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Norovirus Outbreak Associated with Swimming in a Recreational Lake Not Influenced by External Human Fecal Sources in The Netherlands, August 2012. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15112550. [PMID: 30441782 PMCID: PMC6267268 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15112550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Swimming in fecally contaminated recreational water may lead to gastrointestinal illness. A recreational water-associated outbreak of norovirus (NoV) infections affecting at least 100 people in The Netherlands occurred in August 2012. Questionnaire responses from patients indicated swimming in recreational lake Zeumeren as the most likely cause of illness. Most patients visited the lake during the weekend of 18–19 August, during which the weather was exceptionally warm (maximum temperatures 32–33 °C), and visitor numbers elevated. Patients, mostly children, became ill with gastroenteritis 1–6 days (median 2 days) after exposure. Four stool samples from patients were NoV GI positive. Subsurface sandy soil from one of the beaches where most patients swam was NoV GI positive; the water sample was negative. The epidemiological curve and the timeline of investigation based on reported symptoms demonstrate the difficulty in discovering the source in recreational water outbreaks. A NoV outbreak in a recreational lake that is not subjected to external fecal contamination sources shows the need for active communication about human shedding of viruses during and after diarrheal episodes and the advice to refrain from swimming, even a few weeks after the symptoms have resolved.
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Van Winkle JA, Robinson BA, Peters AM, Li L, Nouboussi RV, Mack M, Nice TJ. Persistence of Systemic Murine Norovirus Is Maintained by Inflammatory Recruitment of Susceptible Myeloid Cells. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 24:665-676.e4. [PMID: 30392829 PMCID: PMC6248887 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Viral persistence can contribute to chronic disease and promote virus dissemination. Prior work demonstrated that timely clearance of systemic murine norovirus (MNV) infection depends on cell-intrinsic type I interferon responses and adaptive immunity. We now find that the capsid of the systemically replicating MNV strain CW3 promotes lytic cell death, release of interleukin-1α, and increased inflammatory cytokine release. Correspondingly, inflammatory monocytes and neutrophils are recruited to sites of infection in a CW3-capsid-dependent manner. Recruited monocytes and neutrophils are subsequently infected, representing a majority of infected cells in vivo. Systemic depletion of inflammatory monocytes or neutrophils from persistently infected Rag1-/- mice reduces viral titers in a tissue-specific manner. These data indicate that the CW3 capsid facilitates lytic cell death, inflammation, and recruitment of susceptible cells to promote persistence. Infection of continuously recruited inflammatory cells may be a mechanism of persistence broadly utilized by lytic viruses incapable of establishing latency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Van Winkle
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Bridget A Robinson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - A Mack Peters
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Lena Li
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Ruth V Nouboussi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Matthias Mack
- Department of Internal Medicine (Nephrology), University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Timothy J Nice
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
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Bouziat R, Biering SB, Kouame E, Sangani KA, Kang S, Ernest JD, Varma M, Brown JJ, Urbanek K, Dermody TS, Ng A, Hinterleitner R, Hwang S, Jabri B. Murine Norovirus Infection Induces T H1 Inflammatory Responses to Dietary Antigens. Cell Host Microbe 2018; 24:677-688.e5. [PMID: 30392830 PMCID: PMC6326098 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal reovirus infection can trigger T helper 1 (TH1) immunity to dietary antigen, raising the question of whether other viruses can have a similar impact. Here we show that the acute CW3 strain of murine norovirus, but not the persistent CR6 strain, induces TH1 immunity to dietary antigen. This property of CW3 is dependent on its major capsid protein, a virulence determinant. Transcriptional profiling of mesenteric lymph nodes following infection reveals an immunopathological signature that does not segregate with protective immunity but with loss of oral tolerance, in which interferon regulatory factor 1 is critical. These data show that viral capacity to trigger specific inflammatory pathways at sites where T cell responses to dietary antigens take place interferes with the development of tolerance to an oral antigen. Collectively, these data provide a foundation for the development of therapeutic strategies to prevent TH1-mediated complex immune disorders triggered by viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Bouziat
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Scott B Biering
- Committee on Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Elaine Kouame
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Kishan A Sangani
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Soowon Kang
- Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jordan D Ernest
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mukund Varma
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Gastrointestinal Unit and Center for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Judy J Brown
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Kelly Urbanek
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Terence S Dermody
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Aylwin Ng
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Gastrointestinal Unit and Center for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Reinhard Hinterleitner
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Seungmin Hwang
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Microbiology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
| | - Bana Jabri
- Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Pathology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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204
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Successfully Treated Norovirus- and Sapovirus-Associated Diarrhea in Three Renal Transplant Patients. Case Rep Infect Dis 2018; 2018:6846873. [PMID: 30538873 PMCID: PMC6260410 DOI: 10.1155/2018/6846873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To examine the burden of norovirus- and sapovirus-related diarrhea in renal transplant patients and to propose the use of nitazoxanide as a therapeutic option for treatment. Methods We reviewed three renal transplant patients with viral diarrhea requiring hospitalization due to acute renal failure and signs of graft rejection. All three patients were treated with nitazoxanide. We examined their clinical courses after therapy and compared time to resolution of symptoms and viral shedding. Results In all three renal transplant patients, improvement of diarrheal illness was witnessed within one week of nitazoxanide initiation. Conclusions Infectious diarrhea remains an underestimated yet significant cause of morbidity in solid organ transplant patients. Norovirus and sapovirus are often responsible for this presentation. Nitazoxanide was used as a treatment modality with success in reduction of symptoms, decreased duration of illness, and cessation of viral shedding.
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205
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Hossain ME, Rahman R, Ali SI, Islam MM, Rahman MZ, Ahmed S, Faruque ASG, Barclay L, Vinjé J, Rahman M. Epidemiologic and Genotypic Distribution of Noroviruses Among Children With Acute Diarrhea and Healthy Controls in a Low-income Rural Setting. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 69:505-513. [DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundNoroviruses are the most common cause of epidemic and endemic acute gastroenteritis (AGE) worldwide. The burden of norovirus disease in low-income settings is poorly understood.MethodsWe tested stool samples from children less than 5 years of age with diarrhea who were admitted in a rural hospital in Bangladesh from 2010–2012 and from matched, healthy controls from the same catchment area.ResultsNorovirus was detected in 109 (18%) of 613 children with diarrhea and in 30 (15%) of 206 healthy controls. Most (n = 118; 85%) norovirus infections belonged to genogroup II (GII). Of these, GII.4 viruses were identified in 36 (33%) of the cases and in 6 (21%) of the controls. Other major genotypes included GII.3 (13%), GII.6 (11%), and GII.13 (11%) in the cases and GII.6 (17%) and GII.2 (14%) in the controls. The greatest risk of severe norovirus disease (Vesikari score ≥11) was associated with GII.4 infections. GII.4 viruses were the predominant genotype detected during the winter (55%) and rainy season (23%), while GII.3 (19%) and GII.13 (19%) viruses were the most prevalent genotypes during the summer. Vomiting was significantly associated with GII.4 infections, while longer durations of diarrhea were associated with GI.3 infections.ConclusionsFuture studies are needed to understand the high rates of virus shedding in children without AGE symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rajibur Rahman
- icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Sk Imran Ali
- icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md Muzahidul Islam
- icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Shahnawaz Ahmed
- icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Leslie Barclay
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jan Vinjé
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Mustafizur Rahman
- icddr,b (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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Prez VE, Martínez LC, Victoria M, Giordano MO, Masachessi G, Ré VE, Pavan JV, Colina R, Barril PA, Nates SV. Tracking enteric viruses in green vegetables from central Argentina: potential association with viral contamination of irrigation waters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 637-638:665-671. [PMID: 29758423 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of green vegetable products is commonly viewed as a potential risk factor for infection with enteric viruses. The link between vegetable crops and fecally contaminated irrigation water establishes an environmental scenario that can result in a risk to human health. The aim of this work was to analyze the enteric viral quality in leafy green vegetables from Córdoba (Argentina) and its potential association with viral contamination of irrigation waters. During July-December 2012, vegetables were collected from peri-urban green farms (n = 19) and its corresponding urban river irrigation waters (n = 12). Also, urban sewage samples (n = 6) were collected to analyze the viral variants circulating in the community. Viruses were eluted and concentrated by polyethylene glycol precipitation and then were subject to Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction to assess the genome presence of norovirus, rotavirus and human astrovirus. The concentrates were also inoculated in HEp-2 (Human Epidermoid carcinoma strain #2) cells to monitor the occurrence of infective enterovirus. The frequency of detection of the viral groups in sewage, irrigation water and crops was: norovirus 100%, 67% and 58%, rotavirus 100%, 75% and 5%, astrovirus 83%, 75% and 32% and infective enterovirus 50%, 33% and 79%, respectively. A similar profile in sewage, irrigation water and green vegetables was observed for norovirus genogroups (I and II) distribution as well as for rotavirus and astrovirus G-types. These results provide the first data for Argentina pointing out that green leafy vegetables are contaminated with a broad range of enteric viruses and that the irrigation water would be a source of contamination. The presence of viral genomes and infective particles in food that in general suffer minimal treatment before consumption underlines that green crops can act as potential sources of enteric virus transmission. Public intervention in the use of the river waters as irrigation source is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- V E Prez
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina.
| | - L C Martínez
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - M Victoria
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Centro Universitario de Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, Salto, Uruguay
| | - M O Giordano
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - G Masachessi
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina
| | - V E Ré
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina
| | - J V Pavan
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
| | - R Colina
- Laboratorio de Virología Molecular, CENUR Litoral Norte, Centro Universitario de Salto, Universidad de la República, Rivera 1350, Salto, Uruguay
| | - P A Barril
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas - CONICET, Argentina; Laboratorio de Microbiología de los Alimentos, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia Técnica a la Industria (CIATI A.C.), Expedicionarios del Desierto 1310, CP 8309 Centenario, Neuquén, Argentina
| | - S V Nates
- Instituto de Virología "Dr. J. M. Vanella", Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Enfermera Gordillo Gómez s/n - Ciudad Universitaria, CP 5000 Córdoba, Argentina
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207
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Liu D, Zhang Z, Yin Y, Jia F, Wu Q, Tian P, Wang D. Development and evaluation of a novel in situ target-capture approach for aptamer selection of human noroviruses. Talanta 2018; 193:199-205. [PMID: 30368291 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.09.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) is the primary non-bacterial pathogen causing acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Molecular approaches have been mainly used for detection of HuNoVs. Aptamer-based assay has been also applied for detection of HuNoVs through affinity binding of viral capsid. In a conventional systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment process, the target protein-bound sequences in the library were recovered by complicated process including affinity chromatography, extraction, membrane-filtration or antibody-conjugated magnetic beads. In this study, a novel approach was applied to select aptamers for HuNoVs. The new approach incorporated an in situ capture assay and next generation sequencing (NSG) for selecting the aptamers. P particles of HuNoV (GII.4) were purified and coated on the module to capture sequences that were specifically bound with the protein. The unbound sequences were easily removed by washing. The sequences with high affinity were amplified just in the wells and selected by repeated in situ selection process. From the total of 30,622,226 tested sequences, two aptamers, APTL-1 and APTL-6, were finally selected to incorporate with in situ capture RT-qPCR assay for detection of HuNoVs from clinical samples. The sensitivity of these two aptamers was compared with porcine gastric mucin (PGM) that contains well-known viral receptors, and the reported aptamer APT-M6-2. Both GI and GII HuNoVs could be detected from 5 clinical samples tested. The selected aptamer APTL-1 was comparable to PGM and slightly superior to the reported APTM6-2 aptamer for detection of HuNoVs from clinical samples. The results demonstrated that this in situ target-capture approach for aptamer selection is practicable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danlei Liu
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Renji Hospital School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zilei Zhang
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Renji Hospital School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yujie Yin
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Renji Hospital School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Feng Jia
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Renji Hospital School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Qingping Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Peng Tian
- Produce Safety and Microbiology Research Unit, Western Regional Research Center, Agricultural Research Service-United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94706, USA
| | - Dapeng Wang
- School of Agriculture and Biology, Renji Hospital School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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Wan MLY, Forsythe SJ, El-Nezami H. Probiotics interaction with foodborne pathogens: a potential alternative to antibiotics and future challenges. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2018; 59:3320-3333. [PMID: 29993263 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1490885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotics are a key tool used nowadays in health care industry to fight against bacterial infections; however, repeated antibiotic use or misuses, have led to bacterial resistance, causing significant threats for many people with common bacterial infections. The use of probiotics to enhance gastrointestinal health has been proposed for many years. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the use of probiotic bacteria as alternatives for antibiotics for preventing or treating various intestinal infections. Several important underlying mechanisms responsible for the antagonistic effects of probiotics on different microorganisms include: (1) competitive exclusion for adhesion sites and nutritional sources; (2) secretion of antimicrobial substances; (3) enhancement of intestinal barrier function; and (4) immunomodulation. However, their mode of action is not very well understood and therefore a clearer understanding of these mechanisms is necessitated. This will enable appropriate probiotic strains to be selected for particular applications and may reveal new probiotic functions. The goal of this review was to highlight some studies from literature describing the probiotic interaction with several major foodborne pathogens, as well as explore the mechanisms for such probiotic-pathogen interaction. The review will conclude by presenting future perspective and challenges of probiotic application in food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murphy Lam Yim Wan
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong S.A.R
| | | | - Hani El-Nezami
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong S.A.R.,Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Kim BR, Choi GE, Kim YO, Kim MJ, Song ES, Woo YJ. Incidence and characteristics of norovirus-associated benign convulsions with mild gastroenteritis, in comparison with rotavirus ones. Brain Dev 2018; 40:699-706. [PMID: 29681427 DOI: 10.1016/j.braindev.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Rotavirus was detected in 40-50% of patients with benign convulsions with mild gastroenteritis (CwG) before the rotavirus vaccine was introduced in late 2000. However, the rate of rotavirus positivity has decreased since 2010 while the prevalence of norovirus has gradually increased. We investigated the incidence of norovirus-associated CwG during a recent 3-year period and additionally compared the characteristics of norovirus-associated CwG with those of rotavirus-associated CwG. METHODS The medical records of CwG patients admitted to our hospital between March 2014 and February 2017 were reviewed, including the results of stool virus tests. For comparing norovirus- and rotavirus-associated CwG, data obtained between March 2005 and February 2014 that included sufficient numbers of patients with rotavirus-associated CwG were additionally reviewed. Data were collected on clinical characteristics (age, sex, seasonal distribution, enteric symptoms, and the interval to seizure onset), seizure characteristics (frequency, duration, type, and electroencephalographic findings), and laboratory findings. RESULTS CwG was diagnosed in 42 patients during the 3-year study period. Stool viruses were checked in 40 (95.2%) patients and were detected in 32 (80.0%) patients. Norovirus genogroup II was detected in 27 (67.5%) of the 40 patients, rotavirus was detected in 3 patients, and adenovirus was detected in 2 patients. In total, 140 CwG patients were enrolled between March 2005 and February 2017. The patients with norovirus-associated CwG (N = 44) and rotavirus-associated CwG (N = 26) were aged 18.66 ± 5.57 and 19.31 ± 7.37 months (mean ± standard deviation), respectively (P > 0.05). Norovirus-associated CwG was less prevalent than rotavirus-associated CwG during spring (13.6% vs. 34.6%, P = 0.04), while the prevalence of both types of CwG peaked during winter (63.6% and 46.2%, respectively). Vomiting was more prevalent in norovirus- than rotavirus-associated CwG (97.7% vs. 80.8%, P = 0.02) and the interval between enteric symptom onset and seizure onset was shorter in norovirus-associated CwG (2.00 ± 1.06 vs. 2.58 ± 1.21 days, P = 0.04). Most cases in both groups had seizures that lasted for less than 5 min (95.5% vs. 92.3%). Clustered seizures seemed to occur more frequently in the norovirus group (79.5% vs. 57.7%), although with borderline significance (P = 0.05). Posterior slowing was observed more frequently in norovirus-associated CwG (34.9% vs. 11.5%, P = 0.03). CONCLUSION The most common viral pathogen of CwG was norovirus during the analyzed 3-year period, with an incidence of 67.5%. In comparison with rotavirus-associated CwG, norovirus-associated CwG was less frequent during spring, more frequently seen with vomiting, had a shorter interval from enteric symptom onset to seizure onset, and more frequently showed posterior slowing in electroencephalography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Ram Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea; Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Childrens' Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Ga Eun Choi
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Childrens' Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ok Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea; Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Childrens' Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.
| | - Min Ji Kim
- Water and Foodborne Disease Division, Health and Environment Research Institute of Gwangju, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.
| | - Eun Song Song
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea; Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Childrens' Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.
| | - Young Jong Woo
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School, Gwangju, Republic of Korea; Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Childrens' Hospital, Gwangju, Republic of Korea.
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210
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Lilja M, Widerström M, Lindh J. Persisting post-infection symptoms 2 years after a large waterborne outbreak of Cryptosporidium hominis in northern Sweden. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:625. [PMID: 30165888 PMCID: PMC6117891 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3721-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In 2010-2011, a large waterborne outbreak of Cryptosporidium hominis affected the city of Östersund in Sweden. Previous findings had suggested that gastrointestinal symptoms can persist for up to 11 months after the initial infection. Here we investigated whether the parasite could cause sequelae in infected individuals up to 28 months after the outbreak. We compared cases linked to the outbreak and the previous follow-up study with non-cases regarding symptoms present up to 28 months after the initial infection. We investigated whether cases were more likely to report a list of symptoms at follow-up compared to non-cases, calculating odds ratio and 95% confidence interval obtained through logistic regression. RESULTS A total of 559 individuals (215 cases) were included in the study. Forty-eight percent of the outbreak cases reported symptoms at follow-up. Compared to non-cases, cases were more likely to report watery diarrhea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatigue, nausea, headache, or joint stiffness/pain/discomfort at follow-up after adjusting for age and sex. Our findings suggest that gastrointestinal symptoms and joint pain can persist several years after the initial Cryptosporidium infection and should be regarded as a potential cause of unexplained gastrointestinal symptoms or joint pain in people who have had this infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Lilja
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Unit of Clinical Research Center-Östersund, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Micael Widerström
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Unit of Communicable Disease Control and Prevention-Östersund, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Johan Lindh
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Microbiology, Uppsala University, Box 256, 751 05, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Kim YE, Song M, Lee J, Seung HJ, Kwon EY, Yu J, Hwang Y, Yoon T, Park TJ, Lim IK. Phylogenetic characterization of norovirus strains detected from sporadic gastroenteritis in Seoul during 2014-2016. Gut Pathog 2018; 10:36. [PMID: 30181781 PMCID: PMC6112129 DOI: 10.1186/s13099-018-0263-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Phylogenetic analysis of norovirus (NoV) is efficient for tracking NoV transmission. To determine the widespread NoV strains in Seoul, we conducted an extensive phylogenetic characterization of NoV-positives from 1659 diarrheal specimens collected in 2014–2016 for the Seoul NoV-surveillance. Results When the large numbers of NoV partial VP1 genome sequences were analyzed in acute gastroenteritis patients along with the phylogenetic characterization, we could identify molecular epidemiologic patterns based on the genetic characteristics of sporadic NoV strains circulating in Seoul, which could provide a detailed description of the genome-wide and community-wide NoV evolution in each genotype. The average NoV detection rate in our study period was 16.34% that was increased by 7.44% from 13.17% in 2014 to 20.61% in 2016. Prevalence of NoV GI and GII was 4.43% and 93.36%, respectively, and the GII.4, GII.17, and GII.3 were found to be the major type among 17 genotypes of NoV. The most prevalent one was GII.4 (50.92%) that was followed by GII.17 (18.08%) and GII.3 (9.96%). According to an extensive phylogenetic analysis based on partial VP1 sequences of 1008 NoV (276 sporadic, 518 outbreak and 214 reference), pandemic strains of GII.17, GII.4 and GII.3 have emerged in succession during the 2014-2016 Seoul NoV-surveillance. GII.17 emerged as GII.17|Kawasaki323 in 2014, and became the predominant genotype in 2015 with GII.17|2014_Kawasaki lineages (CUHK-NS-616/Kawasaki308). The formerly predominant GII.4 remained high-level with GII.4|2012_Sydney in 2014 and internally replaced to GII.4|2016_Kawasaki194 lineage (NOR-2565/NOR-2558/OH16002) that caused the sporadic NoV explosion since December 2015. Sporadically prevalent GII.3|Hu/Aichio334-13/2013 failed to develop any outbreaks, whereas sporadic GII.3|Hu/3-28/2015/HNZZ/CHN caused heavy outbreaks in Seoul without preparation time since November 2016. Conclusions This is the first extensive phylogenetic study revealing the important events of NoV strains circulating in Seoul. Particularly, our study period from 2014 to 2016 was very dynamic with the emergences of the three main NoV strains (GII.17|2014_Kawasaki, GII.4|2016_Kawasaki194 and GII.3|Hu/3-28/2015/HNZZ/CHN) every year. We are sure that it is hard to detect above findings by simple conventional analysis. Our present study reports a future paradigm of the NoV molecular epidemiology, which might be highly valuable to track new strains and predict oncoming outbreaks. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13099-018-0263-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Eun Kim
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea.,2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ajou University School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 Republic of Korea
| | - Miok Song
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Jaein Lee
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jung Seung
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Young Kwon
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Jinkyung Yu
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Youngok Hwang
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Taeho Yoon
- 1Department of Infectious Disease Research, Seoul Metropolitan Government Research Institute of Public Health and Environment, 30 Janggunmaeul 3-gil, Gwacheon, 13818 Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Jun Park
- 2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ajou University School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 Republic of Korea
| | - In Kyoung Lim
- 2Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ajou University School of Medicine and Graduate School of Medicine, 164 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon, 16499 Republic of Korea
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Mattison CP, Cardemil CV, Hall AJ. Progress on norovirus vaccine research: public health considerations and future directions. Expert Rev Vaccines 2018; 17:773-784. [PMID: 30092671 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2018.1510327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Noroviruses are the leading cause of foodborne illness worldwide, account for approximately one-fifth of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) cases globally, and cause a substantial economic burden. Candidate norovirus vaccines are in development, but there is currently no licensed vaccine. AREAS COVERED Noroviruses cause approximately 684 million cases and 212,000 deaths per year across all age groups, though burden estimates vary by study and region. Challenges to vaccine research include substantial and rapidly evolving genetic diversity, short-term and homotypic immunity to infection, and the absence of a single, well-established correlate of protection. Nonetheless, several norovirus vaccine candidates are currently in development, utilizing virus-like particles (VLPs), P particles, and recombinant adenoviruses. Of these, a bivalent GI.1/GII.4 VLP-based intramuscular vaccine (Phase IIb) and GI.1 oral vaccine (Phase I) are in clinical trials. EXPERT COMMENTARY A norovirus vaccine should target high-risk populations, including the young and the elderly, and protect them against the most common circulating norovirus strains. A norovirus vaccine would be a powerful tool in the prevention and control of norovirus while lessening the burden of AGE worldwide. However, more robust burden and cost estimates are needed to justify investments in and guide norovirus vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire P Mattison
- a Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education , Oak Ridge , TN , USA.,b Division of Viral Diseases, Viral Gastroenteritis Branch , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , USA
| | - Cristina V Cardemil
- b Division of Viral Diseases, Viral Gastroenteritis Branch , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , USA
| | - Aron J Hall
- b Division of Viral Diseases, Viral Gastroenteritis Branch , Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Atlanta , USA
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Antiviral activity of Schizonepeta tenuifolia Briquet against noroviruses via induction of antiviral interferons. J Microbiol 2018; 56:683-689. [DOI: 10.1007/s12275-018-8228-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 05/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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214
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Orchard RC, Wilen CB, Virgin HW. Sphingolipid biosynthesis induces a conformational change in the murine norovirus receptor and facilitates viral infection. Nat Microbiol 2018; 3:1109-1114. [PMID: 30127493 PMCID: PMC6158067 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-018-0221-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cellular susceptibility to viral infections is in part determined by the presence of a host cellular receptor. Here we use murine norovirus as a model to uncover an unappreciated connection between an intracellular lipid biosynthetic enzyme and a receptor conformation permissive for viral infection. The serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT) complex is required for de novo sphingolipid biosynthesis and we find that its absence impairs the ability of murine norovirus to bind and enter cells. While, the SPT complex is dispensable for the surface expression of the norovirus receptor, CD300lf, SPT activity is required for CD300lf to adopt a conformation permissive for viral binding. Addition of extracellular ceramide to SPT deficient cells chemically complements both the conformational changes of CD300lf and the cellular susceptibility to murine norovirus infection. Taken together, these data indicate that intracellular sphingolipid biosynthesis regulates the conformation of the murine norovirus receptor, and therefore the tropism of murine norovirus. This indicates that intracellular biosynthetic pathways can regulate viral tropism even when the receptor for a virus is expressed on the target cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C Orchard
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA. .,Department of Immunology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
| | - Craig B Wilen
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Herbert W Virgin
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Molecular epidemiology of noroviruses in children in South Greece, 2013‐2015. J Med Virol 2018; 90:1703-1711. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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216
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Rolfes MC, Sriaroon P, Dávila Saldaña BJ, Dvorak CC, Chapdelaine H, Ferdman RM, Chen K, Jolles S, Patel NC, Kim YJ, Tarrant TK, Martelius T, Seppanen M, Joshi AY. Chronic norovirus infection in primary immune deficiency disorders: an international case series. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2018; 93:69-73. [PMID: 30174143 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Predictive factors associated with clinical outcomes of chronic norovirus infection (CNI) in primary immunodeficiency diseases (PIDD) are lacking. METHOD We sought to characterize CNI using a multi-institutional cohort of patients with PIDD and CNI using the Clinical Immunology Society's CIS-PIDD Listserv e-mail group. RESULTS Thirty-four subjects (21 males and 13 females) were reported from centers across North America, Europe, and Asia. All subjects were receiving high doses (median IgG dose: 1200 mg/kg/month) of supplemental immunoglobulin therapy. Fifty-three percent had a complete absence of B cells (median B-cell count 0; range 0-139 cells/μL). Common Variable Immune Deficiency (CVID) subjects manifested a unique phenotype with B-cell lymphopenia, non O+ blood type, and villous atrophy (logistic regression model, P = 0.01). Five subjects died, all of whom had no evidence of villous atrophy. CONCLUSION While Norovirus (NoV) is thought to replicate in B cells, in this PIDD cohort of CNI, B-cell lymphopenia was common, indicating that the presence of B lymphocytes is not essential for CNI.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Rolfes
- Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, Rochester, MN
| | - P Sriaroon
- USF/All Children's Hospital Allergy/Immunology, St. Petersburg, FL
| | - B J Dávila Saldaña
- Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Children's National Health System, Washington, DC
| | - C C Dvorak
- Division of Pediatric Allergy, Immunology, and Bone Marrow Transplantation, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - H Chapdelaine
- Department of Allergy and Immunology, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - R M Ferdman
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Department of Pediatrics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - K Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Allergy and Immunology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT
| | - S Jolles
- Immunodeficiency Centre for Wales, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
| | - N C Patel
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Disease and Immunology, Levine Children's Hospital, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, NC
| | - Y J Kim
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunodeficiency, Department of Pediatrics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - T K Tarrant
- Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC
| | - T Martelius
- Adult Immunodeficiency Unit, Infectious Diseases, Inflammation Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - M Seppanen
- Adult Immunodeficiency Unit, Infectious Diseases, Inflammation Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland; Rare Disease Center, Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - A Y Joshi
- Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, Rochester, MN; Division of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic Children's Center, Rochester, MN.
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Qi R, Huang YT, Liu JW, Sun Y, Sun XF, Han HJ, Qin XR, Zhao M, Wang LJ, Li W, Li JH, Chen C, Yu XJ. Global Prevalence of Asymptomatic Norovirus Infection: A Meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine 2018; 2-3:50-58. [PMID: 31193628 PMCID: PMC6537540 DOI: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies about asymptomatic norovirus infections have been frequently reported. We aim to assess the global prevalence of asymptomatic infections. METHOD We identified publications that included the proportion of asymptomatic norovirus infections by searching in PubMed, Ovid, Scopus, and Web of Science and by screening references from the articles reviewed. The principal summary data were the prevalence of asymptomatic norovirus infection. Random-effect models for meta-analysis were fitted to generate estimates of overall and subgroup prevalence. FINDINGS Of 81 studies included, asymptomatic norovirus prevalence was estimated at 7% (95% CI: 6%-9%). Africa, Meso America and South America had higher prevalence (15%, 14%, 11%, respectively) while the prevalence in Europe and North America was lower (4%). Prevalence was similar between community and hospital (9%). Prevalence was higher in children (8%) than adults (4%). For food handlers, prevalence was estimated at 3%. In context of outbreaks, prevalence estimated from 15 studies was as high as 18% (95% CI: 10%-30%). INTERPRETATION This knowledge could have an impact on the development of transmission prevention strategies in the future. The high prevalence indicated asymptomatic individuals must not be overlooked. OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS The high prevalence indicated asymptomatic individuals must not be overlooked. Asymptomatic individuals may play an important role in norovirus transmission. This knowledge could have an impact on the development of transmission prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Qi
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Yu-ting Huang
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Jian-wei Liu
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Yue Sun
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Xi-feng Sun
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Hui-Ju Han
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Xiang-Rong Qin
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Min Zhao
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Li-jun Wang
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Wenqian Li
- School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Jun-hong Li
- Changzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Cong Chen
- Changzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Changzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xue-Jie Yu
- School of Health Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
- Departments of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
- Corresponding author at: School of Health Sciences and State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China, No. 115 Donghu Road, Wuhan, 430071, Hubei Province, China; Departments of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA.
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218
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Zhao B, Dewald C, Hennig M, Bossert J, Bauer M, Pletz MW, Jandt KD. Microorganisms @ materials surfaces in aircraft: Potential risks for public health? - A systematic review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2018; 28:6-14. [PMID: 30056140 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Civil air travel is increasingly recognized as an important potential source for the rapid spread of infectious diseases that were geographically confined in the past, creating international epidemics with great health and socio-economic impact. OBJECTIVE The objective of this systematic review is to elucidate the correlations of materials surfaces (composition, structure, properties) and microbial dependences on them in aircraft. METHODS The review was prepared according to PRISMA guidelines. Based on a systematic search for studies published before 30 June 2018 in English, we selected and reviewed the contamination, tenacity, and transmission of microorganisms related to specific surfaces within the aircraft cabin. We also reviewed the chemical composition and properties of these surface materials applied within aircraft. RESULTS From a total of 828 records 15 articles were included for further analysis in this systematic review, indicating that the aircraft interior surfaces in seat areas (tray tables, armrests, seat covers) and lavatories (door knob handles, toilet flush buttons) are generally colonized by various types of potentially hazardous microorganisms. CONCLUSIONS The interior surfaces in seat and lavatory areas could pose higher health risks by causing infections due to their relatively high microbial contamination compared with other interior surfaces. The classification, chemical composition, surface structures and physicochemical properties of materials surfaces have a varied effect on the adhesion, colonization, tenacity and potential transmission of microorganisms within the aircraft cabin. Strategies are proposed for the interruption of surface-related infection chains in the aircraft field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zhao
- Chair of Materials Science (CMS), Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research (OSIM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Löbdergraben 32, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Carolin Dewald
- Chair of Materials Science (CMS), Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research (OSIM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Löbdergraben 32, 07743, Jena, Germany; Jena School for Microbial Communication (JSMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Max Hennig
- Chair of Materials Science (CMS), Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research (OSIM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Löbdergraben 32, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Jörg Bossert
- Chair of Materials Science (CMS), Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research (OSIM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Löbdergraben 32, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Bauer
- Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Unit, University Hospital Jena, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Mathias W Pletz
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Infection Control, Center for Sepsis Control and Care, University Hospital Jena, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany.
| | - Klaus D Jandt
- Chair of Materials Science (CMS), Otto Schott Institute of Materials Research (OSIM), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Löbdergraben 32, 07743, Jena, Germany; Jena School for Microbial Communication (JSMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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Bányai K, Estes MK, Martella V, Parashar UD. Viral gastroenteritis. Lancet 2018; 392:175-186. [PMID: 30025810 PMCID: PMC8883799 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(18)31128-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Enteric viruses, particularly rotaviruses and noroviruses, are a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide. Rotaviruses primarily affect young children, accounting for almost 40% of hospital admissions for diarrhoea and 200 000 deaths worldwide, with the majority of deaths occurring in developing countries. Two vaccines against rotavirus were licensed in 2006 and have been implemented in 95 countries as of April, 2018. Data from eight high-income and middle-income countries showed a 49-89% decline in rotavirus-associated hospital admissions and a 17-55% decline in all-cause gastroenteritis-associated hospital admissions among children younger than 5 years, within 2 years of vaccine introduction. Noroviruses affect people of all ages, and are a leading cause of foodborne disease and outbreaks of gastroenteritis worldwide. Prevention of norovirus infection relies on frequent hand hygiene, limiting contact with people who are infected with the virus, and disinfection of contaminated environmental surfaces. Norovirus vaccine candidates are in clinical trials; whether vaccines will provide durable protection against the range of genetically and antigenically diverse norovirus strains remains unknown. Treatment of viral gastroenteritis is based primarily on replacement of fluid and electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krisztián Bányai
- Institute for Veterinary Medical Research, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Mary K Estes
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Vito Martella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University Aldo Moro of Bari, Provincial Road to Casamassima, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Umesh D Parashar
- Viral Gastroenteritis Branch, Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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Kim L, Liebowitz D, Lin K, Kasparek K, Pasetti MF, Garg SJ, Gottlieb K, Trager G, Tucker SN. Safety and immunogenicity of an oral tablet norovirus vaccine, a phase I randomized, placebo-controlled trial. JCI Insight 2018; 3:121077. [PMID: 29997294 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.121077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Noroviruses are the leading cause of epidemic acute gastroenteritis and foodborne diarrheal disease in humans. However, there are no approved vaccines for noroviruses. Potential correlates of protection identified through human challenge studies include mucosal IgA, memory B cells, and serum-blocking antibody titers (BT50). METHODS We conducted a single-site, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of an oral norovirus vaccine to determine safety and immunogenicity. This tablet vaccine is comprised of a nonreplicating adenovirus-based vector expressing the VP1 gene from the GI.1 norovirus strain and a double-stranded RNA adjuvant. Sixty-six adult subjects meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria were randomized 2:1 to receive a single vaccine dose or placebo, respectively. Immunogenicity was primarily assessed by serum BT50. Additional outcomes included serum ELISA titers, fecal and saliva antibody titers, memory and antibody-secreting cell (ASC) frequency, and B cell phenotyping. RESULTS The vaccine was well-tolerated, with no dose-limiting toxicities. Adverse events were mild or moderate. The primary immunological endpoint (increase in BT50 titers) was met in the high-dose group (P = 0.0003), with 78% showing a ≥2-fold rise in titers after a single immunization. Vaccine recipients also developed mucosally primed VP1-specific circulating ASCs, IgA+ memory B cells expressing gut-homing receptor (α4β7), and fecal IgA, indicating substantial and local responses potentially relevant to prevent norovirus infection. CONCLUSION This oral norovirus vaccine was well-tolerated and generated substantial immune responses, including systemic and mucosal antibodies as well as memory IgA/IgG. These results are a major step forward for the development of a safe and immunogenic oral norovirus vaccine. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02868073. FUNDING Vaxart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leesun Kim
- Vaxart, South San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Karen Lin
- Vaxart, South San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | - Marcela F Pasetti
- Center for Vaccine Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Buckley D, Dharmasena M, Fraser A, Pettigrew C, Anderson J, Jiang X. Efficacy of Silver Dihydrogen Citrate and Steam Vapor against a Human Norovirus Surrogate, Feline Calicivirus, in Suspension, on Glass, and on Carpet. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e00233-18. [PMID: 29625987 PMCID: PMC5981082 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00233-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Carpets and other soft surfaces have been associated with prolonged and reoccurring human norovirus (HuNoV) outbreaks. Environmental hygiene programs are important to prevent and control HuNoV outbreaks. Despite our knowledge of HuNoV transmission via soft surfaces, no commercially available disinfectants have been evaluated on carpets. Our aim was to adapt a current standardized method for virucidal testing by assessing two disinfection technologies, silver dihydrogen citrate (SDC) and steam vapor, against one HuNoV surrogate, feline calicivirus (FCV), on wool and nylon carpets. First, we evaluated the effect of both technologies on the appearance of carpet. Next, we evaluated the efficacy of SDC in suspension and the efficacy of SDC and steam vapor against FCV on a glass surface, each with and without serum. Lastly, we tested both technologies on two types of carpet, wool and nylon. Both carpets exhibited no obvious color changes; however, SDC treatments left a residue while steam vapor left minor abrasions to fibers. SDC in suspension and on glass reduced FCV by 4.65 log10 and >4.66 log10 PFU, respectively, but demonstrated reduced efficacy in the presence of serum. However, SDC was only efficacious against FCV on nylon (3.62-log10 PFU reduction) and not wool (1.82-log10 PFU reduction). Steam vapor reduced FCV by >4.93 log10 PFU on glass in 10 s and >3.68 log10 PFU on wool and nylon carpet carriers in 90 s. There was a limited reduction of FCV RNA under both treatments compared to that of infectivity assays, but RNA reductions were higher in samples that contained serum.IMPORTANCE Human noroviruses (HuNoV) account for ca. 20% of all diarrheal cases worldwide. Disease symptoms may include diarrhea and vomit, with both known to contribute to transmission. The prevention and control of HuNoV are difficult because they are environmentally resilient and resistant to many disinfectants. Several field studies have linked both hard and soft surfaces to HuNoV outbreaks. However, many disinfectants efficacious against HuNoV surrogates are recommended for hard surfaces, but no commercially available products have demonstrated efficacy against these surrogates on soft surfaces. Our research objectives were to evaluate liquid and steam-based technologies in suspension and on hard surface carriers in addition to adapting and testing a protocol for assessing the virucidal effects of disinfection technologies on carpet carriers. These results will inform both the government and industry regarding a standard method for evaluating the virucidal effects of disinfectants on carpet while demonstrating their efficacy relative to suspension and hard-surface tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Buckley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Muthu Dharmasena
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Angela Fraser
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | | | | | - Xiuping Jiang
- Department of Food, Nutrition, and Packaging Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
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Guo P, Yu Y, Pan Y, Yan S, Wang Y. Design and evaluation of nested PCR primers for specific detection of genogroup I noroviruses in oysters. Mol Cell Probes 2018; 40:40-43. [PMID: 29902509 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A pair of nested PCR universal primers (NGIOF and NGIOR) specific for genogroup I (GI) noroviruses was designed based on all GI sequences available in public databases. The primers were evaluated for their specificity, sensitivity and coverage, which demonstrate their reliable performance upon detection of GI noroviruses in oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Guo
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yongxin Yu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Yingjie Pan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, China
| | - Shuling Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yongjie Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China; Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Aquatic Products on Storage and Preservation (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, China.
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Lee W, Kim M, Lee SH, Jung HG, Oh JW. Prophylactic efficacy of orally administered Bacillus poly-γ-glutamic acid, a non-LPS TLR4 ligand, against norovirus infection in mice. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8667. [PMID: 29875467 PMCID: PMC5989232 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26935-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), an extracellular biopolymer produced by Bacillus sp., is a non-canonical toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist. Here we show its antiviral efficacy against noroviruses. γ-PGA with a molecular mass of 2,000-kDa limited murine norovirus (MNV) replication in the macrophage cell line RAW264.7 by inducing interferon (IFN)-β and conferred resistance to viral infection-induced cell death. Additionally, γ-PGA interfered with viral entry into cells. The potent antiviral state mounted by γ-PGA was not attributed to the upregulation of TLR4 or TLR3, a sensor known to recognize norovirus RNA. γ-PGA sensing by TLR4 required the two TLR4-associated accessory factors MD2 and CD14. In ex vivo cultures of mouse ileum, γ-PGA selectively increased the expression of IFN-β in villi. In contrast, IFN-β induction was negligible in the ileal Peyer’s patches (PPs) where its expression was primarily induced by the replication of MNV. Oral administration of γ-PGA, which increased serum IFN-β levels without inducing proinflammatory cytokines, reduced MNV loads in the ileum with PPs and mesenteric lymph nodes in mice. Our results disclose a γ-PGA-mediated non-conventional TLR4 signaling in the ileum, highlighting the potential use of γ-PGA as a prophylactic antiviral agent against noroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseong Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Minwoo Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Seung-Hoon Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Hae-Gwang Jung
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea
| | - Jong-Won Oh
- Department of Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Korea.
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Nice TJ, Robinson BA, Van Winkle JA. The Role of Interferon in Persistent Viral Infection: Insights from Murine Norovirus. Trends Microbiol 2018; 26:510-524. [PMID: 29157967 PMCID: PMC5957778 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Persistent viral infections result from evasion or avoidance of sterilizing immunity, extend the timeframe of virus transmission, and can trigger disease. Prior studies in mouse models of persistent infection have suggested that ineffective adaptive immune responses are necessary for persistent viral infection. However, recent work in the murine norovirus (MNV) model of persistent infection demonstrates that innate immunity can control both early and persistent viral replication independently of adaptive immune effector functions. Interferons (IFNs) are central to the innate control of persistent MNV, apart from a role in modulating adaptive immunity. Furthermore, subtypes of IFN play distinct tissue-specific roles in innate control of persistent MNV infection. Type I IFN (IFN-α/β) controls systemic replication, and type III IFN (IFN-λ) controls MNV persistence in the intestinal epithelium. In this article, we review recent findings in the MNV model, highlighting the role of IFNs and innate immunity in clearing persistent viral infection, and discussing the broader implications of these findings for control of persistent human infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Nice
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
| | - Bridget A Robinson
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Jacob A Van Winkle
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
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225
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The Double Face of Mucin-Type O-Glycans in Lectin-Mediated Infection and Immunity. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23051151. [PMID: 29751628 PMCID: PMC6100456 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23051151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial human blood group antigens (HBGAs) on O-glycans play roles in pathogen binding and the initiation of infection, while similar structures on secretory mucins exert protective functions. These double-faced features of O-glycans in infection and innate immunity are reviewed based on two instructive examples of bacterial and viral pathogens. Helicobacter pylori represents a class 1 carcinogen in the human stomach. By expressing blood group antigen-binding adhesin (BabA) and LabA adhesins that bind to Lewis-b and LacdiNAc, respectively, H. pylori colocalizes with the mucin MUC5AC in gastric surface epithelia, but not with MUC6, which is cosecreted with trefoil factor family 2 (TFF2) by deep gastric glands. Both components of the glandular secretome are concertedly up-regulated upon infection. While MUC6 expresses GlcNAc-capped glycans as natural antibiotics for H. pylori growth control, TFF2 may function as a probiotic lectin. In viral infection human noroviruses of the GII genogroup interact with HBGAs via their major capsid protein, VP1. HBGAs on human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) may exert protective functions by binding to the P2 domain pocket on the capsid. We discuss structural details of the P2 carbohydrate-binding pocket in interaction with blood group H/Lewis-b HMOs and fucoidan-derived oligofucoses as effective interactors for the most prevalent norovirus strains, GII.4 and GII.17.
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226
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Lei H, Li Y, Xiao S, Lin C, Norris SL, Wei D, Hu Z, Ji S. Routes of transmission of influenza A H1N1, SARS CoV, and norovirus in air cabin: Comparative analyses. INDOOR AIR 2018; 28:394-403. [PMID: 29244221 PMCID: PMC7165818 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Identifying the exact transmission route(s) of infectious diseases in indoor environments is a crucial step in developing effective intervention strategies. In this study, we proposed a comparative analysis approach and built a model to simulate outbreaks of 3 different in-flight infections in a similar cabin environment, that is, influenza A H1N1, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV), and norovirus. The simulation results seemed to suggest that the close contact route was probably the most significant route (contributes 70%, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 67%-72%) in the in-flight transmission of influenza A H1N1 transmission; as a result, passengers within 2 rows of the index case had a significantly higher infection risk than others in the outbreak (relative risk [RR]: 13.4, 95% CI: 1.5-121.2, P = .019). For SARS CoV, the airborne, close contact, and fomite routes contributed 21% (95% CI: 19%-23%), 29% (95% CI: 27%-31%), and 50% (95% CI: 48%-53%), respectively. For norovirus, the simulation results suggested that the fomite route played the dominant role (contributes 85%, 95% CI: 83%-87%) in most cases; as a result, passengers in aisle seats had a significantly higher infection risk than others (RR: 9.5, 95% CI: 1.2-77.4, P = .022). This work highlighted a method for using observed outbreak data to analyze the roles of different infection transmission routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Lei
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong KongChina
| | - Y. Li
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong KongChina
| | - S. Xiao
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringThe University of Hong KongPokfulamHong KongChina
| | - C.‐H. Lin
- Environmental Control SystemsBoeing Commercial AirplanesEverettWAUSA
| | - S. L. Norris
- Environmental Control SystemsBoeing Commercial AirplanesEverettWAUSA
| | - D. Wei
- Boeing (China) Co. Ltd.BeijingChina
| | - Z. Hu
- Beijing Aeronautical Science & Technology Research Institute of COMACBeijingChina
| | - S. Ji
- Beijing Aeronautical Science & Technology Research Institute of COMACBeijingChina
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Delahoy MJ, Wodnik B, McAliley L, Penakalapati G, Swarthout J, Freeman MC, Levy K. Pathogens transmitted in animal feces in low- and middle-income countries. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2018; 221:661-676. [PMID: 29729998 PMCID: PMC6013280 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Animals found in close proximity to humans in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) harbor many pathogens capable of infecting humans, transmissible via their feces. Contact with animal feces poses a currently unquantified-though likely substantial-risk to human health. In LMIC settings, human exposure to animal feces may explain some of the limited success of recent water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions that have focused on limiting exposure to human excreta, with less attention to containing animal feces. We conducted a review to identify pathogens that may substantially contribute to the global burden of disease in humans through their spread in animal feces in the domestic environment in LMICs. Of the 65 potentially pathogenic organisms considered, 15 were deemed relevant, based on burden of disease and potential for zoonotic transmission. Of these, five were considered of highest concern based on a substantial burden of disease for which transmission in animal feces is potentially important: Campylobacter, non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS), Lassa virus, Cryptosporidium, and Toxoplasma gondii. Most of these have a wide range of animal hosts, except Lassa virus, which is spread through the feces of rats indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa. Combined, these five pathogens cause close to one million deaths annually. More than half of these deaths are attributed to invasive NTS. We do not estimate an overall burden of disease from improperly managed animal feces in LMICs, because it is unknown what proportion of illnesses caused by these pathogens can be attributed to contact with animal feces. Typical water quantity, water quality, and handwashing interventions promoted in public health and development address transmission routes for both human and animal feces; however, sanitation interventions typically focus on containing human waste, often neglecting the residual burden of disease from pathogens transmitted via animal feces. This review compiles evidence on which pathogens may contribute to the burden of disease through transmission in animal feces; these data will help prioritize intervention types and regions that could most benefit from interventions aimed at reducing human contact with animal feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda J Delahoy
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Breanna Wodnik
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Lydia McAliley
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Gauthami Penakalapati
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jenna Swarthout
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Matthew C Freeman
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Karen Levy
- Department of Environmental Health, Emory University Rollins School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Bartsch SM, Asti L, Nyathi S, Spiker ML, Lee BY. Estimated Cost to a Restaurant of a Foodborne Illness Outbreak. Public Health Rep 2018; 133:274-286. [PMID: 29656701 DOI: 10.1177/0033354917751129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Although outbreaks of restaurant-associated foodborne illness occur periodically and make the news, a restaurant may not be aware of the cost of an outbreak. We estimated this cost under varying circumstances. METHODS We developed a computational simulation model; scenarios varied outbreak size (5 to 250 people affected), pathogen (n = 15), type of dining establishment (fast food, fast casual, casual dining, and fine dining), lost revenue (ie, meals lost per illness), cost of lawsuits and legal fees, fines, and insurance premium increases. RESULTS We estimated that the cost of a single foodborne illness outbreak ranged from $3968 to $1.9 million for a fast-food restaurant, $6330 to $2.1 million for a fast-casual restaurant, $8030 to $2.2 million for a casual-dining restaurant, and $8273 to $2.6 million for a fine-dining restaurant, varying from a 5-person outbreak, with no lost revenue, lawsuits, legal fees, or fines, to a 250-person outbreak, with high lost revenue (100 meals lost per illness), and a high amount of lawsuits and legal fees ($1 656 569) and fines ($100 000). This cost amounts to 10% to 5790% of a restaurant's annual marketing costs and 0.3% to 101% of annual profits and revenue. The biggest cost drivers were lawsuits and legal fees, outbreak size, and lost revenue. Pathogen type affected the cost by a maximum of $337 000, the difference between a Bacillus cereus outbreak (least costly) and a listeria outbreak (most costly). CONCLUSIONS The cost of a single foodborne illness outbreak to a restaurant can be substantial and outweigh the typical costs of prevention and control measures. Our study can help decision makers determine investment and motivate research for infection-control measures in restaurant settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Bartsch
- 1 Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lindsey Asti
- 1 Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sindiso Nyathi
- 1 Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Marie L Spiker
- 1 Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Bruce Y Lee
- 1 Public Health Computational and Operations Research, Global Obesity Prevention Center, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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229
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Waterborne Norovirus outbreak at a seaside resort likely originating from municipal water distribution system failure. Epidemiol Infect 2018; 146:879-887. [DOI: 10.1017/s095026881800081x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractIn May 2016 a Norovirus (NoV) gastroenteritis outbreak involved a high school class visiting a seaside resort near Taormina (Mascali, Sicily). Twenty-four students and a teacher were affected and 17 of them showed symptoms on the second day of the journey, while the others got ill within the following 2 days. Symptoms included vomiting, diarrhoea and fever, and 12 students required hospitalisation. Stool samples tested positive for NoV genome by Real-Time polymerase chain reaction assay in all 25 symptomatic subjects. The GII.P2/GII.2 NoV genotype was linked to the outbreak by ORF1/ORF2 sequence analysis. The epidemiological features of the outbreak were consistent with food/waterborne followed by person-to-person and/or vomit transmission. Food consumed at a shared lunch on the first day of the trip was associated to illness and drinking un-bottled tap water was also considered as a risk factor. The analysis of water samples revealed the presence of bacterial indicators of faecal contamination in the water used in the resort as well as in other areas of the municipal water network, linking the NoV gastroenteritis outbreak to tap water pollution from sewage leakage. From a single water sample, an amplicon whose sequence corresponded to the capsid genotype recovered from patients could be obtained.
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230
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Tomb RM, White TA, Coia JE, Anderson JG, MacGregor SJ, Maclean M. Review of the Comparative Susceptibility of Microbial Species to Photoinactivation Using 380-480 nm Violet-Blue Light. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 94:445-458. [DOI: 10.1111/php.12883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachael M. Tomb
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - Tracy A. White
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - John E. Coia
- Department of Clinical Microbiology; Glasgow Royal Infirmary; Glasgow UK
| | - John G. Anderson
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - Scott J. MacGregor
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
| | - Michelle Maclean
- The Robertson Trust Laboratory for Electronic Sterilisation Technologies (ROLEST); Department of Electronic & Electrical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; University of Strathclyde; Glasgow UK
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231
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Miura F, Matsuyama R, Nishiura H. Estimating the Asymptomatic Ratio of Norovirus Infection During Foodborne Outbreaks With Laboratory Testing in Japan. J Epidemiol 2018; 28:382-387. [PMID: 29607886 PMCID: PMC6111106 DOI: 10.2188/jea.je20170040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Foodborne norovirus outbreak data in Japan from 2005–2006, involving virological surveillance of all symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, were reanalyzed to estimate the asymptomatic ratio of norovirus infection along with the risk of infection and the probability of virus shedding. Methods Employing a statistical model that is considered to capture the data-generating process of the outbreak and virus surveillance, maximum likelihood estimation of the asymptomatic ratio was implemented. Results Assuming that all norovirus outbreaks (n = 55) were the result of random sampling from an identical distribution and ignoring genogroup and genotype specificities, the asymptomatic ratio was estimated at 32.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 27.7–36.7). Although not significant, separate estimation of the asymptomatic ratio of the GII.4 genotype appeared to be greater than other genotypes and was estimated at 40.7% (95% CI, 32.8–49.0). Conclusion The present study offered the first explicit empirical estimates of the asymptomatic ratio of norovirus infection in natural infection settings. The estimate of about 30% was consistent with those derived from volunteer challenge studies. Practical difficulty in controlling GII.4 outbreaks was supported by the data, considering that a large estimate of the asymptomatic ratio was obtained for the GII.4 genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuminari Miura
- Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University.,Department of Urban Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
| | - Ryota Matsuyama
- Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University.,CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency
| | - Hiroshi Nishiura
- Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University.,CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency
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Li J, Zhang T, Cai K, Jiang Y, Guan X, Zhan J, Zou W, Yang Z, Xing X, Wu Y, Song Y, Yu X, Xu J. Temporal evolutionary analysis of re-emerging recombinant GII.P16_GII.2 norovirus with acute gastroenteritis in patients from Hubei Province of China, 2017. Virus Res 2018; 249:99-109. [PMID: 29604360 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) is a major pathogenic agent of human acute viral gastroenteritis that occurs worldwide. In March 2017, a series of acute NoV-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks occurred in Hubei Province in central China. Here, we sought to better understand the main genotypes and potential evolutionary advantages of circulating NoV strains underlying these outbreaks. During the outbreak, 111 fecal swabs and stool samples were collected from outpatients with acute NoV-associated gastroenteritis in Hubei Province. RNA was extracted from the samples and used as a template for real-time RT-PCR. Sequencing of a portion of the capsid gene and the ORF1/ORF2 overlap was used to assess DNA sequence homology, phylogeny, and recombination using pairwise alignments, MEGA, and Simplot, respectively. Bayesian evolutionary inference analysis was performed using the BEAST software platform to assess the genetic relationships, evolution rate, and evolutionary history of norovirus. GII NoV was determined to be the major pathogen of the acute gastroenteritis outbreaks in Hubei Province, with a 57.7% positive rate. Homology and phylogenic analysis of a portion of the capsid region for GII NoV isolates collected during outbreaks in Hubei showed that the isolates had a very high sequence identity and belonged to GII.2 genotype. Phylogenetic analysis of recombination using the ORF1/ORF2 overlap region revealed a recombinant strain, GII.P16_GII.2, in samples isolated from Hubei Province. The partial polymerase region and capsid gene of the recombinant strain had very high identity (98.7-98.8%) with the NoV strains isolated in Germany in 2016. The evolutionary rate of VP1 gene of GII.2 was distinctly higher than that of the partial polymerase region of GII.16. A phylogenetic tree generated using MCMC showed that the recombinant NoV GII.16_GII.2 was significantly divergent from other GII.16_GII.2 strains observed in China and Japan. Continued circulation of this GII.16_GII.2 recombinant could overtake the predominant GII.4 NoV strain with geographic expansion. Further analysis of the evolutionary dynamics of norovirus is necessary to develop more effective prevention and control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Kun Cai
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Yongzhong Jiang
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Xuhua Guan
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Jianbo Zhan
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenjing Zou
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhaohui Yang
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Xuesen Xing
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China
| | - Yi Song
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China; University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Texas, 77550, United States.
| | - Xuejie Yu
- Wuhan University School of Healthy Sciences, Wuhan, China; University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Texas, 77550, United States.
| | - Junqiang Xu
- Hubei Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan, China; University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Texas, 77550, United States.
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Wade TJ, Augustine SAJ, Griffin SM, Sams EA, Oshima KH, Egorov AI, Simmons KJ, Eason TN, Dufour AP. Asymptomatic norovirus infection associated with swimming at a tropical beach: A prospective cohort study. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195056. [PMID: 29590196 PMCID: PMC5874074 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Swimming in fecally-contaminated waterbodies can result in gastrointestinal infections. However, the pathogenic microorganisms responsible are not well understood because sporadic cases of illness are not reported completely, exposure information is often not collected, and epidemiology studies rely on self-reported symptoms. Noroviruses are considered a likely cause because they are found in high densities in sewage, resistant to wastewater treatment and survive in the environment. In this study, saliva samples were collected from subjects at a beach in Puerto Rico and tested for evidence of norovirus-specific IgG responses as an indicator of incident norovirus infection. Methods Saliva samples were collected from 1298 participants using an oral swab. Samples were collected on the day of the beach visit (S1); after 10–12 days (S2); and after three weeks (S3). Saliva was tested for IgG responses to GI.1 and GII.4 noroviruses using a microsphere based multiplex salivary immunoassay. Immunoconversion was defined as a four-fold increase in median fluorescence intensity (MFI) from S1 to S2 with the S3 sample at least three times above the S1 MFI. Results Thirty-four subjects (2.6%) immunoconverted to GI.1 or GII.4 norovirus. Swimmers who immersed their head in water had a higher rate of immunoconversion (3.4%), compared to either non-swimmers (0.0%, p = 0.003) or waders and non-swimmers combined (0.4%, Odds Ratio: 5.07, 95% Confidence Interval:1.48–17.00). Immunoconversion was not associated with gastrointestinal symptoms. Conclusions This is the first study to demonstrate an association between swimming at a beach impacted by fecal contamination and asymptomatic norovirus infection. The findings implicate recreational water as potentially important transmission pathway for norovirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Wade
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Swinburne A. J. Augustine
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Shannon M. Griffin
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth A. Sams
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Kevin H. Oshima
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Andrey I. Egorov
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | | | - Tarsha N. Eason
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Alfred P. Dufour
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
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Emergence of multiple norovirus strains in Thailand, 2015-2017. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2018; 61:108-112. [PMID: 29597056 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2018.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus is a major cause of non-bacterial acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Infection can be sporadic or result in widespread outbreaks. The surveillance of norovirus samples (n = 1591) obtained from patients with diarrhea in Thailand from January 2015 to February 2017 suggested that the predominance of norovirus GII.4 often seen in sporadic infection had been superseded by the emergence of GII.17. More recently, a sharp increase in acute gastroenteritis associated with norovirus GII·P16-GII.2 recombinant strain was observed at the end of 2016. Thus, previously rare norovirus strains and their recombinant derivatives may be more frequently responsible for future outbreaks.
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235
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Detection of noroviruses in free-ranging jaguars (Panthera onca) in the Pantanal, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Arch Virol 2018. [PMID: 29516245 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-3789-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Nine free-ranging jaguars (Panthera onca) were captured, and rectal swabs were collected in the Pantanal of Cáceres, Mato Grosso, Brazil. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction specific for noroviruses was performed. Six jaguars (66.6%) tested positive for norovirus genotype GII.11.
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236
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Towers S, Chen J, Cruz C, Melendez J, Rodriguez J, Salinas A, Yu F, Kang Y. Quantifying the relative effects of environmental and direct transmission of norovirus. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:170602. [PMID: 29657742 PMCID: PMC5882666 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Norovirus is a common cause of outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis in health- and child-care settings, with serial outbreaks also frequently observed aboard cruise ships. The relative contributions of environmental and direct person-to-person transmission of norovirus have hitherto not been quantified. We employ a novel mathematical model of norovirus transmission, and fit the model to daily incidence data from a major norovirus outbreak on a cruise ship, and examine the relative efficacy of potential control strategies aimed at reducing environmental and/or direct transmission. The reproduction number for environmental and direct transmission combined is [Formula: see text] [6.1,9.5], and of environmental transmission alone is [Formula: see text] [0.9,2.6]. Direct transmission is overwhelmingly due to passenger-to-passenger contacts, but crew can act as a reservoir of infection from cruise to cruise. This is the first quantification of the relative roles of environmental and direct transmission of norovirus. While environmental transmission has the potential to maintain a sustained series of outbreaks aboard a cruise ship in the absence of strict sanitation practices, direct transmission dominates. We find that intensive promotion of good hand washing practices may prevent outbreaks. Isolation of ill passengers and cleaning are beneficial, but appear to be less efficacious at outbreak control.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Towers
- Simon A. Levin Mathematical, Computational and Modeling Sciences Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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237
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Abstract
Norovirus is a leading cause of childhood vomiting and diarrhea in the United States and globally. Although most illnesses caused by norovirus are self-resolving, severe outcomes may occur from dehydration, including hospitalization and death. A vast majority of deaths from norovirus occur in developing countries. Immunocompromised children are at risk for more severe outcomes. Treatment of norovirus illness is focused on early correction of dehydration and maintenance of fluid status and nutrition. Hand hygiene, exclusion of ill individuals, and environmental cleaning are important for norovirus outbreak prevention and control, and vaccines to prevent norovirus illness are currently under development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minesh P Shah
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA.
| | - Aron J Hall
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
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238
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Nguyen GT, Pu J, Miura T, Ito H, Kazama S, Konta Y, Van Le A, Watanabe T. Oyster Contamination with Human Noroviruses Impacted by Urban Drainage and Seasonal Flooding in Vietnam. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2018; 10:61-71. [PMID: 29230695 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9325-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the level of norovirus contamination in oysters collected at a lagoon receiving urban drainage from Hue City for 17 months (August 2015-December 2016). We also investigated the genetic diversity of norovirus GI and GII in oyster and wastewater samples by using pyrosequencing to evaluate the effect of urban drainage on norovirus contamination of oysters. A total of 34 oyster samples were collected at two sampling sites (stations A and B) in a lagoon. Norovirus GI was more frequently detected than GII (positive rate 79 vs. 41%). Maximum concentrations of GI and GII were 2.4 × 105 and 2.3 × 104 copies/g, respectively. Co-contamination with GI and GII was observed in 35% of samples. Norovirus GII concentration was higher at station A in the flood season than in the dry season (P = 0.04, Wilcoxon signed-rank test). Six genotypes (GI.2, GI.3, GI.5, GII.2, GII.3, and GII.4) were identified in both wastewater and oyster samples, and genetically similar or identical sequences were obtained from the two types of samples. These observations suggest that urban drainage and seasonal flooding contribute to norovirus contamination of oysters in the study area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gia Thanh Nguyen
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Iwate University, Morioka, 020-8550, Japan.
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, 06 Ngo Quyen Street, Hue City, 530000, Vietnam.
- Institute for Community Health Research, College of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, 06 Ngo Quyen Street, Hue City, 530000, Vietnam.
| | - Jian Pu
- Faculty of Information Networking for Innovation and Design, Toyo University, 1-7-11 Akabanedai, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 115-0053, Japan
| | - Takayuki Miura
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute of Public Health, 2-3-6 Minami, Wako, Saitama, 351-0197, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Ito
- Center for Water Cycle, Marine Environment and Disaster Management, Kumamoto University, 2-39-1 Kurokami, Chuo-Ku, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
| | - Shinobu Kazama
- Center for Simulation Sciences, Ochanomizu University, 2-1-1 Otsuka, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 112-8610, Japan
| | - Yoshimitsu Konta
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - An Van Le
- Department of Microbiology & Carlo Urbani Center, College of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, 06 Ngo Quyen Street, Hue City, 530000, Vietnam
| | - Toru Watanabe
- Department of Food, Life and Environmental Sciences, Yamagata University, 1-23 Wakaba-machi, Tsuruoka, Yamagata, 997-8555, Japan
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239
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Yu J, Ye C, Lai S, Zhu W, Zhang Z, Geng Q, Xue C, Yang W, Wu S, Hall AJ, Sun Q, Li Z. Incidence of Norovirus-Associated Diarrhea, Shanghai, China, 2012-2013. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 23:312-315. [PMID: 28098539 PMCID: PMC5324797 DOI: 10.3201/eid2302.161153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We conducted sentinel-based surveillance for norovirus in the Pudong area of Shanghai, China, during 2012–2013, by analyzing 5,324 community surveys, 408,024 medical records, and 771 laboratory-confirmed norovirus infections among 3,877 diarrhea cases. Our analysis indicated an outpatient incidence of 1.5/100 person-years and a community incidence of 8.9/100 person-years for norovirus-associated diarrhea.
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240
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An outbreak of Norovirus infections associated with recreational lake water in Western Finland, 2014. Epidemiol Infect 2018; 146:544-550. [PMID: 29477156 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268818000328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
In July 2014, an outbreak of gastroenteritis occurred among visitors to lakes in Tampere, Finland. We conducted a retrospective cohort study using an internet-based survey, solicited by public announcement, to identify source of infection and to implement control measures. Of 1453 persons enrolled in the study, 244 met the case definition (attack rate, 17%). In the pooled univariate analysis, risk factors for gastroenteritis included getting water in the mouth while swimming (Risk ratio (RR) 3.32; 95% Confidence interval (CI), 2.36-4.68) and playing on the wet sand at the beach (RR 1.90; 95% CI 1.50-2.41). In a multivariable analysis (logistic regression), the source of the infection was likely at two lakes (lake A Odds ratio (OR) 1.66; 95% CI 1.15-2.39 and lake B, OR 2.35; 95% CI 1.49-3.72). Norovirus (NoV) was found in 19 stool samples. All water samples from implicated beaches had acceptable values of fecal indicator bacteria and were negative for NoV. The likely source of the outbreak was lake-water contaminated with NoV at two popular lakes. Closure of swimming beaches, advice on hygienic precautions and rapid outbreak alerts were efficient in controlling the outbreak. Results suggest a need for new indicators of water quality and development of evidence-based recommendations regarding timing of safe reopen of recreational water venues associated with outbreaks.
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241
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Reta N, Saint CP, Michelmore A, Prieto-Simon B, Voelcker NH. Nanostructured Electrochemical Biosensors for Label-Free Detection of Water- and Food-Borne Pathogens. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:6055-6072. [PMID: 29369608 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b13943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of nanostructured materials has opened new horizons in the development of next generation biosensors. Being able to control the design of the electrode interface at the nanoscale combined with the intrinsic characteristics of the nanomaterials engenders novel biosensing platforms with improved capabilities. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive and critical overview of the latest trends in emerging nanostructured electrochemical biosensors. A detailed description and discussion of recent approaches to construct label-free electrochemical nanostructured electrodes is given with special focus on pathogen detection for environmental monitoring and food safety. This includes the use of nanoscale materials such as nanotubes, nanowires, nanoparticles, and nanosheets as well as porous nanostructured materials including nanoporous anodic alumina, mesoporous silica, porous silicon, and polystyrene nanochannels. These platforms may pave the way toward the development of point-of-care portable electronic devices for applications ranging from environmental analysis to biomedical diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Beatriz Prieto-Simon
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University , Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Nicolas H Voelcker
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University , Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
- Victorian Node of the Australian National Fabrication Facility, Melbourne Centre for Nanofabrication , Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
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242
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Viral shedding and clinical status of feline-norovirus-infected cats after reinfection with the same strain. Arch Virol 2018; 163:1503-1510. [PMID: 29445988 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-3770-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) infection is the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in humans of all ages worldwide. When cats are experimentally infected with feline norovirus (FNoV), they develop symptoms of acute gastroenteritis. Therefore, FNoV infection may serve as an animal model for the disease caused by human norovirus infection. In this study, we examined whether FNoV of cats infected with genogroup GVI are protected from reinfection with the same strain. The blood anti-FNoV IgG level was inversely correlated with the viral load in stool samples and the clinical score of FNoV-infected cats, but complete prevention of reinfection was not observed. These findings were similar to the results of a reinfection experiment with NoV in human volunteers.
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243
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Enteric Viruses in Surface Waters from Argentina: Molecular and Viable-Virus Detection. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.02327-17. [PMID: 29269500 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02327-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Water resources contaminated with wastewater are an important source for the dissemination of enteric viruses with an impact on the health of the population. The aim of the study was to assess the viral contamination of freshwater from a dam in Argentina by using infectious enterovirus detection, viral RNA amplification, and a genetic characterization of five enteric viruses associated with diarrhea and hepatitis. Enterovirus infectivity (iEV) was evaluated by cell culture and direct immunofluorescence. The detection of the viral genome of rotavirus (RV), human astrovirus (HAstV), norovirus (NoV), hepatitis A virus (HAV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV) was performed by reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). A total of 48 water samples from 4 monitoring points on the body of the dam from January to December 2012 and 66 water samples from 3 tourist beaches on the edge of the dam from October 2013 to October 2015 were collected monthly. During the first period, the overall viral frequency detection was 52.1% for group A RV, 50% for HAstV, 60.4% for NoV, 22.9% for HAV, 2.1% for HEV, and 64.6% for iEV. The overall frequency detection for the second sampling was 18.2% for RV and HAstV, 31.8% for NoV, 7.57% for HEV, and 66.7% for iEV. There was no detection of HAV during this period. The genotypes and genogroups detected through the study correlated with the most common genomic variants associated with human gastrointestinal and hepatitis illnesses. The results obtained could alert the health systems and environmental sanitation to make decisions for viral control and prevention in our environment.IMPORTANCE The study shows the impact of anthropic contamination of one of the most important tourist water resources in Argentina. This course of recreational water would be a favorable scenario for infection, as well as a reservoir for the enteric viruses, creating a risk for the population exposed to these waters. The results obtained could alert the health systems and environmental sanitation to make decisions for the control and prevention of viral diseases in this environment.
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244
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Yang Z, Chambers H, DiCaprio E, Gao G, Li J. Internalization and dissemination of human norovirus and Tulane virus in fresh produce is plant dependent. Food Microbiol 2018; 69:25-32. [PMID: 28941906 PMCID: PMC6361382 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2017.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Human norovirus (NoV) is a leading cause of fresh produce associated outbreaks. Previous research indicates that the roots of growing leafy greens and berries internalize human NoV. However the effect of plant type and inoculum level on internalization rates has not been directly compared. In this study we compared the internalization and dissemination rates of human NoV and its surrogate, Tulane virus (TV) in green onion, radishes, and Romaine lettuce. We also evaluated the effect inoculum level and plant growth matrix on the rate of viral internalization. In the hydroponic growth system, we detected internalization and dissemination of human NoV RNA in green onions. In hydroponically growing green onions inoculated with high titer TV, we found higher rates of internalization and dissemination compared to green onions inoculated with low titer TV. In soil growth systems, no infectious TV was detected in either green onion or radishes. However, in Romaine lettuce plants grown in soil approximately 4 log10 PFU/g was recovered from all tissues on day 14 p.i. Overall, we found that the type of plant, growth matrix, and the inoculum level influences the internalization and dissemination of human NoV and TV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihong Yang
- Department of Biology, College of Life Science, Huzhou University, Huzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Heather Chambers
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Erin DiCaprio
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Gary Gao
- Department of Extension, College of Food, Agriculture, and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; South Centers, The Ohio State University, Piketon, OH, USA.
| | - Jianrong Li
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
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245
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Hakim MS, Nirwati H, Aman AT, Soenarto Y, Pan Q. Significance of continuous rotavirus and norovirus surveillance in Indonesia. World J Pediatr 2018; 14:4-12. [PMID: 29446040 DOI: 10.1007/s12519-018-0122-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diarrhea significantly contributes to the global burden of diseases, particularly in developing countries. Rotavirus and norovirus are the most dominant viral agents responsible for diarrheal disease globally. The aim of this review was to conduct a comprehensive assessment of rotavirus and norovirus study in Indonesia. DATA SOURCES Articles about rotavirus and norovirus surveillance in Indonesia were collected from databases, including PubMed and Google Scholar. Manual searching was performed to identify additional studies. Furthermore, relevant articles about norovirus diseases were included. RESULTS A national surveillance of rotavirus-associated gastroenteritis has been conducted for years, resulting in substantial evidence about the high burden of the diseases in Indonesia. In contrast, norovirus infection received relatively lower attention and very limited data are available about the incidence and circulating genotypes. Norovirus causes sporadic and epidemic gastroenteritis globally. It is also emerging as a health problem in immunocompromised individuals. During post-rotavirus vaccination era, norovirus potentially emerges as the most frequent cause of diarrheal diseases. CONCLUSIONS Our review identifies knowledge gaps in Indonesia about the burden of norovirus diseases and the circulating genotypes. Therefore, there is a pressing need to conduct national surveillance to raise awareness of the community and national health authority about the actual burden of norovirus disease in Indonesia. Continuing rotavirus surveillance is also important to assess vaccine effectiveness and to continue tracking any substantial changes of circulating rotavirus genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Saifudin Hakim
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Room Na-1001, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. .,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
| | - Hera Nirwati
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Abu Tholib Aman
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Yati Soenarto
- Department of Child Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Qiuwei Pan
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Center and Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Room Na-1001, 's-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015 CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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246
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Kingsley DH, Pérez-Pérez RE, Niemira BA, Fan X. Evaluation of gaseous chlorine dioxide for the inactivation of Tulane virus on blueberries. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 273:28-32. [PMID: 29558681 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
To determine the effectiveness of gaseous chlorine dioxide (gClO2) against a human norovirus surrogate on produce, gClO2 was generated and applied to Tulane virus-coated blueberries in a 240 ml-treatment chamber. gClO2 was produced by an acidifying sodium chlorite solution. Initial assessments indicated that blueberries treated with gClO2 generated from ≤1 mg acidified sodium chlorite in the small chamber appeared unaffected while gClO2 generated from ≥10 mg of acidified sodium chlorite solution altered the appearance and quality of the blueberries. Treatments of inoculated blueberries with gClO2 generated from 0.1 mg sodium chlorite reduced the virus populations by >1 log after exposure for 30 to 330 min. For the 1 mg sodium chlorite treatments, the virus populations were reduced by >2.2 log after 15 min exposure and to non-detectable levels (>3.3 logs reductions) after 180 min exposure. Measured concentrations of gClO2 peaked in the treatment chamber at 0.9 μg/l after 10 min for 0.1 mg treatments and 600 μg/l after around 20 min for 1 mg treatment. Overall results indicate that gClO2 could be a feasible waterless intervention for blueberries and other produce.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Kingsley
- USDA ARS ERRC Food Safety & Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Delaware State University, Dover, DE, United States.
| | - Rafael E Pérez-Pérez
- USDA ARS ERRC Food Safety & Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Delaware State University, Dover, DE, United States
| | - Brendan A Niemira
- USDA ARS ERRC Food Safety & Intervention Technologies Research Unit, Wyndmoor, PA, United States
| | - Xuetong Fan
- USDA ARS ERRC Chemical Residue and Predictive Microbiology Research Unit, Wyndmoor, PA, United States
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247
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Lee HW, Lee HM, Yoon SR, Kim SH, Ha JH. Pretreatment with propidium monoazide/sodium lauroyl sarcosinate improves discrimination of infectious waterborne virus by RT-qPCR combined with magnetic separation. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 233:306-314. [PMID: 29096303 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
RT-qPCR allows sensitive detection of viral particles of both infectious and noninfectious viruses in water environments, but cannot discriminate non-infectious from infectious viruses. In this study, we aimed to optimize RT-qPCR-based detection of chlorine-inactivated human norovirus (NoV) and pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) in suspension by pretreatment with an optimal combination of a monoazide and a detergent that can efficiently penetrate damaged viral capsids. Four methods were compared to determine the efficacy of chlorine disinfection (at 1, 3, and 5 min mg/L): (A) RT-qPCR alone, (B) RT-qPCR assay preceded by magnetic bead separation for enrichment of viral particles (MBS-RT-qPCR), (C) MBS-RT-qPCR assay with pretreatment with propidium monoazide (PMA-MBS-RT-qPCR), and (D) PMA-MBS-RT-qPCR assay with pretreatment with sodium lauroyl sarcosinate (INCI-PMA-MBS-RT-qPCR). On the basis of a PMA optimization assay, 200 and 300 μM PMA were used in subsequent experiments for NoV GII.4 and PMMoV, respectively. Optimal INCI concentrations, having minimal influence on NoV GII.4 and PMMoV, were found to be 0.5% and 0.2% INCI, respectively. For NoV GII.4, there were significant differences (P < 0.05) in log10 genome copies between the PMA-treated and the INCI + PMA-treated samples (log10 genome copies differed by 1.11 and 0.59 log10 for 3 and 5 min mg/L of chlorine, respectively). For PMMoV, INCI induced differences in log10 genome copies of 0.92, 1.18, and 1.86, for 1, 3, and 5 min mg/L of chlorine, respectively. Overall, the results of this study indicate that an optimal combination of PMA and INCI could be very useful for evaluating disinfection methods in water treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hae-Won Lee
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - Hee-Min Lee
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - So-Ra Yoon
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Kim
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea
| | - Ji-Hyoung Ha
- Hygienic Safety and Analysis Center, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju 61755, South Korea.
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248
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Fraenkel CJ, Inghammar M, Söderlund-Strand A, Johansson PJH, Böttiger B. Risk factors for hospital norovirus outbreaks: impact of vomiting, genotype, and multi-occupancy rooms. J Hosp Infect 2018; 98:398-403. [PMID: 29355578 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2018.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Norovirus is frequently introduced to the hospital and is a frequent cause of hospital outbreaks. Recognition of the factors that facilitate or impede norovirus transmission is an important step to effectively prevent hospital outbreaks. AIM To investigate risk factors for norovirus outbreaks in hospital settings. METHODS Clinical data, ward setting, and norovirus genotype were collected from all 65 norovirus-positive index cases in outbreaks and all 186 sporadic norovirus cases at 192 wards in southern Sweden during 2010-2012 in a nested case-control study. Uni- and multivariate statistical analyses were conducted. FINDINGS Outbreak was independently associated with the number of patients sharing a room with the norovirus case (odds ratio (OR): 1.9 per additional patient in the room; P < 0.01), vomiting (OR: 2.6; P = 0.04), age >80 years (OR: 3.2; P < 0.01), comorbidity (OR: 2.3; P = 0.05), and onset of symptoms after admission to the ward (OR: 3.5; P < 0.01) in the multivariate analysis. Infection with genotype GII.4 was found to be strongly associated with outbreak in the univariate analysis (OR: 5.7; P < 0.01). Moreover, associations between GII.4 and vomiting (OR: 2.5; P = 0.01) and old age (OR: 4.3: P < 0.01) were found. CONCLUSION This is the first study to investigate clinical, ward and genotype risk factors for norovirus hospital outbreaks. Recognition of these factors may help direct and prioritize infection control actions based on the outbreak risk. The results also suggest that the outbreak association with GII.4 partly may be explained by an enhanced ability to induce vomiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Fraenkel
- Department of Infection Control, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden; Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Sweden.
| | - M Inghammar
- Division of Infection Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Sweden
| | - A Söderlund-Strand
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, University and Regional Laboratories, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden
| | | | - B Böttiger
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, University and Regional Laboratories, Region Skåne, Lund, Sweden
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249
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Kumthip K, Khamrin P, Maneekarn N. Molecular epidemiology and genotype distributions of noroviruses and sapoviruses in Thailand 2000-2016: A review. J Med Virol 2018; 90:617-624. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.25019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kattareeya Kumthip
- Faculty of Medicine; Department of Microbiology; Chiang Mai University; Chiang Mai Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Emerging and Re-emerging Diarrheal Viruses; Chiang Mai University; Chiang Mai Thailand
| | - Pattara Khamrin
- Faculty of Medicine; Department of Microbiology; Chiang Mai University; Chiang Mai Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Emerging and Re-emerging Diarrheal Viruses; Chiang Mai University; Chiang Mai Thailand
| | - Niwat Maneekarn
- Faculty of Medicine; Department of Microbiology; Chiang Mai University; Chiang Mai Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Emerging and Re-emerging Diarrheal Viruses; Chiang Mai University; Chiang Mai Thailand
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