for their implementation and briefly discuss future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Hausmann
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Wolf-Dietrich Hardt
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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206
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Zhan L, Fan L, Kodama L, Sohn PD, Wong MY, Mousa GA, Zhou Y, Li Y, Gan L. A MAC2-positive progenitor-like microglial population is resistant to CSF1R inhibition in adult mouse brain. eLife 2020; 9:51796. [PMID: 33054973 PMCID: PMC7591254 DOI: 10.7554/elife.51796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the resident myeloid cells in the central nervous system (CNS). The majority of microglia rely on CSF1R signaling for survival. However, a small subset of microglia in mouse brains can survive without CSF1R signaling and reestablish the microglial homeostatic population after CSF1R signaling returns. Using single-cell transcriptomic analysis, we characterized the heterogeneous microglial populations under CSF1R inhibition, including microglia with reduced homeostatic markers and elevated markers of inflammatory chemokines and proliferation. Importantly, MAC2/Lgals3 was upregulated under CSF1R inhibition, and shared striking similarities with microglial progenitors in the yolk sac and immature microglia in early embryos. Lineage-tracing studies revealed that these MAC2+ cells were of microglial origin. MAC2+ microglia were also present in non-treated adult mouse brains and exhibited immature transcriptomic signatures indistinguishable from those that survived CSF1R inhibition, supporting the notion that MAC2+ progenitor-like cells are present among adult microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihong Zhan
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Diseases, San Francisco, United States
| | - Li Fan
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States
| | - Lay Kodama
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Diseases, San Francisco, United States.,Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Medical Scientist Training Program, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Peter Dongmin Sohn
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Diseases, San Francisco, United States
| | - Man Ying Wong
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States
| | - Gergey Alzaem Mousa
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States
| | - Yungui Zhou
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Diseases, San Francisco, United States
| | - Yaqiao Li
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Diseases, San Francisco, United States
| | - Li Gan
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Diseases, San Francisco, United States.,Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, United States.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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207
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Adams KV, Mahmud N, Green-Holland M, Vonderwalde I, Umebayashi D, Sachewsky N, Coles BL, van der Kooy D, Morshead CM. Constraint-induced movement therapy promotes motor recovery after neonatal stroke in the absence of neural precursor activation. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 53:1334-1349. [PMID: 33010080 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neonatal stroke is a leading cause of long-term disability and currently available rehabilitation treatments are insufficient to promote recovery. Activating neural precursor cells (NPCs) in adult rodents, in combination with rehabilitation, can accelerate functional recovery following stroke. Here, we describe a novel method of constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) in a rodent model of neonatal stroke that leads to improved functional outcomes, and we asked whether the recovery was correlated with expansion of NPCs. A hypoxia/ischemia (H/I) injury was induced on postnatal day 8 (PND8) via unilateral carotid artery ligation followed by systemic hypoxia. One week and two weeks post-H/I, CIMT was administered in the form of 3 botulinum toxin (Botox) injections, which induced temporary paralysis in the unaffected limb. Functional recovery was assessed using the foot fault task. NPC proliferation was assessed using the neurosphere assay and EdU immunohistochemistry. We found that neonatal H/I injury alone expands the NPC pool by >2.5-fold relative to controls. We determined that using Botox injections as a method to provide CIMT results in significant functional motor recovery after H/I. However, CIMT does not lead to enhanced NPC activation or migration into the injured parenchyma in vivo. At the time of functional recovery, increased numbers of proliferating inflammatory cells were found within the injured motor cortex. Together, these findings suggest that NPC activation following CIMT does not account for the observed functional improvement and suggests that CIMT-mediated modification of the CNS inflammatory response may play a role in the motor recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey V Adams
- Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Neemat Mahmud
- Department of Surgery, Division of Anatomy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Ilan Vonderwalde
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Daisuke Umebayashi
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nadia Sachewsky
- Department of Surgery, Division of Anatomy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Brenda L Coles
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Derek van der Kooy
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular & Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Cindi M Morshead
- Department of Surgery, Division of Anatomy, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Terrence Donnelly Centre for Cellular & Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,KITE, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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208
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Garcia-Leon JA, Caceres-Palomo L, Sanchez-Mejias E, Mejias-Ortega M, Nuñez-Diaz C, Fernandez-Valenzuela JJ, Sanchez-Varo R, Davila JC, Vitorica J, Gutierrez A. Human Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Neural Cells as a Relevant Platform for Drug Screening in Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186867. [PMID: 32962164 PMCID: PMC7558359 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular amyloid-beta deposition and intraneuronal Tau-laden neurofibrillary tangles are prime features of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The pathology of AD is very complex and still not fully understood, since different neural cell types are involved in the disease. Although neuronal function is clearly deteriorated in AD patients, recently, an increasing number of evidences have pointed towards glial cell dysfunction as one of the main causative phenomena implicated in AD pathogenesis. The complex disease pathology together with the lack of reliable disease models have precluded the development of effective therapies able to counteract disease progression. The discovery and implementation of human pluripotent stem cell technology represents an important opportunity in this field, as this system allows the generation of patient-derived cells to be used for disease modeling and therapeutic target identification and as a platform to be employed in drug discovery programs. In this review, we discuss the current studies using human pluripotent stem cells focused on AD, providing convincing evidences that this system is an excellent opportunity to advance in the comprehension of AD pathology, which will be translated to the development of the still missing effective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Antonio Garcia-Leon
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
- Correspondence: (J.A.G.-L.); (A.G.); Tel.: +34-952131935 (J.A.G.-L.); +34-952133344 (A.G.)
| | - Laura Caceres-Palomo
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Elisabeth Sanchez-Mejias
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Marina Mejias-Ortega
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Cristina Nuñez-Diaz
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Juan Jose Fernandez-Valenzuela
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Raquel Sanchez-Varo
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Jose Carlos Davila
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Javier Vitorica
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
- Departamento Bioquimica y Biologia Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS)-Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocio/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Antonia Gutierrez
- Departamento Biologia Celular, Genetica y Fisiologia, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica de Malaga-IBIMA, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Malaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain; (L.C.-P.); (E.S.-M.); (M.M.-O.); (C.N.-D.); (J.J.F.-V.); (R.S.-V.); (J.C.D.)
- Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain;
- Correspondence: (J.A.G.-L.); (A.G.); Tel.: +34-952131935 (J.A.G.-L.); +34-952133344 (A.G.)
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209
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Oschwald A, Petry P, Kierdorf K, Erny D. CNS Macrophages and Infant Infections. Front Immunol 2020; 11:2123. [PMID: 33072074 PMCID: PMC7531029 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.02123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) harbors its own immune system composed of microglia in the parenchyma and CNS-associated macrophages (CAMs) in the perivascular space, leptomeninges, dura mater, and choroid plexus. Recent advances in understanding the CNS resident immune cells gave new insights into development, maturation and function of its immune guard. Microglia and CAMs undergo essential steps of differentiation and maturation triggered by environmental factors as well as intrinsic transcriptional programs throughout embryonic and postnatal development. These shaping steps allow the macrophages to adapt to their specific physiological function as first line of defense of the CNS and its interfaces. During infancy, the CNS might be targeted by a plethora of different pathogens which can cause severe tissue damage with potentially long reaching defects. Therefore, an efficient immune response of infant CNS macrophages is required even at these early stages to clear the infections but may also lead to detrimental consequences for the developing CNS. Here, we highlight the recent knowledge of the infant CNS immune system during embryonic and postnatal infections and the consequences for the developing CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Oschwald
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Philippe Petry
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Katrin Kierdorf
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,CIBBS Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Erny
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Neuropathology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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210
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Yamamoto M, Kim M, Imai H, Itakura Y, Ohtsuki G. Microglia-Triggered Plasticity of Intrinsic Excitability Modulates Psychomotor Behaviors in Acute Cerebellar Inflammation. Cell Rep 2020; 28:2923-2938.e8. [PMID: 31509752 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.07.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar dysfunction relates to various psychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum and depressive disorders. However, the physiological aspect is less advanced. Here, we investigate the immune-triggered hyperexcitability in the cerebellum on a wider scope. Activated microglia via exposure to bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide or heat-killed Gram-negative bacteria induce a potentiation of the intrinsic excitability in Purkinje neurons, which is suppressed by microglia-activity inhibitor and microglia depletion. An inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), released from microglia via toll-like receptor 4, triggers this plasticity. Our two-photon FRET ATP imaging shows an increase in ATP concentration following endotoxin exposure. Both TNF-α and ATP secretion facilitate synaptic transmission. Region-specific inflammation in the cerebellum in vivo shows depression- and autistic-like behaviors. Furthermore, both TNF-α inhibition and microglia depletion revert such behavioral abnormality. Resting-state functional MRI reveals overconnectivity between the inflamed cerebellum and the prefrontal neocortical regions. Thus, immune activity in the cerebellum induces neuronal hyperexcitability and disruption of psychomotor behaviors in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamichi Yamamoto
- Department of Nephrology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University Hospital, Shogoin-Kawaramachi-cho, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Minsoo Kim
- The Hakubi Center for Advanced Research, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan; Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Yoshida-Konoe-cho, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hirohiko Imai
- Department of Systems Science, Kyoto University Graduate School of Informatics, Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yamato Itakura
- Department of Biophysics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Science, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Gen Ohtsuki
- The Hakubi Center for Advanced Research, Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan; Department of Biophysics, Kyoto University Graduate School of Science, Kitashirakawa-Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ward, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan.
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211
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Karlen SJ, Miller EB, Burns ME. Microglia Activation and Inflammation During the Death of Mammalian Photoreceptors. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2020; 6:149-169. [PMID: 32936734 PMCID: PMC10135402 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-121219-081730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Photoreceptors are highly specialized sensory neurons with unique metabolic and physiological requirements. These requirements are partially met by Müller glia and cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which provide essential metabolites, phagocytose waste, and control the composition of the surrounding microenvironment. A third vital supporting cell type, the retinal microglia, can provide photoreceptors with neurotrophic support or exacerbate neuroinflammation and hasten neuronal cell death. Understanding the physiological requirements for photoreceptor homeostasis and the factors that drive microglia to best promote photoreceptor survival has important implications for the treatment and prevention of blinding degenerative diseases like retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J. Karlen
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Eric B. Miller
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Marie E. Burns
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology & Vision Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
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212
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Kracht L, Borggrewe M, Eskandar S, Brouwer N, Chuva de Sousa Lopes SM, Laman JD, Scherjon SA, Prins JR, Kooistra SM, Eggen BJL. Human fetal microglia acquire homeostatic immune-sensing properties early in development. Science 2020; 369:530-537. [PMID: 32732419 DOI: 10.1126/science.aba5906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), are important for tissue development and maintenance and are implicated in CNS disease, but we lack understanding of human fetal microglia development. Single-cell gene expression and bulk chromatin profiles of microglia at 9 to 18 gestational weeks (GWs) of human fetal development were generated. Microglia were heterogeneous at all studied GWs. Microglia start to mature during this developmental period and increasingly resemble adult microglia with CNS-surveilling properties. Chromatin accessibility increases during development with associated transcriptional networks reflective of adult microglia. Thus, during early fetal development, microglia progress toward a more mature, immune-sensing competent phenotype, and this might render the developing human CNS vulnerable to environmental perturbations during early pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kracht
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - M Borggrewe
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - S Eskandar
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - N Brouwer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - S M Chuva de Sousa Lopes
- Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands.,Department for Reproductive Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent, Belgium
| | - J D Laman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - S A Scherjon
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - J R Prins
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - S M Kooistra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
| | - B J L Eggen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
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213
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Trujillo Villarreal LA, Cárdenas-Tueme M, Maldonado-Ruiz R, Reséndez-Pérez D, Camacho-Morales A. Potential role of primed microglia during obesity on the mesocorticolimbic circuit in autism spectrum disorder. J Neurochem 2020; 156:415-434. [PMID: 32902852 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disease which involves functional and structural defects in selective central nervous system (CNS) regions that harm function and individual ability to process and respond to external stimuli. Individuals with ASD spend less time engaging in social interaction compared to non-affected subjects. Studies employing structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging reported morphological and functional abnormalities in the connectivity of the mesocorticolimbic reward pathway between the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in response to social stimuli, as well as diminished medial prefrontal cortex in response to visual cues, whereas stronger reward system responses for the non-social realm (e.g., video games) than social rewards (e.g., approval), associated with caudate nucleus responsiveness in ASD children. Defects in the mesocorticolimbic reward pathway have been modulated in transgenic murine models using D2 dopamine receptor heterozygous (D2+/-) or dopamine transporter knockout mice, which exhibit sociability deficits and repetitive behaviors observed in ASD phenotypes. Notably, the mesocorticolimbic reward pathway is modulated by systemic and central inflammation, such as primed microglia, which occurs during obesity or maternal overnutrition. Therefore, we propose that a positive energy balance during obesity/maternal overnutrition coordinates a systemic and central inflammatory crosstalk that modulates the dopaminergic neurotransmission in selective brain areas of the mesocorticolimbic reward pathway. Here, we will describe how obesity/maternal overnutrition may prime microglia, causing abnormalities in dopamine neurotransmission of the mesocorticolimbic reward pathway, postulating a possible immune role in the development of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A- Trujillo Villarreal
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México.,Unidad de Neurometabolismo, Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México
| | - Marcela Cárdenas-Tueme
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México
| | - Roger Maldonado-Ruiz
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México.,Unidad de Neurometabolismo, Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México
| | - Diana Reséndez-Pérez
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Genética, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México
| | - Alberto Camacho-Morales
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México.,Unidad de Neurometabolismo, Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolas de los Garza, México
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214
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Linnerbauer M, Wheeler MA, Quintana FJ. Astrocyte Crosstalk in CNS Inflammation. Neuron 2020; 108:608-622. [PMID: 32898475 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 464] [Impact Index Per Article: 116.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes control multiple processes in the nervous system in health and disease. It is now clear that specific astrocyte subsets or activation states are associated with specific genomic programs and functions. The advent of novel genomic technologies has enabled rapid progress in the characterization of astrocyte heterogeneity and its control by astrocyte interactions with other cells in the central nervous system (CNS). In this review, we provide an overview of the multifaceted roles of astrocytes in the context of CNS inflammation, highlighting recent discoveries on astrocyte subsets and their regulation. We explore mechanisms of crosstalk between astrocytes and other cells in the CNS in the context of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration and discuss how these interactions shape pathological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Linnerbauer
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Michael A Wheeler
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Francisco J Quintana
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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215
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Huang SH, Shmoel N, Jankowski MM, Erez H, Sharon A, Abu-Salah W, Nelken I, Weiss A, Spira ME. Immunohistological and Ultrastructural Study of the Inflammatory Response to Perforated Polyimide Cortical Implants: Mechanisms Underlying Deterioration of Electrophysiological Recording Quality. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:926. [PMID: 32982683 PMCID: PMC7489236 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The deterioration of field potential (FP) recording quality and yield by in vivo multielectrode arrays (MEA) within days to weeks of implantation severely limits progress in basic and applied brain research. The prevailing hypothesis is that implantation of MEA platforms initiate and perpetuate inflammatory processes which culminate in the formation of scar tissue (the foreign body response, FBR) around the implant. The FBR leads to progressive degradation of the recording qualities by displacing neurons away from the electrode surfaces, increasing the resistance between neurons (current source) and the sensing pads and by reducing the neurons’ excitable membrane properties and functional synaptic connectivity through the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Meticulous attempts to causally relate the cellular composition, cell density, and electrical properties of the FBR have failed to unequivocally correlate the deterioration of recording quality with the histological severity of the FBR. Based on confocal and electron microscope analysis of thin sections of polyimide based MEA implants along with the surrounding brain tissue at different points in time after implantation, we propose that abrupt FP amplitude attenuation occurs at the implant/brain-parenchyma junction as a result of high seal resistance insulation formed by adhering microglia to the implant surfaces. In contrast to the prevailing hypothesis, that FP decrease occurs across the encapsulating scar of the implanted MEA, this mechanism potentially explains why no correlations have been found between the dimensions and density of the FBR and the recording quality. Recognizing that the seal resistance formed by adhering-microglia to the implant constitutes a downstream element undermining extracellular FP recordings, suggests that approaches to mitigate the formation of the insulating glial could lead to improved recording quality and yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun-Ho Huang
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Harvey M. Kruger Family Center for Nanoscience, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nava Shmoel
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Harvey M. Kruger Family Center for Nanoscience, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Maciej M Jankowski
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hadas Erez
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Aviv Sharon
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Wesal Abu-Salah
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Israel Nelken
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,Edmond and Lily Safra Center for Brain Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Aryeh Weiss
- Faculty of Engineering, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Micha E Spira
- Department of Neurobiology, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Charles E. Smith Family and Prof. Joel Elkes Laboratory for Collaborative Research in Psychobiology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.,The Harvey M. Kruger Family Center for Nanoscience, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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216
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Comer AL, Carrier M, Tremblay MÈ, Cruz-Martín A. The Inflamed Brain in Schizophrenia: The Convergence of Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors That Lead to Uncontrolled Neuroinflammation. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:274. [PMID: 33061891 PMCID: PMC7518314 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a disorder with a heterogeneous etiology involving complex interplay between genetic and environmental risk factors. The immune system is now known to play vital roles in nervous system function and pathology through regulating neuronal and glial development, synaptic plasticity, and behavior. In this regard, the immune system is positioned as a common link between the seemingly diverse genetic and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia. Synthesizing information about how the immune-brain axis is affected by multiple factors and how these factors might interact in schizophrenia is necessary to better understand the pathogenesis of this disease. Such knowledge will aid in the development of more translatable animal models that may lead to effective therapeutic interventions. Here, we provide an overview of the genetic risk factors for schizophrenia that modulate immune function. We also explore environmental factors for schizophrenia including exposure to pollution, gut dysbiosis, maternal immune activation and early-life stress, and how the consequences of these risk factors are linked to microglial function and dysfunction. We also propose that morphological and signaling deficits of the blood-brain barrier, as observed in some individuals with schizophrenia, can act as a gateway between peripheral and central nervous system inflammation, thus affecting microglia in their essential functions. Finally, we describe the diverse roles that microglia play in response to neuroinflammation and their impact on brain development and homeostasis, as well as schizophrenia pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L. Comer
- Graduate Program for Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Neurophotonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Micaël Carrier
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Alberto Cruz-Martín
- Graduate Program for Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Neurophotonics Center, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
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217
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McCallum S, Obata Y, Fourli E, Boeing S, Peddie CJ, Xu Q, Horswell S, Kelsh RN, Collinson L, Wilkinson D, Pin C, Pachnis V, Heanue TA. Enteric glia as a source of neural progenitors in adult zebrafish. eLife 2020; 9:e56086. [PMID: 32851974 PMCID: PMC7521928 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence and identity of neural progenitors in the enteric nervous system (ENS) of vertebrates is a matter of intense debate. Here, we demonstrate that the non-neuronal ENS cell compartment of teleosts shares molecular and morphological characteristics with mammalian enteric glia but cannot be identified by the expression of canonical glial markers. However, unlike their mammalian counterparts, which are generally quiescent and do not undergo neuronal differentiation during homeostasis, we show that a relatively high proportion of zebrafish enteric glia proliferate under physiological conditions giving rise to progeny that differentiate into enteric neurons. We also provide evidence that, similar to brain neural stem cells, the activation and neuronal differentiation of enteric glia are regulated by Notch signalling. Our experiments reveal remarkable similarities between enteric glia and brain neural stem cells in teleosts and open new possibilities for use of mammalian enteric glia as a potential source of neurons to restore the activity of intestinal neural circuits compromised by injury or disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah McCallum
- Development and Homeostasis of the Nervous System Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Yuuki Obata
- Development and Homeostasis of the Nervous System Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Evangelia Fourli
- Development and Homeostasis of the Nervous System Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Stefan Boeing
- Bionformatics & Biostatistics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Christopher J Peddie
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Qiling Xu
- Neural Development Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Stuart Horswell
- Bionformatics & Biostatistics Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Robert N Kelsh
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of BathBathUnited Kingdom
| | - Lucy Collinson
- Electron Microscopy Science Technology Platform, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - David Wilkinson
- Neural Development Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Carmen Pin
- Clinical Pharmacology and Quantitative Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Safety Sciences, R&D, AstraZenecaCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Vassilis Pachnis
- Development and Homeostasis of the Nervous System Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Tiffany A Heanue
- Development and Homeostasis of the Nervous System Laboratory, The Francis Crick InstituteLondonUnited Kingdom
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218
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Plastini MJ, Desu HL, Brambilla R. Dynamic Responses of Microglia in Animal Models of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:269. [PMID: 32973458 PMCID: PMC7468479 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play an essential role in maintaining central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, as well as responding to injury and disease. Most neurological disorders feature microglial activation, a process whereby microglia undergo profound morphological and transcriptional changes aimed at containing CNS damage and promoting repair, but often resulting in overt inflammation that sustains and propagates the neurodegenerative process. This is especially evident in multiple sclerosis (MS), were microglial activation and microglia-driven neuroinflammation are considered key events in the onset, progression, and resolution of the disease. Our understanding of microglial functions in MS has widened exponentially in the last decade by way of new tools and markers to discriminate microglia from other myeloid populations. Consequently, the complex functional and phenotypical diversity of microglia can now be appreciated. This, in combination with a variety of animal models that mimic specific features and processes of MS, has contributed to filling the gap of knowledge in the cascade of events underlying MS pathophysiology. The purpose of this review is to present the most up to date knowledge of the dynamic responses of microglia in the commonly used animal models of MS, specifically the immune-mediated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model, and the chemically-induced cuprizone and lysolecithin models. Elucidating the spectrum of microglial functions in these models, from detrimental to protective, is essential to identify emerging targets for therapy and guide drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie J Plastini
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Haritha L Desu
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Roberta Brambilla
- The Miami Project To Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States.,Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,BRIDGE-Brain Research Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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219
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Dikmen HO, Hemmerich M, Lewen A, Hollnagel JO, Chausse B, Kann O. GM-CSF induces noninflammatory proliferation of microglia and disturbs electrical neuronal network rhythms in situ. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:235. [PMID: 32782006 PMCID: PMC7418331 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01903-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (or CSF-2) is involved in myeloid cell growth and differentiation, and, possibly, a major mediator of inflammation in body tissues. The role of GM-CSF in the activation of microglia (CNS resident macrophages) and the consequent impacts on neuronal survival, excitability, and synaptic transmission are widely unknown, however. Here, we focused on electrical neuronal network rhythms in the gamma frequency band (30–70 Hz). Gamma oscillations are fundamental to higher brain functions, such as perception, attention, and memory, and they are exquisitely sensitive to metabolic and oxidative stress. Methods We explored the effects of chronic GM-CSF exposure (72 h) on microglia in male rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (in situ), i.e., postnatal cortex tissue lacking leukocyte invasion (adaptive immunity). We applied extracellular electrophysiological recordings of local field potential, immunohistochemistry, design-based stereology, biochemical analysis, and pharmacological ablation of microglia. Results GM-CSF triggered substantial proliferation of microglia (microgliosis). By contrast, the release of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) and nitric oxide, the hippocampal cytoarchitecture as well as the morphology of parvalbumin-positive inhibitory interneurons were unaffected. Notably, GM-CSF induced concentration-dependent, long-lasting disturbances of gamma oscillations, such as slowing (beta frequency band) and neural burst firing (hyperexcitability), which were not mimicked by the T lymphocyte cytokine IL-17. These disturbances were attenuated by depletion of the microglial cell population with liposome-encapsulated clodronate. In contrast to priming with the cytokine IFN-γ (type II interferon), GM-CSF did not cause inflammatory neurodegeneration when paired with the TLR4 ligand LPS. Conclusions GM-CSF has a unique role in the activation of microglia, including the potential to induce neuronal network dysfunction. These immunomodulatory properties might contribute to cognitive impairment and/or epileptic seizure development in disease featuring elevated GM-CSF levels, blood-brain barrier leakage, and/or T cell infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasan Onur Dikmen
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Marc Hemmerich
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andrea Lewen
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan-Oliver Hollnagel
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Bruno Chausse
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
| | - Oliver Kann
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 326, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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220
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Jurga AM, Paleczna M, Kuter KZ. Overview of General and Discriminating Markers of Differential Microglia Phenotypes. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:198. [PMID: 32848611 PMCID: PMC7424058 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 509] [Impact Index Per Article: 127.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory processes and microglia activation accompany most of the pathophysiological diseases in the central nervous system. It is proven that glial pathology precedes and even drives the development of multiple neurodegenerative conditions. A growing number of studies point out the importance of microglia in brain development as well as in physiological functioning. These resident brain immune cells are divergent from the peripherally infiltrated macrophages, but their precise in situ discrimination is surprisingly difficult. Microglial heterogeneity in the brain is especially visible in their morphology and cell density in particular brain structures but also in the expression of cellular markers. This often determines their role in physiology or pathology of brain functioning. The species differences between rodent and human markers add complexity to the whole picture. Furthermore, due to activation, microglia show a broad spectrum of phenotypes ranging from the pro-inflammatory, potentially cytotoxic M1 to the anti-inflammatory, scavenging, and regenerative M2. A precise distinction of specific phenotypes is nowadays essential to study microglial functions and tissue state in such a quickly changing environment. Due to the overwhelming amount of data on multiple sets of markers that is available for such studies, the choice of appropriate markers is a scientific challenge. This review gathers, classifies, and describes known and recently discovered protein markers expressed by microglial cells in their different phenotypes. The presented microglia markers include qualitative and semi-quantitative, general and specific, surface and intracellular proteins, as well as secreted molecules. The information provided here creates a comprehensive and practical guide through the current knowledge and will facilitate the choosing of proper, more specific markers for detailed studies on microglia and neuroinflammatory mechanisms in various physiological as well as pathological conditions. Both basic research and clinical medicine need clearly described and validated molecular markers of microglia phenotype, which are essential in diagnostics, treatment, and prevention of diseases engaging glia activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka M Jurga
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Martyna Paleczna
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Z Kuter
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
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221
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Lange Canhos L, Chen M, Falk S, Popper B, Straub T, Götz M, Sirko S. Repetitive injury and absence of monocytes promote astrocyte self-renewal and neurological recovery. Glia 2020; 69:165-181. [PMID: 32744730 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Unlike microglia and NG2 glia, astrocytes are incapable of migrating to sites of injury in the posttraumatic cerebral cortex, instead relying on proliferation to replenish their numbers and distribution in the affected region. However, neither the spectrum of their proliferative repertoire nor their postinjury distribution has been examined in vivo. Using a combination of different thymidine analogs and clonal analysis in a model of repetitive traumatic brain injury, we show for the first time that astrocytes that are quiescent following an initial injury can be coerced to proliferate after a repeated insult in the cerebral cortex grey matter. Interestingly, this process is promoted by invasion of monocytes to the injury site, as their genetic ablation (using CCR2-/- mice) increased the number of repetitively dividing astrocytes at the expense of newly proliferating astrocytes in repeatedly injured parenchyma. These differences profoundly affected both the distribution of astrocytes and recovery period for posttraumatic behavior deficits suggesting key roles of astrocyte self-renewal in brain repair after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Lange Canhos
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN-LMU), Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Muxin Chen
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sven Falk
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Bastian Popper
- Core Facility Animal Models, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Straub
- Core Facility Bioinformatics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany.,Excellence Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Swetlana Sirko
- Physiological Genomics, Biomedical Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute of Stem Cell Research, Helmholtz Zentrum Munich, Neuherberg, Germany
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222
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The Role of TGFβ Signaling in Microglia Maturation and Activation. Trends Immunol 2020; 41:836-848. [PMID: 32741652 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2020.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The pleiotropic cytokine transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGFβ1) plays pivotal roles in different cell types, including immune cells such as T cells, monocytes/macrophages, and microglia. Microglia are essential during physiological and pathological events. Maturation of postnatal microglia, as well as the regulation of the complex functional repertoire of microglia, needs to be carefully orchestrated. However, an understanding of how mammalian microglia maturation and disease-associated microglia activation is regulated remains fragmentary. Here, we summarize recent observations made by employing transgenic approaches to silence microglial TGFβ signaling in mice. These revealed that TGFβ1 and TGFβ signaling are indispensable for microglia maturation, adult microglia homeostasis, and the control of microglia activation in central nervous system pathologies.
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223
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Miron VE, Priller J. Investigating Microglia in Health and Disease: Challenges and Opportunities. Trends Immunol 2020; 41:785-793. [PMID: 32736967 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2020.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are tissue-resident macrophages implicated in central nervous system (CNS) development, homeostasis, and response to injury. Recent advances in transcriptomics, multiplex protein expression analysis, and experimental depletion of microglia have cemented their importance. However, it is still unclear which models are best suited to investigate microglia and explore their function in human disease. Here, we discuss issues regarding off-targeting during experimental manipulation, and differences and similarities between human and rodent microglia. With new developments in transgenic lines and human-rodent chimeras, we anticipate that in coming years, a clearer picture of microglia function in health and disease will emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronique E Miron
- Medical Research Council Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - Josef Priller
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and DZNE, Berlin, Germany; UK Dementia Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Abstract
Microglia are the major immune cells in the central nervous system and play a key role in the normal function of the brain. Microglia exhibit functional diversity, and they control the inflammation in central nervous system through releasing inflammatory cytokine, clearing apoptotic cells via phagocytosis, regulating synaptic plasticity and the formation of neural network by synapse pruning. Recent studies have strongly indicated that the microglial dysfunction is associated with a variety of neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression, which have been termed as "microgliopathy". The emergency of advanced technologies and tools has enabled us to comprehensively understand the role of microglia in physiology and pathology, and growing studies have targetted microglia to explore the treatment of neuropsychiatric diseases. Here, we describe the key progress of microglia research, and review the recent developments in the understanding of the role of microglia in physiology and etiology of depression.
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225
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Kokkosis AG, Tsirka SE. Neuroimmune Mechanisms and Sex/Gender-Dependent Effects in the Pathophysiology of Mental Disorders. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2020; 375:175-192. [PMID: 32661057 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.120.266163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate and adaptive immune mechanisms have emerged as critical regulators of CNS homeostasis and mental health. A plethora of immunologic factors have been reported to interact with emotion- and behavior-related neuronal circuits, modulating susceptibility and resilience to mental disorders. However, it remains unclear whether immune dysregulation is a cardinal causal factor or an outcome of the pathologies associated with mental disorders. Emerging variations in immune regulatory pathways based on sex differences provide an additional framework for discussion in these psychiatric disorders. In this review, we present the current literature pertaining to the effects that disrupted immune pathways have in mental disorder pathophysiology, including immune dysregulation in CNS and periphery, microglial activation, and disturbances of the blood-brain barrier. In addition, we present the suggested origins of such immune dysregulation and discuss the gender and sex influence of the neuroimmune substrates that contribute to mental disorders. The findings challenge the conventional view of these disorders and open the window to a diverse spectrum of innovative therapeutic targets that focus on the immune-specific pathophenotypes in neuronal circuits and behavior. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The involvement of gender-dependent inflammatory mechanisms on the development of mental pathologies is gaining momentum. This review addresses these novel factors and presents the accumulating evidence introducing microglia and proinflammatory elements as critical components and potential targets for the treatment of mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandros G Kokkosis
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Stella E Tsirka
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
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226
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Var SR, Byrd-Jacobs CA. Role of Macrophages and Microglia in Zebrafish Regeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E4768. [PMID: 32635596 PMCID: PMC7369716 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21134768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is no treatment for recovery of human nerve function after damage to the central nervous system (CNS), and there are limited regenerative capabilities in the peripheral nervous system. Since fish are known for their regenerative abilities, understanding how these species modulate inflammatory processes following injury has potential translational importance for recovery from damage and disease. Many diseases and injuries involve the activation of innate immune cells to clear damaged cells. The resident immune cells of the CNS are microglia, the primary cells that respond to infection and injury, and their peripheral counterparts, macrophages. These cells serve as key modulators of development and plasticity and have been shown to be important in the repair and regeneration of structure and function after injury. Zebrafish are an emerging model for studying macrophages in regeneration after injury and microglia in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. These fish possess a high degree of neuroanatomical, neurochemical, and emotional/social behavioral resemblance with humans, serving as an ideal simulator for many pathologies. This review explores literature on macrophage and microglial involvement in facilitating regeneration. Understanding innate immune cell behavior following damage may help to develop novel methods for treating toxic and chronic inflammatory processes that are seen in trauma and disease.
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227
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Masuda T, Amann L, Sankowski R, Staszewski O, Lenz M, D Errico P, Snaidero N, Costa Jordão MJ, Böttcher C, Kierdorf K, Jung S, Priller J, Misgeld T, Vlachos A, Meyer-Luehmann M, Knobeloch KP, Prinz M. Novel Hexb-based tools for studying microglia in the CNS. Nat Immunol 2020; 21:802-815. [PMID: 32541832 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-020-0707-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Microglia and central nervous system (CNS)-associated macrophages (CAMs), such as perivascular and meningeal macrophages, are implicated in virtually all diseases of the CNS. However, little is known about their cell-type-specific roles in the absence of suitable tools that would allow for functional discrimination between the ontogenetically closely related microglia and CAMs. To develop a new microglia gene targeting model, we first applied massively parallel single-cell analyses to compare microglia and CAM signatures during homeostasis and disease and identified hexosaminidase subunit beta (Hexb) as a stably expressed microglia core gene, whereas other microglia core genes were substantially downregulated during pathologies. Next, we generated HexbtdTomato mice to stably monitor microglia behavior in vivo. Finally, the Hexb locus was employed for tamoxifen-inducible Cre-mediated gene manipulation in microglia and for fate mapping of microglia but not CAMs. In sum, we provide valuable new genetic tools to specifically study microglia functions in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Masuda
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Department of Life Innovation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan.
| | - Lukas Amann
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Roman Sankowski
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Berta-Ottenstein-Programme for Clinician Scientists, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ori Staszewski
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Berta-Ottenstein-Programme for Clinician Scientists, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Lenz
- Department of Neuroanatomy, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Paolo D Errico
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nicolas Snaidero
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Chotima Böttcher
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katrin Kierdorf
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- CIBSS-Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Steffen Jung
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Josef Priller
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- DZNE and BIH, Berlin, Germany
- University of Edinburgh and UK DRI, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Thomas Misgeld
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Vlachos
- Department of Neuroanatomy, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Melanie Meyer-Luehmann
- Department of Neurology, Medical Center-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Klaus-Peter Knobeloch
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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228
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Tsuchida R, Sumitani M, Abe H, Ando M, Saita K, Hattori K, Mietani K, Inoue R, Uchida K. Clopidogrel, an ADP-P2Y12 Receptor Antagonist, Can Prevent Severe Postoperative Pain: A Retrospective Chart Review. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10060092. [PMID: 32580286 PMCID: PMC7344612 DOI: 10.3390/life10060092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The purinergic P2Y12 receptor regulates microglial activation, resulting in persistence and aggravation of pain in neuropathic and nociceptive pain models. We conducted a retrospective chart review to explore the analgesic potency of the P2Y12 receptor-specific antagonist, clopidogrel, for clinical management of postoperative pain in patients who underwent abdominal surgery. Twenty-seven patients with cardiovascular comorbidities, who underwent laparoscopic abdominal surgery and had ceased aspirin (ASP, n = 17) or clopidogrel (CLP, n = 10) for 14 days pre-operatively, were enrolled retrospectively. In both groups, the number of opioids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) consumed for managing postoperative pain was compared using the chi-square test and Mann–Whitney test. Our results showed that from postoperative day (POD) 0 to POD 3, the average numerical rating reflecting the postoperative pain was comparable between the two groups (CLP: 4.0 ± 1.4 vs. ASP: 3.7 ± 0.8, P-value = 0.56). However, at POD 7, opioid consumption in the CLP-treated group (fentanyl-equivalent dose: 0.49 ± 0.56 mg) was significantly lower than that in the ASP-treated group (1.48 ± 1.35 mg, P-value = 0.037). After reaching a stable state by repeated systemic administration, clopidogrel sustained the analgesic efficacy for a certain period. In conclusion, microglial P2Y12 receptors may mediate signal transduction of postoperative nociceptive pain and enhance clinical opioid analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rikuhei Tsuchida
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
| | - Masahiko Sumitani
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
- Department of Pain and Palliative Medicine, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-3-3815-5411 (ext. 30765)
| | - Hiroaki Abe
- Department of Pain and Palliative Medicine, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan;
| | - Masae Ando
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
| | - Kosuke Saita
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
| | - Kohshi Hattori
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
| | - Kazuhito Mietani
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
| | - Reo Inoue
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
| | - Kanji Uchida
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Relief Center, The University of Tokyo Hospital, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; (R.T.); (M.A.); (K.S.); (K.H.); (K.M.); (R.I.); (K.U.)
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Pires JM, Foresti ML, Silva CS, Rêgo DB, Calió ML, Mosini AC, Nakamura TKE, Leslie ATF, Mello LE. Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Systemic Inflammation in the Neonatal Period Increases Microglial Density and Oxidative Stress in the Cerebellum of Adult Rats. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:142. [PMID: 32581717 PMCID: PMC7283979 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory processes occurring in the perinatal period may affect different brain regions, resulting in neurologic sequelae. Injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at different neurodevelopmental stages produces long-term consequences in several brain structures, but there is scarce evidence regarding alterations in the cerebellum. The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term consequences on the cerebellum of a systemic inflammatory process induced by neonatal LPS injection. For this, neonatal rats were randomly assigned to three different groups: naïve, sham, and LPS. Saline (sham group) or LPS solution (1 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected on alternate postnatal days (PN) PN1, PN3, PN5, and PN7. Spontaneous activity was evaluated with the open field test in adulthood. The cerebellum was evaluated for different parameters: microglial and Purkinje cell densities, oxidative stress levels, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) mRNA expression. Our results show that administration of LPS did not result in altered spontaneous activity in adult animals. Our data also indicate increased oxidative stress in the cerebellum, as evidenced by an increase in superoxide fluorescence by dihydroethidium (DHE) indicator. Stereological analyses indicated increased microglial density in the cerebellum that was not accompanied by Purkinje cell loss or altered TNF-α expression in adult animals. Interestingly, Purkinje cells ectopically positioned in the granular and molecular layers of the cerebellum were observed in animals of the LPS group. Our data suggest that neonatal LPS exposure causes persistent cellular and molecular changes to the cerebellum, indicating the susceptibility of this region to systemic inflammatory insults in infancy. Further investigation of the consequences of these changes and the development of strategies to avoid those should be subject of future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maira Licia Foresti
- Physiology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Amanda Cristina Mosini
- Physiology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Associação Brasileira de Epilepsia, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Luiz Eugênio Mello
- Physiology Department, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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230
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Hagert CF, Bohn AB, Wittenborn TR, Degn SE. Seeing the Confetti Colors in a New Light Utilizing Flow Cytometry and Imaging Flow Cytometry. Cytometry A 2020; 97:811-823. [PMID: 32459058 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.24032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Stochastic multicolor transgenic labeling systems, such as the Brainbow reporters, have emerged as powerful tools in lineage tracing experiments. Originally designed for large-scale mapping of neuronal projections in densely populated tissues, they have been repurposed for diverse uses. The Brainbow 2.1-derived Confetti reporter was used, for example, to define stem cell clonality and dynamics in crypts of the intestinal mucosa, T-cell clonality, microglial heterogeneity, and B-cell clonal evolution in germinal centers. Traditionally, read-outs have relied on imaging in situ, providing information about cellular localization within tissue stroma. However, recent applications of the technique have moved into hematopoietically derived motile cell types, for example, T and B lymphocytes and their progeny, creating an unmet need to survey larger populations of cells ex vivo to determine labeling densities or skews in color representation over time to read-out clonal expansion and selection effects. Originally designed for imaging methods, these reporters encode information in the spectral properties of fluorophores and their subcellular localization, making them poorly suited to traditional flow cytometry analyses. The advent of high-content imaging and imaging flow cytometry have recently closed the gap between flow cytometry and imaging. We analyzed a 10-color biallelic Confetti reporter using flow and imaging flow cytometry. Beyond its use as a high-throughput method for measuring reporter labeling densities and color distributions over time, it also opens the door to new avenues of research relying on similar read-outs, for example, tumor heterogeneity and clonal dynamics. © 2020 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anja Bille Bohn
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | | | - Søren E Degn
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
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231
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Prinz M, Jung S, Priller J. Microglia Biology: One Century of Evolving Concepts. Cell 2020; 179:292-311. [PMID: 31585077 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 785] [Impact Index Per Article: 196.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Microglia were first recognized as a distinct cell population in the CNS one century ago. For a long time, they were primarily considered to be phagocytes responsible for removing debris during CNS development and disease. More recently, advances in imaging and genetics and the advent of single-cell technologies provided new insights into the much more complex and fascinating biology of microglia. The ontogeny of microglia was identified, and their functions in health and disease were better defined. Although many questions about microglia and their roles in human diseases remain unanswered, the prospect of targeting microglia for the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders is tantalizing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Steffen Jung
- Department of Immunology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
| | - Josef Priller
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany; DZNE and BIH, Berlin, Germany; University of Edinburgh and UK DRI, Edinburgh, UK.
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232
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Alves CH, Fernandes R, Santiago AR, Ambrósio AF. Microglia Contribution to the Regulation of the Retinal and Choroidal Vasculature in Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Cells 2020; 9:cells9051217. [PMID: 32423062 PMCID: PMC7290930 DOI: 10.3390/cells9051217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The retina is a highly metabolically active tissue with high-level consumption of nutrients and oxygen. This high metabolic demand requires a properly developed and maintained vascular system. The retina is nourished by two systems: the central retinal artery that supplies the inner retina and the choriocapillaris that supplies the outer retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Pathological neovascularization, characterized by endothelial cell proliferation and new vessel formation, is a common hallmark in several retinal degenerative diseases, including age-related macular degeneration (AMD). A limited number of studies have suggested that microglia, the resident immune cells of the retina, have an important role not only in the pathology but also in the formation and physiology of the retinal vascular system. Here, we review the current knowledge on microglial interaction with the retinal vascular system under physiological and pathological conditions. To do so, we first highlight the role of microglial cells in the formation and maintenance of the retinal vasculature system. Thereafter, we discuss the molecular signaling mechanisms through which microglial cells contribute to the alterations in retinal and choroidal vasculatures and to the neovascularization in AMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Henrique Alves
- Retinal Dysfunction and Neuroinflammation Lab, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (C.H.A.); (R.F.); (A.R.S.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
- Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image (AIBILI), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rosa Fernandes
- Retinal Dysfunction and Neuroinflammation Lab, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (C.H.A.); (R.F.); (A.R.S.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
- Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image (AIBILI), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Raquel Santiago
- Retinal Dysfunction and Neuroinflammation Lab, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (C.H.A.); (R.F.); (A.R.S.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
- Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image (AIBILI), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - António Francisco Ambrósio
- Retinal Dysfunction and Neuroinflammation Lab, Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research (iCBR), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (C.H.A.); (R.F.); (A.R.S.)
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
- Association for Innovation and Biomedical Research on Light and Image (AIBILI), 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Clinical Academic Center of Coimbra (CACC), 3004-561 Coimbra, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-239-480093
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233
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Liu F, Dai S, Feng D, Qin Z, Peng X, Sakamuri SSVP, Ren M, Huang L, Cheng M, Mohammad KE, Qu P, Chen Y, Zhao C, Zhu F, Liang S, Aktas BH, Yang X, Wang H, Katakam PVG, Busija DW, Fischer T, Datta PK, Rappaport J, Gao B, Qin X. Distinct fate, dynamics and niches of renal macrophages of bone marrow or embryonic origins. Nat Commun 2020; 11:2280. [PMID: 32385245 PMCID: PMC7210253 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16158-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Renal macrophages (RMs) participate in tissue homeostasis, inflammation and repair. RMs consist of embryo-derived (EMRMs) and bone marrow-derived RMs (BMRMs), but the fate, dynamics, replenishment, functions and metabolic states of these two RM populations remain unclear. Here we investigate and characterize RMs at different ages by conditionally labeling and ablating RMs populations in several transgenic lines. We find that RMs expand and mature in parallel with renal growth after birth, and are mainly derived from fetal liver monocytes before birth, but self-maintain through adulthood with contribution from peripheral monocytes. Moreover, after the RMs niche is emptied, peripheral monocytes rapidly differentiate into BMRMs, with the CX3CR1/CX3CL1 signaling axis being essential for the maintenance and regeneration of both EMRMs and BMRMs. Lastly, we show that EMRMs have a higher capacity for scavenging immune complex, and are more sensitive to immune challenge than BMRMs, with this difference associated with their distinct glycolytic capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengming Liu
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA. .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Shen Dai
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Dechun Feng
- Laboratory of Liver Diseases, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Zhongnan Qin
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Xiao Peng
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Siva S V P Sakamuri
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Mi Ren
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Li Huang
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Min Cheng
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kabir E Mohammad
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Ping Qu
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Yong Chen
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Chunling Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Faliang Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shujian Liang
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Bertal H Aktas
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Xiaofeng Yang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research and Cardiovascular Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hong Wang
- Center for Metabolic Disease Research and Cardiovascular Research, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Prasad V G Katakam
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - David W Busija
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Avenue, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA
| | - Tracy Fischer
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA
| | - Prasun K Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA
| | - Jay Rappaport
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA
| | - Bin Gao
- Laboratory of Liver Diseases, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Xuebin Qin
- Division of Comparative Pathology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA. .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, 70112, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, Temple University Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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234
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Ydens E, Amann L, Asselbergh B, Scott CL, Martens L, Sichien D, Mossad O, Blank T, De Prijck S, Low D, Masuda T, Saeys Y, Timmerman V, Stumm R, Ginhoux F, Prinz M, Janssens S, Guilliams M. Profiling peripheral nerve macrophages reveals two macrophage subsets with distinct localization, transcriptome and response to injury. Nat Neurosci 2020; 23:676-689. [PMID: 32284604 PMCID: PMC7611025 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-0618-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2019] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
While CNS microglia have been extensively studied, relatively little is known about macrophages populating the peripheral nervous system. Here we performed ontogenic, transcriptomic and spatial characterization of sciatic nerve macrophages (snMacs). Using multiple fate-mapping systems, we show that snMacs do not derive from the early embryonic precursors colonizing the CNS, but originate primarily from late embryonic precursors and become replaced by bone-marrow-derived macrophages over time. Using single-cell transcriptomics, we identified a tissue-specific core signature of snMacs and two spatially separated snMacs: Relmα+Mgl1+ snMacs in the epineurium and Relmα-Mgl1- snMacs in the endoneurium. Globally, snMacs lack most of the core signature genes of microglia, with only the endoneurial subset expressing a restricted number of these genes. In response to nerve injury, the two resident snMac populations respond differently. Moreover, and unlike in the CNS, monocyte-derived macrophages that develop during injury can engraft efficiently in the pool of resident peripheral nervous system macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elke Ydens
- Peripheral Neuropathy Research Group, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute Born Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lukas Amann
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Bob Asselbergh
- VIB-UAntwerp Center for Molecular Neurology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Charlotte L Scott
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Liesbet Martens
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Computer Sciences and Statistics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dorine Sichien
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Omar Mossad
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Blank
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sofie De Prijck
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Donovan Low
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Takahiro Masuda
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Yvan Saeys
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Computer Sciences and Statistics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Vincent Timmerman
- Peripheral Neuropathy Research Group, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute Born Bunge, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ralf Stumm
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Florent Ginhoux
- Singapore Immunology Network, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Signalling Research Centers BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Sophie Janssens
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium.
- Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Martin Guilliams
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium.
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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235
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Amann L, Prinz M. The origin, fate and function of macrophages in the peripheral nervous system—an update. Int Immunol 2020; 32:709-717. [DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxaa030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The field of macrophage biology has made enormous progress over recent years. This was triggered by the advent of several new techniques such as the establishment of Cre/loxP-based transgenic mouse models that allowed for the first time delineation of the ontogeny and function of specific macrophage populations across many tissues. In addition, the introduction of new high-throughput technologies like bulk RNA sequencing and later single-cell RNA sequencing as well as advances in epigenetic analysis have helped to establish gene expression profiles, enhancer landscapes and local signaling cues that define and shape the identity of diverse macrophage populations. Nonetheless, some macrophage populations, like the ones residing in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), have not been studied in such detail yet. Here, we discuss recent studies that shed new light on the ontogeny, heterogeneity and gene expression profiles of resident macrophages in peripheral nerves and described differential activation of macrophage subsets during and after acute sciatic nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Amann
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str. 64, Freiburg, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Breisacher Str. 64, Freiburg, Germany
- Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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236
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Garré JM, Silva HM, Lafaille JJ, Yang G. P2X7 receptor inhibition ameliorates dendritic spine pathology and social behavioral deficits in Rett syndrome mice. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1784. [PMID: 32286307 PMCID: PMC7156443 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15590-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulated immunity has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders but its contribution to synaptic and behavioral deficits in Rett syndrome (RTT) remains unknown. P2X7 receptors (P2X7Rs) are unique purinergic receptors with pro-inflammatory functions. Here, we report in a MECP2-deficient mouse model of RTT that the border of the cerebral cortex exhibits increased number of inflammatory myeloid cells expressing cell-surface P2X7Rs. Total knockout of P2X7Rs in MECP2 deficient mice decreases the number of inflammatory myeloid cells, restores cortical dendritic spine dynamics, and improves the animals’ neurological function and social behavior. Furthermore, either genetic depletion of P2X7Rs in bone-marrow derived leukocytes or pharmacological block of P2X7Rs primarily outside of the central nervous system parenchyma, recapitulates the beneficial effects of total P2X7R depletion on the social behavior. Together, our results highlight the pathophysiological roles of P2X7Rs in a mouse model of RTT. P2X7 receptors are purinergic receptors with pro-inflammatory functions. Here, the authors show that inhibition of leukocyte P2X7 receptors reduces dendritic spine pathology and social behavioral deficits in a mouse model of Rett syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Mauricio Garré
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA. .,Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| | - Hernandez Moura Silva
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Juan J Lafaille
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.,Department of Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Guang Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA. .,Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
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237
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Xu ZX, Kim GH, Tan JW, Riso AE, Sun Y, Xu EY, Liao GY, Xu H, Lee SH, Do NY, Lee CH, Clipperton-Allen AE, Kwon S, Page DT, Lee KJ, Xu B. Elevated protein synthesis in microglia causes autism-like synaptic and behavioral aberrations. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1797. [PMID: 32286273 PMCID: PMC7156673 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15530-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations that inactivate negative translation regulators cause autism spectrum disorders (ASD), which predominantly affect males and exhibit social interaction and communication deficits and repetitive behaviors. However, the cells that cause ASD through elevated protein synthesis resulting from these mutations remain unknown. Here we employ conditional overexpression of translation initiation factor eIF4E to increase protein synthesis in specific brain cells. We show that exaggerated translation in microglia, but not neurons or astrocytes, leads to autism-like behaviors in male mice. Although microglial eIF4E overexpression elevates translation in both sexes, it only increases microglial density and size in males, accompanied by microglial shift from homeostatic to a functional state with enhanced phagocytic capacity but reduced motility and synapse engulfment. Consequently, cortical neurons in the mice have higher synapse density, neuroligins, and excitation-to-inhibition ratio compared to control mice. We propose that functional perturbation of male microglia is an important cause for sex-biased ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Xiang Xu
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Gyu Hyun Kim
- Synaptic Circuit Plasticity Lab, Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41062, Korea
| | - Ji-Wei Tan
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Anna E Riso
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
- The Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Ye Sun
- Integrative Program in Biology and Neuroscience, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Ethan Y Xu
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
- The Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Guey-Ying Liao
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Haifei Xu
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Sang-Hoon Lee
- Advanced Neural Imaging Center, Department of Structure & Function of Neural Network, Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41062, Korea
| | - Na-Young Do
- Synaptic Circuit Plasticity Lab, Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41062, Korea
| | - Chan Hee Lee
- Synaptic Circuit Plasticity Lab, Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41062, Korea
| | - Amy E Clipperton-Allen
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Soonwook Kwon
- Department of Anatomy, Catholic University of Daegu, Daegu, 42472, Korea
| | - Damon T Page
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Kea Joo Lee
- Synaptic Circuit Plasticity Lab, Korea Brain Research Institute, Daegu, 41062, Korea
| | - Baoji Xu
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA.
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238
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Tsuda M. Microglia-Mediated Regulation of Neuropathic Pain: Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms. Biol Pharm Bull 2020; 42:1959-1968. [PMID: 31787711 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b19-00715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pain is a defense system that responds rapidly to harmful internal and external stimuli through the somatosensory neuronal pathway. However, damage to the nervous system through cancer, diabetes, infection, autoimmune disease, chemotherapy or trauma often leads to neuropathic pain, a debilitating chronic pain condition. Neuropathic pain is not simply a temporal continuum of acute nociceptive signals from the periphery, but rather due to pathologically altered functions in the nervous system, which shift the net neuronal excitatory balance toward excitation. Although alterations were long thought to be a result of changes in neurons, but an increasing body of evidence over the past decades indicates the necessity and sufficiency of microglia, the tissue-resident macrophages of the spinal cord and brain, for nerve injury-induced malfunction of the nervous system. In this review article, I describe our current understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the role of microglia in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain and discuss the therapeutic potential of microglia from recent advances in the development of new drugs targeting microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Tsuda
- Department of Life Innovation, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University
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239
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Benmamar-Badel A, Owens T, Wlodarczyk A. Protective Microglial Subset in Development, Aging, and Disease: Lessons From Transcriptomic Studies. Front Immunol 2020; 11:430. [PMID: 32318054 PMCID: PMC7147523 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglial heterogeneity has been the topic of much discussion in the scientific community. Elucidation of their plasticity and adaptability to disease states triggered early efforts to characterize microglial subsets. Over time, their phenotypes, and later on their homeostatic signature, were revealed, through the use of increasingly advanced transcriptomic techniques. Recently, an increasing number of these "microglial signatures" have been reported in various homeostatic and disease contexts. Remarkably, many of these states show similar overlapping microglial gene expression patterns, both in homeostasis and in disease or injury. In this review, we integrate information from these studies, and we propose a unique subset, for which we introduce a core signature, based on our own research and reports from the literature. We describe that this subset is found in development and in normal aging as well as in diverse diseases. We discuss the functions of this subset as well as how it is induced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouk Benmamar-Badel
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- BRIDGE, Brain Research - Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Neurology, Slagelse Hospital, Institute of Regional Health Research, Slagelse, Denmark
| | - Trevor Owens
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- BRIDGE, Brain Research - Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Odense, Denmark
| | - Agnieszka Wlodarczyk
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- BRIDGE, Brain Research - Inter-Disciplinary Guided Excellence, Odense, Denmark
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240
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Abstract
During insults and disease blood-borne monocytes can invade brain and spinal cord, contributing to the neuroimmune response together with brain-resident microglia. The specific function of brain-infiltrating monocytes has been difficult to ascertain because of shared marker expression and morphology of these two immune cell types. Here we describe our method of repopulating the brain with circulating monocytes after microglia ablation to investigate the physiology of brain-invading monocytes, which engraft under these conditions.
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241
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Xu R, Li X, Boreland AJ, Posyton A, Kwan K, Hart RP, Jiang P. Human iPSC-derived mature microglia retain their identity and functionally integrate in the chimeric mouse brain. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1577. [PMID: 32221280 PMCID: PMC7101330 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15411-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the brain-resident macrophages, exhibit highly dynamic functions in neurodevelopment and neurodegeneration. Human microglia possess unique features as compared to mouse microglia, but our understanding of human microglial functions is largely limited by an inability to obtain human microglia under homeostatic states. Here, we develop a human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-based microglial chimeric mouse brain model by transplanting hPSC-derived primitive macrophage progenitors into neonatal mouse brains. Single-cell RNA-sequencing of the microglial chimeric mouse brains reveals that xenografted hPSC-derived microglia largely retain human microglial identity, as they exhibit signature gene expression patterns consistent with physiological human microglia and recapitulate heterogeneity of adult human microglia. Importantly, the engrafted hPSC-derived microglia exhibit dynamic response to cuprizone-induced demyelination and species-specific transcriptomic differences in the expression of neurological disease-risk genes in microglia. This model will serve as a tool to study the role of human microglia in brain development and degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjie Xu
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Xiaoxi Li
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Immunology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Andrew J Boreland
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Graduate Program in Molecular Biosciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Anthony Posyton
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Kelvin Kwan
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Ronald P Hart
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Peng Jiang
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.
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242
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Abstract
Microglia dynamically interact with neurons influencing the development, structure, and function of neuronal networks. Recent studies suggest microglia may also influence neuronal activity by physically interacting with axonal domains responsible for action potential initiation and propagation. However, the nature of these microglial process interactions is not well understood. Microglial-axonal contacts are present early in development and persist through adulthood, implicating microglial interactions in the regulation of axonal integrity in both the developing and mature central nervous system. Moreover, changes in microglial-axonal contact have been described in disease states such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and traumatic brain injury (TBI). Depending on the disease state, there are increased associations with specific axonal segments. In MS, there is enhanced contact with the axon initial segment and node of Ranvier, while, in TBI, microglia alter interactions with axons at the site of injury, as well as at the axon initial segment. In this article, we review the interactions of microglial processes with axonal segments, analyzing their associations with various axonal domains and how these interactions may differ between MS and TBI. Furthermore, we discuss potential functional consequences and molecular mechanisms of these interactions and how these may differ among various types of microglial-axonal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savannah D Benusa
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | - Audrey D Lafrenaye
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
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243
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Ilan Y. Order Through Disorder: The Characteristic Variability of Systems. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:186. [PMID: 32266266 PMCID: PMC7098948 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Randomness characterizes many processes in nature, and therefore its importance cannot be overstated. In the present study, we investigate examples of randomness found in various fields, to underlie its fundamental processes. The fields we address include physics, chemistry, biology (biological systems from genes to whole organs), medicine, and environmental science. Through the chosen examples, we explore the seemingly paradoxical nature of life and demonstrate that randomness is preferred under specific conditions. Furthermore, under certain conditions, promoting or making use of variability-associated parameters may be necessary for improving the function of processes and systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaron Ilan
- Department of Medicine, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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244
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Erny D, Prinz M. How microbiota shape microglial phenotypes and epigenetics. Glia 2020; 68:1655-1672. [PMID: 32181523 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Among the myeloid cells in the central nervous system (CNS) microglia are the main representatives of the innate immune system. Microglial fulfil tasks beyond phagocytosing debris and host defense against invading microorganism. During brain development microglia guide for example neurons for proper CNS formation, in adulthood they maintain tissue homeostasis and in aging microglia may become pro-inflammatory and finally exhausted. Recently, several endogenous and exogenous factors were identified that essentially shape the microglial phenotype during both steady-state and pathological conditions. On the one hand, microglia receive inputs from CNS-endogenous sources for example, via crosstalk with other glial cells and neurons but on the other hand microglia are also highly modulated by external signals. Among them, host microbiota-the host's resident bacteria-are vital regulators of the CNS innate immune system. This review summarizes key extrinsic and intrinsic factors, with special focus on the host microbiota, that essentially influence microglia functions and states during development, homeostasis, and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Erny
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Berta-Ottenstein-Programme, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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245
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Boeck M, Thien A, Wolf J, Hagemeyer N, Laich Y, Yusuf D, Backofen R, Zhang P, Boneva S, Stahl A, Hilgendorf I, Agostini H, Prinz M, Wieghofer P, Schlunck G, Schlecht A, Lange C. Temporospatial distribution and transcriptional profile of retinal microglia in the oxygen‐induced retinopathy mouse model. Glia 2020; 68:1859-1873. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Boeck
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Adrian Thien
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Julian Wolf
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Nora Hagemeyer
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Yannik Laich
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Dilmurat Yusuf
- Department of BioinformaticsUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Rolf Backofen
- Department of BioinformaticsUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Peipei Zhang
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Stefaniya Boneva
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Andreas Stahl
- Department of OphthalmologyUniversity Medical Center Greifswald Greifswald Germany
| | - Ingo Hilgendorf
- Cardiology and AngiologyUniversity Heart Center, University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Hansjürgen Agostini
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
- Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSSUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Peter Wieghofer
- Institute of AnatomyUniversity of Leipzig Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Günther Schlunck
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Anja Schlecht
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
| | - Clemens Lange
- Eye Center, Medical Center, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau Germany
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246
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Chappell‐Maor L, Kolesnikov M, Kim J, Shemer A, Haimon Z, Grozovski J, Boura‐Halfon S, Masuda T, Prinz M, Jung S. Comparative analysis of CreER transgenic mice for the study of brain macrophages: A case study. Eur J Immunol 2020; 50:353-362. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.201948342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Masha Kolesnikov
- Department of ImmunologyWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Jung‐Seok Kim
- Department of ImmunologyWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Anat Shemer
- Department of ImmunologyWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | - Zhana Haimon
- Department of ImmunologyWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
| | | | | | - Takahiro Masuda
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
- Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics)Faculty of MedicineUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
- Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSSUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
| | - Steffen Jung
- Department of ImmunologyWeizmann Institute of Science Rehovot Israel
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247
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Stowell RD, Majewska AK. Acute ethanol exposure rapidly alters cerebellar and cortical microglial physiology. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 54:5834-5843. [PMID: 32064695 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol use is highly prevalent in modern society and ramifications of alcohol abuse pose a large public health concern. Previous work investigating the effects of alcohol exposure on the brain has implicated microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), as critical participants in the brain's response to chronic and developmental ethanol (EtOH) exposure. As rapid sensors of their environment, microglia also have the capacity to rapidly respond to alcohol administration and to contribute to acute effects of alcohol on the brain; however, their acute responses have not been assessed. Here, for the first time, we have examined the acute response of microglia to alcohol intoxication in vivo utilizing two-photon microscopy to assess the dynamics of these motile cells in both visual cortex and the cerebellum of mice. We found that microglia respond rapidly to EtOH exposure with fast changes in morphology, motility, parenchyma surveillance, and injury response. However, regional differences between the responses of cerebellar and cortical microglial populations indicate that subtle differences in microglial physiology may alter their vulnerability to acute alcohol intoxication. Our findings suggest that the longer-term effects of repeated EtOH exposure on microglia may result from repeat acute alterations in microglial physiology by single exposure to alcohol which rapidly alter behavior in specific microglial populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rianne D Stowell
- Department of Neuroscience, Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Ania K Majewska
- Department of Neuroscience, Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.,Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
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248
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Morrice JR, Gregory-Evans CY, Shaw CA. Investigating microglia during motor neuron degeneration using a zebrafish model. Micron 2020; 133:102852. [PMID: 32203887 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2020.102852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Many different types of pathologies can arise in the central nervous system (CNS), such as neurodegeneration. The incidence of neurodegenerative diseases continues to increase, yet the pathogenesis underlying most neurodegenerative diseases, notably in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), remains elusive. Neuronal support cells, or glia, are known to play a crucial role in ALS. Microglia are the resident immune cells of the CNS and also have neurotrophic support functions. These cells have a disease-modifying function in ALS, yet this role is not well understood. A likely reason for this is that the intact CNS is particularly challenging to access for investigation in patients and in most animal models, which has impeded research in this field. The zebrafish is emerging as a robust model system to investigate cells in vivo, and offer distinct advantages over other vertebrate models for investigating neurodegenerative diseases. Live imaging in vivo is a powerful technique to characterize the role of dynamic cells such as microglia during neurodegeneration, and zebrafish provide a convenient means for live imaging. Here, we discuss the zebrafish as a model for live imaging, provide a brief overview of available high resolution imaging platforms that accommodate zebrafish, and describe our own in vivo studies on the role of microglia during motor neuron degeneration. Live in vivo imaging is anticipated to provide invaluable advancements to defining the pathogenesis underlying neurodegenerative diseases, which may in turn allow for more specifically targeted therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Morrice
- Experimental Medicine Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
| | - Cheryl Y Gregory-Evans
- Experimental Medicine Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Christopher A Shaw
- Experimental Medicine Program, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2329 West Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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249
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Wang XJ, Ma MM, Zhou LB, Jiang XY, Hao MM, Teng RKF, Wu E, Tang BS, Li JY, Teng JF, Ding XB. Autonomic ganglionic injection of α-synuclein fibrils as a model of pure autonomic failure α-synucleinopathy. Nat Commun 2020; 11:934. [PMID: 32071315 PMCID: PMC7028908 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-14189-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
α-Synucleinopathies are characterized by autonomic dysfunction and motor impairments. In the pure autonomic failure (PAF), α-synuclein (α-Syn) pathology is confined within the autonomic nervous system with no motor features, but mouse models recapitulating PAF without motor dysfunction are lacking. Here, we show that in TgM83+/- mice, inoculation of α-Syn preformed fibrils (PFFs) into the stellate and celiac ganglia induces spreading of α-Syn pathology only through the autonomic pathway to both the central nervous system (CNS) and the autonomic innervation of peripheral organs bidirectionally. In parallel, the mice develop autonomic dysfunction, featured by orthostatic hypotension, constipation, hypohidrosis and hyposmia, without motor dysfunction. Thus, we have generated a mouse model of pure autonomic dysfunction caused by α-Syn pathology. This model may help define the mechanistic link between transmission of pathological α-Syn and the cardinal features of autonomic dysfunction in α-synucleinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Jing Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Institute of Parkinson and Movement Disorder, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
| | - Ming-Ming Ma
- Department of Neurology, Affiliated People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450003, China
| | - Le-Bo Zhou
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
- Institute of Parkinson and Movement Disorder, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Xiao-Yi Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
- Institute of Parkinson and Movement Disorder, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Miao-Miao Hao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
- Institute of Parkinson and Movement Disorder, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China
| | - Robert K F Teng
- Collage of Electronic and Information Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shen Zhen, Guangdong, 518060, China
| | - Erxi Wu
- Neuroscience Institute and Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor Scott & White Health, Temple, Texas, 76508, USA
| | - Bei-Sha Tang
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China.
- Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China.
| | - Jia-Yi Li
- Neural Plasticity and Repair Unit, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, BMC A10, 221 84, Lund, Sweden.
- Institute of Health Sciences, China Medical University, 110112, Shenyang, China.
| | - Jun-Fang Teng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Institute of Parkinson and Movement Disorder, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
| | - Xue-Bing Ding
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Institute of Parkinson and Movement Disorder, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450052, China.
- Center for Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410008, China.
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250
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Li LZ, Huang YY, Yang ZH, Zhang SJ, Han ZP, Luo YM. Potential microglia-based interventions for stroke. CNS Neurosci Ther 2020; 26:288-296. [PMID: 32064759 PMCID: PMC7052807 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A large number of families worldwide suffer from the physical and mental burden posed by stroke. An increasing number of studies aimed at the prevention and treatment of stroke have been conducted. Specifically, manipulating the immune response to stroke is under intense investigation. Microglia are the principal immune cells in the brain and are the first line of defense against the pathophysiology induced by stroke. Increasing evidence has suggested that microglia play diverse roles that depend on dynamic interactions with neurons, astrocytes, and other neighboring cells both in the normal brain and under pathological conditions, including stroke. Moreover, there are dynamic alterations in microglial functions with respect to aging and sex differences in the human brain, which offer a deep understanding of the conditions of stroke patients of different ages and sex. Hence, we review the dynamic microglial reactions caused by aging, sex, and crosstalk with neighboring cells both in normal conditions and after stroke and relevant potential interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling-Zhi Li
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yu-You Huang
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Hong Yang
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Si-Jia Zhang
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Zi-Ping Han
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center and Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Yu-Min Luo
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center and Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
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