201
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Francis JN, Lloyd CM, Sabroe I, Durham SR, Till SJ. T lymphocytes expressing CCR3 are increased in allergic rhinitis compared with non-allergic controls and following allergen immunotherapy. Allergy 2007; 62:59-65. [PMID: 17156343 PMCID: PMC3385351 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2006.01253.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In T cell-associated allergic inflammation, homing of T-helper 2 (Th2) effector cells to mucosal sites may be influenced by chemokine receptor expression. Previous studies have identified CCR3 and CCR4 as putative markers of Th2 cells and CCR5 and CXCR3 as markers of Th1 cells. The aim of this study was to assess differential chemokine receptor expression from symptomatic atopic grass pollen-sensitive subjects, compared with patients on high-dose allergen injection immunotherapy (IT) and healthy controls. METHODS We examined chemokine receptor expression (CCR1-7 and CXCR1-4) by flow cytometry of peripheral blood CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We also depleted peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) populations of CCR3+ CD4+ cells by magnetic bead separation and cells were stimulated with grass pollen allergen for 6 days. Cytokine production was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS On freshly isolated PBMC, atopic individuals exhibited increased numbers of CCR3+ CD4+ cells compared with normal controls (P < 0.01). CCR3 expression in IT patients was reduced compared with matched atopic rhinitic controls (P < 0.05) and comparable with that observed in normal subjects. Depletion of CCR3+ CD4+ cells from allergen-stimulated PBMC cultures resulted in decreased interleukin (IL)-5 production compared with whole CD4+ populations (P < 0.05). Freshly isolated CCR3+ CD4+ cells have significantly higher intracellular IL-4 and lower IFN-gamma levels than CCR3- CD4+ cells. CD4+ T cells cultured from both peripheral cells and nasal biopsies demonstrated increased expression of CCR3 in the presence of IL-4 (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION CCR3+ CD4+ T cells are increased in allergic rhinitis, are reduced by allergen IT, have a Th2 phenotype and contribute to allergen-specific responses. Strategies against CCR3+ T cells may be effective in human allergic diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Adult
- Cell Count
- Cells, Cultured
- Desensitization, Immunologic
- Female
- Humans
- Interleukin-5/metabolism
- Leukocytes/metabolism
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Poaceae/immunology
- Receptors, CCR3
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Rhinitis, Allergic, Perennial/immunology
- Rhinitis, Allergic, Perennial/metabolism
- Rhinitis, Allergic, Seasonal/immunology
- Rhinitis, Allergic, Seasonal/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Th2 Cells/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- J N Francis
- Allergy and Clinical Immunology, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
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202
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Jin J, Wang Y, Wang F, Kerns JK, Vinader VM, Hancock AP, Lindon MJ, Stevenson GI, Morrow DM, Rao P, Nguyen C, Barrett VJ, Browning C, Hartmann G, Andrew DP, Sarau HM, Foley JJ, Jurewicz AJ, Fornwald JA, Harker AJ, Moore ML, Rivero RA, Belmonte KE, Connor HE. Oxazolidinones as novel human CCR8 antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2006; 17:1722-5. [PMID: 17267215 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2006.12.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2006] [Revised: 12/15/2006] [Accepted: 12/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
High-throughput screening of the corporate compound collection led to the discovery of a novel series of N-substituted-5-aryl-oxazolidinones as potent human CCR8 antagonists. The synthesis, structure-activity relationships, and optimization of the series that led to the identification of SB-649701 (1a), are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Jin
- Discovery Medicinal Chemistry, Molecular Discovery Research, GlaxoSmithKline, 1250 South Collegeville Road, Collegeville, PA 19426, USA.
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203
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Fox JM, Najarro P, Smith GL, Struyf S, Proost P, Pease JE. Structure/Function Relationships of CCR8 Agonists and Antagonists. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:36652-61. [PMID: 17023422 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m605584200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe here the interactions of CCR8 with its ligands using both CCR8 transfectants and a T-cell line expressing the receptor endogenously. Of the CCR8 agonists reported previously, only CCL1 and vMIP-I exhibited potency in assays of intracellular calcium flux, chemotaxis, and receptor internalization, this latter mechanism being dependent upon the expression of beta-arrestins 1 and 2 but independent of Galpha(i) signaling. NH(2)-terminal extension of the mature CCL1 sequence by a serine residue (Ser-CCL1) resulted in a partial agonist with a reduced affinity for CCR8, suggesting that the NH(2) terminus of the ligand plays a role in ligand binding to an intrahelical site. Attempts to identify key residues within this site revealed that the conserved glutamic acid residue in transmembrane helix 7, Glu-286, is crucial for trafficking of the receptor to the cell surface, while Asp-97 of transmembrane helix 2 is dispensable. CCL7 was found to inhibit both Ser-CCL1 and vMIP-I responses but not those of CCL1 itself. Similarly, vMIP-I responses were more than 2 orders of magnitude more sensitive to the specific CCR8 antagonist MC148 than those induced by CCL1, which is difficult to reconcile with the reported affinities for the receptor. Collectively, these data suggest that the CCR8 ligands are allotropic, binding to distinct sites within CCR8 and that the human immune system may have evolved to use CCL7 as a selective antagonist of viral chemokine activity at CCR8 but not those of the host ligand.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Fox
- National Heart and Lung Institute Division, Faculty of Medicine, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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204
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Diego PG, Paola PB, Giorgio PL, Alessandro B, Michela R, Margherita M, Francesco S, Attilio BL. CC chemokine receptor expression in childhood asthma is influenced by natural allergen exposure. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2006; 17:495-500. [PMID: 17014623 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2006.00444.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors may play an important role for leukocyte trafficking in allergic inflammation. Aim was to evaluate whether expression of chemokine receptors CCR4 and CCR8 on cells obtained by sputum induction from asthmatic allergic children may be influenced by house dust mite (HDM) allergen natural exposure. Twenty-one children (7-13 yr) with moderate asthma and sensitized to HDM were evaluated during a prolonged period of allergen avoidance (T0) and after a period of natural allergen exposure (T1). At each time point of sputum induction, lung function evaluation, exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) measurements were performed. At T1, CCR4 and CCR8 expression on sputum-induced cells increased from 28.4% +/- 2.9% and 25.8% +/- 1.9%, to 41.1% +/- 4.2% and 37.5% +/- 2.0%, respectively (p < 0.05 and p = 0.01). After allergen exposure, both sputum eosinophils (from 5.2% +/- 2.0% to 12.1% +/- 4.1%, p < 0.01) and eNO (from 15.1 +/- 2.2 ppb to 24.2 +/- 5.8 ppb, p < 0.05) showed significant increase. Lung function tests presented significant deterioration of Forced Expiratory Flow at 25-75% of Vital Capacity (FEF(25--75)) (p < 0.05) and increase of residual volume (p = 0.002). Significant changes in CC chemokine receptor expression in sputum-induced cells in asthmatic children in response to HDM exposure have been observed leading to consider the relevance of CCR4 and CCR8 in allergic asthmatic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peroni G Diego
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
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205
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Freeman CM, Stolberg VR, Chiu BC, Lukacs NW, Kunkel SL, Chensue SW. CCR4 participation in Th type 1 (mycobacterial) and Th type 2 (schistosomal) anamnestic pulmonary granulomatous responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:4149-58. [PMID: 16951380 PMCID: PMC1618796 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.6.4149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
CCR4 is purported to be a Th type 2 (Th2) cell-biased receptor but its functional role is unclear. Recent studies suggest that chemokine receptor expression and function are more complex in vivo and raise doubts regarding restricted CCR4 expression by Th2 cells. To address these issues, we analyzed the role of CCR4 in highly polarized models of Th type 1 (Th1) and Th2 cell-mediated pulmonary granulomas, respectively, elicited by i.v. challenge of primed mice with either mycobacterial purified protein derivative or schistosomal egg Ag-coated beads. CCR4 agonists were expressed during both responses, correlating with a shift of CCR4+ CD4+ T cells from blood to lungs. CCL22 dominated in draining nodes during the Th1 response. Analysis of CD4+ effector T cells revealed CCR4 expression and CCR4-mediated chemotaxis by both IFN-gamma and IL-4 producers. Studies of CCR4 knockout (CCR4(-/-)) mice showed partial impairment of the local type-2 cytokine response and surprisingly strong impairment of the Th1 response with abrogated IFN-gamma production during secondary but not primary challenge. Adoptive transfer indicated CCR4(-/-)CD4+ Th1 cell function was defective but this could not be reconstituted with wild-type (CCR4(+/+)) CD4+ T cells indicating involvement of another CCR4+ population. Coculture of CCR4(+/+)CD4+ T cells and CCR4(-/-) dendritic cells revealed intact IL-2 but impaired IFN-gamma production, pointing to a role for CCR4+ dendritic cells in effector cell expression. Therefore, CCR4 is not Th2-restricted and was required for sustenance and expression of the Th1 effector/memory response to mycobacterial Ags.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Granuloma, Respiratory Tract/genetics
- Granuloma, Respiratory Tract/immunology
- Granuloma, Respiratory Tract/microbiology
- Granuloma, Respiratory Tract/parasitology
- Immunologic Memory
- Lung Diseases, Parasitic/genetics
- Lung Diseases, Parasitic/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred CBA
- Mice, Knockout
- Mycobacterium bovis/immunology
- Receptors, CCR4
- Receptors, Chemokine
- Schistosomiasis mansoni/genetics
- Schistosomiasis mansoni/immunology
- Schistosomiasis mansoni/parasitology
- Th1 Cells/immunology
- Th1 Cells/microbiology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/parasitology
- Transcription Factors/deficiency
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Transcription Factors/physiology
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/genetics
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/immunology
- Tuberculosis, Pulmonary/microbiology
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Freeman
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48105; and
| | - Valerie R. Stolberg
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI 48105
| | - Bo-Chin Chiu
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48105; and
| | - Nicholas W. Lukacs
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48105; and
| | - Steven L. Kunkel
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48105; and
| | - Stephen W. Chensue
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48105; and
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI 48105
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Stephen W. Chensue, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 113, Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, 2215 Fuller Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48105. E-mail address:
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206
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Abstract
The localization of effector T cells to extralymphoid tissues is crucial for the generation of an effective immune response, but it also underlies many autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. Recent studies have highlighted a central role for draining lymph nodes and environmentally imprinted dendritic cells in the generation of tissue-tropic effector T cells. Here, I outline our current understanding of the mechanisms that regulate the generation and localization of tissue-tropic effector T cells, and the potential ways in which these pathways can be exploited for immunotherapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- William W Agace
- Immunology Section, Lund University, BMC I13, 22184 Lund, Sweden.
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207
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Heijink IH, Marcel Kies P, van Oosterhout AJM, Postma DS, Kauffman HF, Vellenga E. Der p, IL-4, and TGF-beta cooperatively induce EGFR-dependent TARC expression in airway epithelium. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006; 36:351-9. [PMID: 17023689 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2006-0160oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Thymus and Activation-Regulated Chemokine (TARC) may be critical in Th2 cell recruitment in allergic inflammation; however, the mechanisms of allergen-induced TARC release are unclear. Since airway epithelium is the first line of defense to inhaled allergens, we questioned whether house dust mite allergen (Der p) can induce TARC expression in bronchial epithelial cells, how this is regulated at the molecular level, and if micro-environmental cytokines augment this effect. We examined the effects of Der p and the cytokines IL-4 and TGF-beta on TARC expression in 16HBE cells and primary bronchial asthma epithelium. Real-time PCR and immunofluorescence demonstrated that Der p induces TARC expression in bronchial epithelium. Supernatants from Der p-stimulated 16HBE cells were able to induce TARC-dependent T cell trafficking. IL-4 and TGF-beta cooperatively enhanced Der p-induced TARC expression in 16HBE cells. Specific inhibitors, immunodetection, and gel-shifts revealed that these effects are mediated by phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and subsequent nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB activation. A Disintegrin And Metalloproteinase (ADAM), a family of proteins involved in shedding of various growth factors, was shown to be responsible for EGFR activation. The increase in TARC production by direct interaction of Der p with the bronchial epithelium may be an important initial step in the generation of allergic inflammation, which is further potentiated by micro-environmental cytokines. Interference with ADAM or EGFR activity may be a novel promising target to prevent TARC release and subsequent allergic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene H Heijink
- Department of Allergology, Pulmonology, and Hematology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, NL-9713 GZ, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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208
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Medina-Tato DA, Watson ML, Ward SG. Leukocyte navigation mechanisms as targets in airway diseases. Drug Discov Today 2006; 11:866-79. [PMID: 16997136 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2006.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2006] [Revised: 07/21/2006] [Accepted: 08/14/2006] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory diseases, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, are among the most significant diseases in terms of their disabling effects and healthcare burden. A characteristic feature of almost all respiratory diseases is the accumulation and activation of inflammatory leukocytes in the lung or airway. Recent advances in the understanding of the molecules and intracellular signalling events controlling these processes are now translating to new therapeutic entities. In this article, the process of leukocyte accumulation is summarized, together with the preclinical and clinical evidence supporting the utility of the individual components of this process as targets for disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Medina-Tato
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK
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209
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Biedermann T, Lametschwandtner G, Tangemann K, Kund J, Hinteregger S, Carballido-Perrig N, Rot A, Schwärzler C, Carballido JM. IL-12 Instructs Skin Homing of Human Th2 Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 177:3763-70. [PMID: 16951337 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.6.3763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Distinct pattern of homing receptors determines the tissue preference for T cells to exert their effector functions. This homing competence is mostly determined early during T cell activation of naive T cells. In contrast, mechanisms governing the acquisition of particular homing receptors by T cells of the memory phenotype remain enigmatic. Th2 cell-mediated allergic diseases tend to flare during infections despite that these infections prime APCs to produce the prototypic Th1 cell-differentiating cytokine IL-12. In this study, we investigate the effect of IL-12 on the regulation of cutaneous lymphocyte Ag (CLA) on differentiated Th2 cells and consequences of this expression for allergic inflammation. Upon activation with IL-12, CLA- Th2 cells rapidly up-regulated IL-12Rbeta2 chain, alpha(1-3)-fucosyltransferase VII, and CLA molecules. IL-12-mediated CLA expression on Th2 cells was functional because it mediated rolling of these Th2 cells on E-selectin in vitro and migration into human skin grafts in SCID mice. CLA induction occurred immediately after exposure to IL-12 and was independent of IFN-gamma expression. In accordance, the transcription factor mediating IFN-gamma expression, T-bet, does not directly affect CLA expression. However, CLA expression was further enhanced after IL-12 treatment of T-bet+ -transfected Th2 cells in agreement with an increased IL-12 responsiveness of these cells caused by T-bet. The finding that IL-12 conferred skin-homing potential to already differentiated Th2 cells before inducing a switch in their cytokine production profile may explain the observed exacerbation of allergic skin diseases following bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilo Biedermann
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Vienna, Austria
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210
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Assing K, Nielsen CH, Poulsen LK. Immunological characteristics of subjects with asymptomatic skin sensitization to birch and grass pollen. Clin Exp Allergy 2006; 36:283-92. [PMID: 16499638 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2006.02435.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asymptomatic skin sensitization (AS) has been shown to be a risk factor for respiratory allergic disease. OBJECTIVE We investigated allergen and recall antigen-driven T cell proliferation, cytokine production and T cell expression of the chemokine receptor CCR4, in cultures derived from symptomatic atopics (SA), subjects with AS and healthy controls (HC). Numbers of allergen-specific precursor T cells in all three groups were also estimated. METHODS Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from the three groups were isolated and stimulated with allergen and tetanus toxoid. Proliferation, cytokine production and CCR4 expression were measured by flow cytometry. RESULTS A significantly increased proportion of CD4(+) memory T cells proliferated in response to allergen in SA as compared with subjects with AS (P<0.001) and HC (P<0.001). Only in SA was expansion of CD4(+)CCR4(+) T cells, after allergen stimulation observed. SA had higher frequencies of allergen-specific T cells than subjects with AS and HC (P=0.02, for both). With regard to allergen-induced production of T-helper type 1 (Th1) and Th2 cytokines, subjects with AS and HC resembled each other, while differing significantly from SA. CONCLUSION We conclude, that subjects with AS, although clearly IgE sensitized, have significant diminished numbers of allergen-specific T cells as well as decreased allergen-induced CD4(+) memory T cell proliferation as compared with SA. To a large extent, our findings are capable of explaining the immunological characteristics associated with AS. Our findings may serve as better prognostic markers for subsequent allergic progression, than previously described clinical and paraclinical characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Assing
- Allergy Clinic, Department 7551, National University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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211
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Kurashima K, Fujimura M, Myou S, Ishiura Y, Onai N, Matsushima K. Asthma severity is associated with an increase in both blood CXCR3+ and CCR4+ T cells. Respirology 2006; 11:152-7. [PMID: 16548899 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2006.00822.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES A predominance of type 2 helper T cells (Th2) in the bronchoalveolar space and peripheral blood is a well-accepted feature of bronchial asthma. However, the relationship between peripheral blood Th2 cells and asthma severity has not been thoroughly investigated. METHODS As Th1 cells predominantly express the chemokine receptor CXCR3 and Th2 cells express CCR4, we assessed the distribution of peripheral blood CXCR3+ and CCR4+ lymphocytes using flow cytometry in 186 patients with asthma and 75 normal subjects. RESULTS The proportion of CXCR3+/CD45RO+ cells in CD4+ T cells increased as the severity of asthma increased. The percentage of CCR4+/CD45RO+ cells in CD4+ T cells were elevated in mild to severe asthma patients compared with controls. However, there was no significant difference in CCR4+/CD45RO+ cells between the mild to severe asthma patients. There was no relationship between the patient's age and the numbers of CXCR3+ or CCR4+ T cells. The percentage of CCR4+ cells in CD45RO+/CD4+ T cells correlated with the levels of total serum IgE (r = 0.630, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS The proportion of CCR4+ cells in blood memory helper T cells may be increased in patients with asthma and is associated with the level of serum IgE, but severity of asthma is also associated with the increase of blood CXCR3+ cells in memory helper T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuyoshi Kurashima
- Respiratory Medicine, Cellular Transplantation Biology, Kanazawa Graduate University, School of Medicine, Kanazawa, Japan.
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212
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Heijink IH, Van Oosterhout AJM. Strategies for targeting T-cells in allergic diseases and asthma. Pharmacol Ther 2006; 112:489-500. [PMID: 16814862 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2006.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2006] [Accepted: 05/09/2006] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
T helper (Th) 2 lymphocytes play a crucial role in the initiation, progression and persistence of allergic diseases, including asthma. Drugs that interfere with the activation of T-cells or more selectively Th2-specific signaling molecules and drugs that prevent the selective migration into lung tissue are promising novel strategies for the treatment of allergic asthma. Although the mainstay asthma therapy of inhaled glucocorticoids is rather effective, targeting Th2 cells may be an important alternative in childhood. Regulatory T-cells (Treg cells) have a physiological role in protection of unwanted immune responses to auto-antigens and allergens. Literature data indicate that an imbalance between Th2 and Treg cells may underlie development and disease expression of allergic asthma. Drugs or immunotherapies that stimulate these counter-Treg cells may limit aberrant Th2 responses leading to suppression of symptoms. Furthermore, these types of treatments may offer the perspective of disease modification and long-term relief of symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- I H Heijink
- Laboratory of Allergology and Pulmonary Diseases, Groningen University Medical Center, Groningen University, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
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213
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Medoff BD, Thomas SY, Banerji A, Wain JC, Zhang H, Lilly CM, Ginns LC, Luster AD. Pathogenic T-cell recruitment into the airway in human disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1062:220-41. [PMID: 16461804 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1358.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Effector T cells significantly contribute to inflammatory diseases. These cells are recruited into tissue, where they orchestrate an inflammatory response that can either protect against infection or sometimes stimulate human disease. The recruitment of T cells into tissue from the blood and lymphoid compartments is an active process controlled by chemokines and the chemokine receptors expressed on distinct effector T-cell subsets. Thus, the chemokines secreted in the tissue will determine the specific types of T lymphocyte recruited into that tissue based on the chemokine receptors expressed on these cells. It follows that the chemokine receptor profile on T cells isolated from the lungs of patients with inflammatory pulmonary disease will define the subtype of pathogenic T lymphocytes mediating the disease process and will identify the mechanisms that recruit these cells into the lung. This article reviews data from both human and animal studies that define the chemokine receptors involved in the recruitment of T lymphocytes into the lung in various inflammatory pulmonary diseases, including asthma, obliterative bronchiolitis, sarcoidosis, and chronic eosinophilic pneumonia. We then speculate on the potential role of these chemokine receptors in the pathogenesis of these disorders and potential novel therapeutic approaches suggested by these data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin D Medoff
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Bldg. 149-8301, 13th St., Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
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214
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Assing K, Bodtger U, Poulsen LK. Seasonal dynamics of chemokine receptors and CD62L in subjects with asymptomatic skin sensitization to birch and grass pollen. Allergy 2006; 61:759-68. [PMID: 16677247 DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2006.01084.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asymptomatic skin sensitization (AS) has been shown to be a risk factor for respiratory allergic disease. CCR4, CXCR1 and CD62L have all been assigned a role in the immunopathogenesis of allergy. Memory T-cell expression of CCR4, CXCR1 and CD62L has not hitherto been investigated in subjects with AS. METHODS We investigated seasonal CD4 memory T-cell expression of the chemokine receptors CCR4, CXCR1 as well as L-selectin (CD62L) in fresh cultures derived from symptomatic atopics (SAs), subjects with AS and healthy controls (HCs). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from all three groups were isolated during birch and grass pollination as well as in the following winter. CD4 memory T-cell expression of CCR4, CXCR1 and CD62L was determined by flow-cytometry. RESULTS During spring and summer, a significantly increased proportion of memory T cells expressed CCR4, CXCR1 and CD62L in SAs when compared with subjects with AS and HCs. Only SAs exhibited seasonal fluctuations in numbers of CCR4, CXCR1 and CD62L positive memory T cells. CONCLUSION Although clearly IgE sensitized, subjects with AS have significant diminished numbers of CCR4, CXCR1 and CD62L positive memory T cells, during pollination, when compared with SAs. In contrast to SAs, cultures derived from subjects with AS did not display seasonal variation. Our findings explain the lack of clinical symptoms, during pollination, in subjects with AS.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Assing
- Allergy Clinic, Department 7551, National University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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215
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Berlin AA, Hogaboam CM, Lukacs NW. Inhibition of SCF attenuates peribronchial remodeling in chronic cockroach allergen-induced asthma. J Transl Med 2006; 86:557-65. [PMID: 16607380 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3700419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The progression and severity of chronic asthma likely depends upon the intensity of the damage and remodeling of the tissue. We have developed a chronic model of allergic asthma using multiple cockroach allergen challenges. Using this clinically relevant allergen we have established significant peribronchial fibrosis and mucus overproduction. These remodeling events are accompanied by intense peribronchial inflammation, including lymphocytes and eosinophils. A cytokine that has been identified as having a prominent role in short-term allergic events, stem cell factor (SCF), appears to have a significant role in this late-stage process. Using our polyclonal antibody specific for SCF administered into the airways of mice during the final allergen challenges, we find a significant effect on the chronic peribronchial allergen-induced fibrotic remodeling. This was characterized by reduced inflammation, especially eosinophils, as well as reduced hydroxyproline levels in anti-SCF compared to control antibody-treated animals. In addition, when we examined chemokines associated with the chronic disease and neutralized SCF in vivo we observed a corresponding decrease in CCL6 and CCL17. Using an inhibitor, imatinib mesylate, that blocks SCF/c-kit-associated RTK, we find similar results as with anti-SCF for attenuating AHR and fibrotic changes, suggesting that a potential clinical treatment for chronic asthma already exists related to this pathway. These results further support the potential use of SCF/c-kit inhibition for targeting chronic severe asthmatic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron A Berlin
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St., Ann Arbor, 48109-0602, USA
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216
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Lambrecht BN. An unexpected role for the anaphylatoxin C5a receptor in allergic sensitization. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:628-32. [PMID: 16511597 PMCID: PMC1386114 DOI: 10.1172/jci27876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The anaphylatoxins complement component 3a and 5a (C3a and C5a, respectively) are classically seen as proinflammatory mediators of allergic asthma that recruit inflammatory cells, induce edema, and cause bronchoconstriction. A few years ago, controversy arose when it was shown that C5-deficient mice were more susceptible to experimental asthma compared with C5-sufficient mice. In a study by Köhl et al. in this issue of the JCI, it is shown in a series of truly "complementary" experiments that C5a receptor (C5aR) blockade promotes Th2 sensitization upon first exposure to inhaled allergen, whereas C5aR blockade during established inflammation suppresses the cardinal features of asthma (see the related article beginning on page 783). Blockade of C5aR alters the function of airway DCs, crucial for inducing and maintaining Th2 responses in the lung. Targeting C5aR as a treatment for established asthma could be beneficial, but might be accompanied by sensitization to novel antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart N Lambrecht
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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217
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Rahmoun M, Foussat A, Groux H, Pène J, Yssel H, Chanez P. Enhanced frequency of CD18- and CD49b-expressing T cells in peripheral blood of asthmatic patients correlates with disease severity. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2006; 140:139-49. [PMID: 16601351 DOI: 10.1159/000092533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2005] [Accepted: 01/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Results from a transcriptome analysis of human CD4+ T regulatory type 1 (Tr1) clones have indicated that transcripts for the integrins CD18 and CD49b are overexpressed in these cells. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the presence of T cells concomitantly expressing these molecules could be detected in asthmatic patients and represent Tr1 cells. METHODS Expression of CD18 and CD49b was analyzed by flow cytometry on peripheral blood mononuclear cells from asthmatic patients of various severity and healthy subjects. The cytokine production profile of purified CD4+ CD18(high) CD49b+ T cells was analyzed by ELISA. The effect of glucocorticoid treatment on the expression of CD18 and CD49b was determined. RESULTS The frequency of peripheral blood CD18(high) CD49b+ T cells was significantly elevated in severe asthmatic patients, as compared with both mild asthmatic and healthy donors, and was diminished in asthmatic patients with a controlled status of the disease. Neither short-course oral glucocorticoid treatment of asthmatic patients ex vivo, nor culture of their peripheral blood mononuclear cells with dexamethasone in vitro, increased the frequency of CD18(high) CD49b+ T cells, indicating that their presence seems to be independent from recent anti-inflammatory treatment. However, purified CD4+ CD18(high) CD49b+ T cells from these patients, in contrast to those from healthy donors, lacked the production of the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin-10. CONCLUSION In contrast to healthy donors, peripheral blood CD18(high) CD49b+ T cells of asthmatic patients do not fulfill the phenotypic criteria of Tr1 cells. Nevertheless, the presence of elevated numbers of peripheral blood CD18(high) CD49b+ T cells is characteristic for patients with severe and uncontrolled asthma.
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218
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Inoue KI, Takano H, Yanagisawa R, Ichinose T, Sakurai M, Yoshikawa T. Effects of nano particles on cytokine expression in murine lung in the absence or presence of allergen. Arch Toxicol 2006; 80:614-9. [PMID: 16482471 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-006-0075-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2005] [Accepted: 01/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Particulate matter (PM) can exacerbate allergic airway diseases. Health effects of PM with a diameter of less than 100 nm, called nano particles, have been focused. We have recently demonstrated that carbon nano particles (14, 56 nm) exaggerate allergic airway inflammation in mice. In the present study, we investigated the effects of repeated pulmonary exposure to carbon nano particles on the expression of a variety of cytokines in the absence or presence of allergen in mice. ICR mice were divided into six experimental groups. Vehicle, two sizes of carbon nano particles, ovalbumin (OVA), and OVA + nano particles were administered intratracheally. Nano particles increased the lung protein levels of thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in the absence or presence of allergen. The enhancement was more prominent with 14 nm of nano particles than with 56 nm of nano particles in overall trend. 14 nm nano particle exposure significantly enhanced the lung expressions of interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-10 in the presence of allergen as compared with allergen exposure. These results suggest that pulmonary exposure to nano particles can induce the lung expression of TARC, MIP-1alpha, GM-CSF in the absence of allergen and can enhance that of TARC, MIP-1alpha, GM-CSF, IL-2, and IL-10 in the presence of allergen. The enhancing effects are more prominent with smaller particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken-Ichiro Inoue
- Environmental Health Sciences Division, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, 305-8506, Tsukuba, Japan
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219
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Miller LA, Hurst SD, Coffman RL, Tyler NK, Stovall MY, Chou DL, Putney LF, Gershwin LJ, Schelegle ES, Plopper CG, Hyde DM. Airway generation-specific differences in the spatial distribution of immune cells and cytokines in allergen-challenged rhesus monkeys. Clin Exp Allergy 2006; 35:894-906. [PMID: 16008676 PMCID: PMC3918236 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2005.02271.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulation of immune cell populations and their cytokine products within tracheobronchial airways contributes to the pathogenesis of allergic asthma. It has been postulated that peripheral regions of the lung play a more significant role than proximal airways with regard to inflammatory events and airflow obstruction. OBJECTIVE To determine whether immune cell populations and associated cytokines are uniformly distributed throughout the conducting airway tree in a non-human primate model of allergic asthma. METHODS We used a stereologic approach with a stratified sampling scheme to measure the volume density of immune cells within the epithelium and interstitium of trachea and 4-5 intrapulmonary airway generations from house dust mite (HDM) (Dermatophagoides farinae)-challenged adult monkeys. In conjunction with immune cell distribution profiles, mRNA levels for 21 cytokines/chemokines and three chemokine receptors were evaluated at four different airway generations from microdissected lungs. RESULTS In HDM-challenged monkeys, the volume of CD1a+ dendritic cells, CD4+ T helper lymphocytes, CD25+ cells, IgE+ cells, eosinophils, and proliferating cells were significantly increased within airways. All five immune cell types accumulated within airways in unique patterns of distribution, suggesting compartmentalized responses with regard to trafficking. Although cytokine mRNA levels were elevated throughout the conducting airway tree of HDM-challenged animals, the distal airways (terminal and respiratory bronchioles) exhibited the most pronounced up-regulation. CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that key effector immune cell populations and cytokines associated with asthma differentially accumulate within distinct regions and compartments of tracheobronchial airways from allergen-challenged primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Miller
- Center for Comparative Respiratory Biology and Medicine and the California Regional Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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220
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Lehto M, Haapakoski R, Wolff H, Majuri ML, Mäkelä MJ, Leino M, Reunala T, Turjanmaa K, Palosuo T, Alenius H. Cutaneous, but not airway, latex exposure induces allergic lung inflammation and airway hyperreactivity in mice. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 125:962-8. [PMID: 16297197 DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2005.23910.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
As respiratory symptoms are common in addition to skin reactions in natural rubber latex allergy, we investigated the significance of different allergen exposure routes in the development of lung inflammation and airway hyperreactivity (AHR). Both intracutaneous (IC) and intraperitoneal (IP) exposure followed by airway challenge with latex proteins induced an influx of mononuclear cells and eosinophils to the lungs. AHR and lung mucus production increased significantly after IC and IP but not after intranasal (IN) exposure. Infiltration of inflammatory cells was associated with the induction of T-helper type 2 (Th2) cytokines and several CC chemokines. Only a marginal induction of these mediators was found after IN exposure. On the contrary, increased levels of transforming growth factor-beta1 and forkhead box 3 mRNA, markers of regulatory activities, were found in the lungs after IN but not after IC exposure. Finally, IC and IP, but not IN, latex exposure induced a striking increase in specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) levels. Cutaneous latex exposure in the absence of adjuvant followed by airway challenge induces a local Th2-dominated lung inflammation and a systemic IgE response. Cutaneous exposure to proteins eluting from latex products may therefore profoundly contribute to the development of asthma in latex allergy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maili Lehto
- Department of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
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221
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Dewin DR, Catusse J, Gompels UA. Identification and Characterization of U83A Viral Chemokine, a Broad and Potent β-Chemokine Agonist for Human CCRs with Unique Selectivity and Inhibition by Spliced Isoform. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 176:544-56. [PMID: 16365449 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.1.544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Leukotropic human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) establishes a persistent infection associated with inflammatory diseases and encodes chemokines that could chemoattract leukocytes for infection or inflammation. HHV-6 variant A encodes a distant chemokine homolog, U83A, and a polymorphism promoting a secreted form was identified. U83A and three N-terminal modifications were expressed and purified, and activities were compared with a spliced truncated isoform, U83A-Npep. U83A efficiently and potently induced calcium mobilization in cells expressing single human CCR1, CCR4, CCR6, or CCR8, with EC50 values <10 nM. U83A also induced chemotaxis of Th2-like leukemic cells expressing CCR4 and CCR8. High-affinity binding, 0.4 nM, was demonstrated to CCR1 and CCR5 on monocytic/macrophage cells, and pretreatment with U83A or modified forms could block responses for endogenous ligands. U83A-Npep acted only as antagonist, efficiently blocking binding of CCL3 to CCR1 or CCR5 on differentiated monocytic/macrophage leukemic cells. Furthermore, CCL3 induction of calcium signaling via CCR1 and CCL1 induced chemotaxis via CCR8 in primary human leukocytes was inhibited. Thus, this blocking by the early expressed U83A-Npep could mediate immune evasion before finishing the replicative cycle. However, late in infection, when full-length U83A is made, chemoattraction of CCR1-, CCR4-, CCR5-, CCR6-, and CCR8-bearing monocytic/macrophage, dendritic, and T lymphocyte cells can facilitate dissemination via lytic and latent infection of these cells. This has further implications for neuroinflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis, where both cells bearing CCR1/CCR5 plus their ligands, as well as HHV-6A, have been linked. Applications also discussed include novel vaccines/immunotherapeutics for cancer and HIV as well as anti-inflammatories.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Line
- Chemokines/genetics
- Chemokines/immunology
- Chemokines/metabolism
- Chemotaxis, Leukocyte
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
- DNA, Recombinant
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
- Flow Cytometry
- Genes, Viral/genetics
- Genes, Viral/immunology
- Herpesvirus 6, Human/physiology
- Humans
- Image Processing, Computer-Assisted
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Protein Isoforms/genetics
- Protein Isoforms/immunology
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Th2 Cells/immunology
- Th2 Cells/metabolism
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Viral Proteins/immunology
- Viral Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Dewin
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of London, London, United Kingdom
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222
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Chen E, Moller D. Cytokines and Chemokines in Sarcoidosis. LUNG BIOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2005. [DOI: 10.1201/b13773-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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223
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Kawashima D, Oshitani N, Jinno Y, Watanabe K, Nakamura S, Higuchi K, Arakawa T. Augmented expression of secondary lymphoid tissue chemokine and EBI1 ligand chemokine in Crohn's disease. J Clin Pathol 2005; 58:1057-63. [PMID: 16189151 PMCID: PMC1770738 DOI: 10.1136/jcp.2004.024828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A dominant T helper type 1 (Th1) immune response is thought to be involved in Crohn's disease (CD). SLC/CCL21 and ELC/CCL19, chemokines that regulate T cell homing and promote recirculating T and dendritic cell (DC) interactions, help control antigen specific T cell responses. AIMS To investigate the Th1 response and SLC and ELC in CD pathogenesis. METHODS Surgically resected intestine and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) from controls and patients with CD and ulcerative colitis (UC) were investigated. CD3, CD83, HECA452, VEGFR3, SLC, ELC, and CCR7 expression was studied immunohistochemically. CCR7 mRNA was quantified using real time RT-PCR. RESULTS ELC was almost undetectable in intestinal samples. SLC was found sporadically in lymphoid follicles, lymphoid aggregate venules, and lymphatic vessels. In MLNs, SLC was highly expressed in high endothelial venules (HEVs), lymphatic vessels, and stromal DCs, predominantly in T cell areas. ELC was highly expressed in mature DCs. There were significantly more SLC positive HEVs and ELC positive mature DCs, important components of T cell areas, in CD. SLC, ELC, and CCR7 mRNA was significantly higher in CD MLNs compared with UC. CD MLNs had increased expression of SLC and ELC, mainly in HEVs, mature DCs, and lymphatic vessels, inducing T cell hyperplasia. CCR7 mRNA was increased in T cell areas. CONCLUSION The dominant Th1 immune response is facilitated by interaction of SLC positive HEVs/lymphatic vessels, ELC positive mature DCs, and CCR7 positive T cells in hyperplastic T cell areas. In CD, memory T cells and mature DCs may home to MLN.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kawashima
- Department of Gastroenterology, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka 545-8585, Japan
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224
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Pignatti P, Brunetti G, Moretto D, Yacoub MR, Fiori M, Balbi B, Balestrino A, Cervio G, Nava S, Moscato G. Role of the chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CCR4 in human pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 173:310-7. [PMID: 16239626 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200502-244oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE The chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CCR4 have recently been described as playing a pivotal role in the mouse model of bleomycin-induced fibrosis. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the role of these receptors in human idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). METHODS We studied 57 patients: 18 with IPF, 17 with non-IPF (nIPF), 12 with sarcoidosis, and 10 healthy control subjects. MEASUREMENTS We evaluated the expression of CXCR3 and CCR4 in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) T lymphocytes by flow cytometry and the chemokine CXCL10, CXCL11 and CCL17 BAL concentration by singular immunoassay. MAIN RESULTS Patients with IPF had a significantly lower CXCR3 and a higher CCR4 expression on BAL CD4 T cells compared with the other groups. Among patients with IPF, those treated with corticosteroids exhibited higher CXCR3 and lower CCR4 expression compared with untreated patients. CXCR3 expression correlated with BAL lymphocytes and CCR4 with BAL neutrophils and eosinophils. CXCL10 levels correlated with the expression of CXCR3 on BAL CD4 cells. CXCL11 was undetectable in almost all patients, whereas CCL17 was primarily detectable in patients with IPF. The percentage of BAL CCR4CD4 cells negatively correlated with DL(CO). The changes in the total lung capacity, VC, and of the alveolar-arterial PO2 gradient in patients with IPF and those with nIPF 6 to 12 mo after the first evaluation were associated with CD4CXCR3 percentage on BAL cells. CONCLUSIONS We found an imbalance in CXCR3/CCR4 expression on BAL CD4 lymphocytes and reduced CXCL10 BAL levels in patients with IPF, suggesting a pivotal role of these molecules in IPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Pignatti
- Allergy and Immunology Unit, Rehabilitative Pneumology Department, Pavia, Italy
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225
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Ritter M, Göggel R, Chaudhary N, Wiedenmann A, Jung B, Weith A, Seither P. Elevated expression of TARC (CCL17) and MDC (CCL22) in models of cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary inflammation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 334:254-62. [PMID: 15993846 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.06.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2005] [Accepted: 06/14/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
TARC (CCL17) and MDC (CCL22) are well-known chemoattractants for Th2 cells. Here, we evaluated the role of both chemokines for cigarette smoke-induced airway inflammation. The expression profiles of MDC, TARC, and their receptor CCR4 were analyzed in models of acute and chronic cigarette smoke-induced airway inflammation that is characterized by a Th1 immune response. The results were compared to the expression of both chemokines in models of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and acute asthma, which are associated with a Th2 immune response. The expression of MDC and TARC was found to be elevated in all lung inflammation models. In contrast to the findings in the asthma and lung fibrosis models, the increased expression of MDC and TARC in the cigarette-smoke model was not associated with an increased infiltration of Th2 cells into smoke-treated lungs. Our data indicate that instead of Th2 cells, airway epithelial cells expressing CCR4 might be the principal targets for MDC and TARC released from alveolar macrophages during cigarette smoke-induced airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Ritter
- Department of Pulmonary Research, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, D-88937 Biberach a.d. Riss, Germany
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226
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Locati M, Bonecchi R, Corsi MM. Chemokines and their receptors: roles in specific clinical conditions and measurement in the clinical laboratory. Am J Clin Pathol 2005; 123 Suppl:S82-95. [PMID: 16100870 PMCID: PMC7149461 DOI: 10.1309/m6u4b8l6tnak4g9l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Considerable progress has been achieved in our knowledge of the function of the chemokine system and in understanding its role in the pathophysiology of human diseases. This complex system, presently including approximately 50 cytokines and 20 receptors, coordinates leukocyte recruitment in a variety of human diseases, ranging from infectious and inflammatory diseases to cancer. A large body of literature has been published describing various assays for the measurement of chemokines in biologic fluids and tissues. We review information available on the role of chemokines in selected human diseases and provide examples of clinical situations in which chemokine determination might be of practical value, and we describe the currently available assays for their measurement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Locati
- Laboratory of Leukocyte Biology, Institute of General Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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227
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Zhou B, Comeau MR, De Smedt T, Liggitt HD, Dahl ME, Lewis DB, Gyarmati D, Aye T, Campbell DJ, Ziegler SF. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin as a key initiator of allergic airway inflammation in mice. Nat Immunol 2005; 6:1047-53. [PMID: 16142237 DOI: 10.1038/ni1247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 614] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Accepted: 08/05/2005] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) has been linked to human allergic inflammatory diseases. We show here that TSLP expression was increased in the lungs of mice with antigen-induced asthma, whereas TSLP receptor-deficient mice had considerably attenuated disease. Lung-specific expression of a Tslp transgene induced airway inflammation and hyperreactivity characterized by T helper type 2 cytokines and increased immunoglobulin E. The lungs of Tslp-transgenic mice showed massive infiltration of leukocytes, goblet cell hyperplasia and subepithelial fibrosis. TSLP was capable of activating bone marrow-derived dendritic cells to upregulate costimulatory molecules and produce the T helper type 2 cell-attracting chemokine CCL17. These findings suggest that TSLP is an important factor necessary and sufficient for the initiation of allergic airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohua Zhou
- Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA
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228
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Atanackovic D, Panse J, Schafhausen P, Faltz C, Bartels K, Boeters I, Hossfeld DK, Hegewisch-Becker S. Peripheral T cells of patients with B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma show a shift in their memory status. Leuk Res 2005; 29:1019-27. [PMID: 16038728 DOI: 10.1016/j.leukres.2005.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2004] [Revised: 02/08/2005] [Accepted: 02/08/2005] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tumor-infiltrating T cells have a positive influence on the clinical course of B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). T cells in the peripheral blood of patients with B cell NHL, however, have so far rarely been examined. METHODS Using flow cytometry we examined lymphocyte subpopulations and numbers of naïve/memory T cell subtypes among peripheral T cells of patients with B cell NHL (N=22), patients with metastasized solid tumors (N=27), and healthy controls (N=20). In addition, we analyzed the intracellular content of effector molecules granzyme B and perforin and expression of the T cell receptor zeta chain. RESULTS We observed increased percentages of potentially highly cytotoxic CD8+CD56+ T cells in the peripheral blood of patients with NHL. Both, patients with NHL and patients with solid tumors showed a much higher expression of the chemokine receptors CCR4 and CCR5 on their T cells than healthy controls, suggesting a polarization of their T cells following stimulation with antigen and/or cytokines in vivo. Furthermore, patients with B cell NHL and patients with solid tumors had far lower percentages of naïve CD45RA+CCR7+ T cells than healthy controls and, in the case of CD4+ T cells, patients with solid tumors. In contrast, patients with B cell NHL showed markedly increased levels of memory effector CD45RA-CCR7- CD4(+) T cells when compared to healthy controls and patients with metastasized solid tumors. Patients with NHL also showed elevated levels granzyme B within CD8(+) T cells, indicating that the increase in memory effector cells was of functional relevance. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate a marked shift in the composition of peripheral T cells of patients with B cell NHL from naïve to memory effector-type cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Djordje Atanackovic
- Department of Medicine, Oncology/Hematology, University Hospital Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
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229
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Ying S, O'Connor B, Ratoff J, Meng Q, Mallett K, Cousins D, Robinson D, Zhang G, Zhao J, Lee TH, Corrigan C. Thymic stromal lymphopoietin expression is increased in asthmatic airways and correlates with expression of Th2-attracting chemokines and disease severity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:8183-90. [PMID: 15944327 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.8183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 620] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) is said to increase expression of chemokines attracting Th2 T cells. We hypothesized that asthma is characterized by elevated bronchial mucosal expression of TSLP and Th2-attracting, but not Th1-attracting, chemokines as compared with controls, with selective accumulation of cells bearing receptors for these chemokines. We used in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry to examine the expression and cellular provenance of TSLP, Th2-attracting (thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC)/CCL17, macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC)/CCL22, I-309/CCL1) and Th1-attracting (IFN-gamma-inducible protein 10 (IP-10)/CXCL10, IFN-inducible T cell alpha-chemoattractant (I-TAC)/CXCL11) chemokines and expression of their receptors CCR4, CCR8, and CXCR3 in bronchial biopsies from 20 asthmatics and 15 normal controls. The numbers of cells within the bronchial epithelium and submucosa expressing mRNA for TSLP, TARC/CCL17, MDC/CCL22, and IP-10/CXCL10, but not I-TAC/CXCL11 and I-309/CCL1, were significantly increased in asthmatics as compared with controls (p = 0.018). TSLP and TARC/CCL17 expression correlated with airway obstruction. Although the total numbers of cells expressing CCR4, CCR8, and CXCR3 did not significantly differ in the asthmatics and controls, there was evidence of selective infiltration of CD4(+)/CCR4(+) T cells in the asthmatic biopsies which correlated with TARC and MDC expression and airway obstruction. Epithelial cells, endothelial cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and mast cells were significant sources of TSLP and chemokines. Our data implicate TSLP, TARC/CCL17, MDC/CCL22, and IP-10/CXCL10 in asthma pathogenesis. These may act partly through selective development and retention, or recruitment of Th2 cells bearing their receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Ying
- Department of Asthma, Allergy and Respiratory Science, Guy's, King's and St. Thomas' (GKT) School of Medicine, London, United Kingdom.
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Wang Y, Zhang Y, Yang X, Han W, Liu Y, Xu Q, Zhao R, Di C, Song Q, Ma D. Chemokine-like factor 1 is a functional ligand for CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4). Life Sci 2005; 78:614-21. [PMID: 16137713 PMCID: PMC7126766 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.05.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2005] [Accepted: 05/03/2005] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Chemokine-like factor 1 (CKLF1) exhibits chemotactic effects on leukocytes. Its amino acid sequence shares similarity with those of TARC/CCL17 and MDC/CCL22, the cognate ligands for CCR4. The chemotactic effects of CKLF1 for CCR4-transfected cells could be desensitized by TARC/CCL17 and markedly inhibited by PTX. CKLF1 induced a calcium flux in CCR4-transfected cells and fully desensitized a subsequent response to TARC/CCL17, and TARC/CCL17 could partly desensitize the response to CKLF1. CKLF1 caused significant receptor internalization in pCCR4-EGFP transfected cells. Taken together, CKLF1 is a novel functional ligand for CCR4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Yingmei Zhang
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Xue Yang
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Wenling Han
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Yanan Liu
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Qianmei Xu
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Rui Zhao
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Chunhui Di
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Quansheng Song
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
| | - Dalong Ma
- Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing 100083, P.R. China
- Corresponding author. Center for Human Disease Genomics, Peking University, 38 Xueyuan, Beijing 100083, P.R. China. Tel.: +8610 82801149; fax: +8610 82801149.
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231
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Caramori G, Pandit A, Papi A. Is there a difference between chronic airway inflammation in chronic severe asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease? Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 5:77-83. [PMID: 15643348 DOI: 10.1097/00130832-200502000-00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The lack of a universally accepted definition of chronic severe asthma and the continuous changes in the classification of the severity of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the last 10 years make it difficult to compare the many studies available. The aim of the review is to compare studies on chronic severe asthma that have a control group of patients with mild to moderate persistent asthma and studies on stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that have an age-matched control group of smokers with normal lung function (with or without chronic bronchitis). RECENT FINDINGS Our review of the recent literature in this field seems to indicate that chronic airway inflammation in chronic severe asthma is characterized in most cases, both in central and peripheral airways, by the same pathological features of mild-moderate persistent asthma with an increased number of activated T lymphocytes, particularly CD4 Th2 cells, and sometimes eosinophils and mast cells. The most notable difference of chronic severe asthma compared with mild to moderate disease is the increased number of neutrophils. Chronic airway inflammation in stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is characterized, both in central and peripheral airways, by an increased number of T lymphocytes, particularly CD8+, macrophages and neutrophils. Macrophage and neutrophil counts increase with the progression of the severity of the disease. SUMMARY These differences in chronic airway inflammation support the consensus that asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are different diseases along all their stages of severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaetano Caramori
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Centre of Research on Asthma and COPD, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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232
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Abstract
Chemokines and chemokine receptors are part of a complex network of molecules that play a key role in leukocyte migration and activation. The chemokine family role is crucial in the immune system, orchestrating innate and acquired immune responses, but also in allergic inflammation. A subset of chemokines, including CCL11, CCL24, CCL26, CCL7, CCL13, CCL17, and CCL22 is highly expressed by the three main cell types involved in allergic inflammation: eosinophils, basophils, and Th2 lymphocytes. In vitro and in vivo experimental studies in murine models of asthma as well as evidence from patients with asthma confirm the role of these chemokines and their receptors, including CCR3, CCR4, and CCR8, establishing a subset of chemokine/chemokine receptor that is potentially important in allergic inflammation. Recent data support the concept that interfering with chemokines or chemokine receptors represents a new approach in allergy therapy. However, even if some of them have been shown to be effective in animal models, none is as yet used in human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles Garcia
- Service de Pneumologie et Réanimation respiratoire, Hôpital Antoine Béclère, 157 rue de la Porte de Trivaux, 92140 Clamart, France
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233
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Kurokawa M, Kokubu F, Matsukura S, Kawaguchi M, Ieki K, Suzuki S, Odaka M, Watanabe S, Takeuchi H, Akabane T, Asano K, Iwase M, Honma I, Adachi M. Effects of corticosteroid on the expression of thymus and activation-regulated chemokine in a murine model of allergic asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2005; 137 Suppl 1:60-8. [PMID: 15947487 DOI: 10.1159/000085434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC; CCL17) is a lymphocyte-directed CC chemokine that specifically attracts T-helper (Th) 2 cells positive for the CC chemokine receptor 4 (CCR4(+)). Corticosteroids reduce airway inflammation, as reflected by reduced numbers of eosinophils and T cells and reduced expression of cytokines. We investigated TARC production and the inhibitory effects of corticosteroids on TARC expression in a murine model of allergic asthma. METHODS BALB/c mice were sensitized by intraperitoneal injection of ovalbumin (OVA) with alum. Once daily for 1 week, mice received injections of dexamethasone or 0.2 ml saline (control), then 1 h later inhaled aerosolized 1% OVA for 30 min. Mice were killed 24 h after OVA challenge for bronchoalveolar lavage and lung tissue examination. RESULTS TARC was expressed mainly in the bronchial epithelial cells. Dexamethasone attenuated OVA-induced airway eosinophilia, lymphocyte infiltration, and airway hyperresponsiveness. Dexamethasone also decreased TARC production in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and decreased expression of TARC mRNA and TARC protein in lung tissue. CONCLUSIONS The corticosteroid dexamethasone inhibits TARC production in a murine model of allergic asthma in vivo. The beneficial effect of corticosteroids in bronchial asthma is due in part to their direct inhibitory effects on TARC production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masatsugu Kurokawa
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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234
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Hung CH, Li CY, Lai YS, Hsu PC, Hua YM, Yang KD. Discrepant clinical responses and blood chemokine profiles between two non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications for children with mild persistent asthma. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005; 16:306-9. [PMID: 15943593 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2005.00273.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In a randomized study, two oral medications, ketotifen and montelukast, were compared for children with mild persistent asthma. Montelukast revealed faster clinical responses than ketotifen, showing improved exhaled nitric oxide, peak expiratory flow, and asthma scores in 1 wk. After 8-wk of medication, both ketotifen and montelukast revealed improved clinical responses. However, 8 wk of ketotifen, but not montelukast, decreased plasma serum thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (317.854 +/- 207.906 vs. 181.348 +/- 167.109, p < 0.05), macrophage-derived chemokine (355.11 +/- 174.30 vs. 169.19 +/- 62.42, p < 0.05) levels. In conclusion, different oral non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs revealed faster or slower treatment responses due to different mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hsing Hung
- Department of Pediatrics, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
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235
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Mast cells (MCs) accumulate at sites of allergic mucosal inflammation where they act as central effectors and regulatory cells. Chemokines are believed to be crucial for the recruitment of MCs to sites of inflammation. We recently reported that human umbilical cord blood MCs (CBMCs) expresses the CC chemokine receptors, CCR1 and CCR4. We found a unique response profile to ligands of the respective receptors in which, of all tested ligands, only CCL5/RANTES-induced migration. OBJECTIVE To further investigate the function of CCR4 in MCs. METHODS CBMCs were used for competition binding experiments, migration, and intracellular calcium mobilization and release response studies. RESULTS The natural ligands for CCR4, CCL17/TARC and CCL22/MDC could both compete for binding with radiolabelled CCL5. Further, both CCL17 and CCL22 act as CCR4 antagonists by inhibiting CCL5-induced migration. Although both CCL17 and CCL22 caused mobilization of intracellular calcium, none of them induced migration or histamine release. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that CCL5-induced migration of MCs via CCR4 can be regulated by the natural agonists CCL17 and CCL22, which are up-regulated at sites of allergic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Juremalm
- Research Group on Mast Cell Biology, Department of Genetics and Pathology, The Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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236
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Hartl D, Griese M, Nicolai T, Zissel G, Prell C, Konstantopoulos N, Gruber R, Reinhardt D, Schendel DJ, Krauss-Etschmann S. Pulmonary chemokines and their receptors differentiate children with asthma and chronic cough. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 115:728-36. [PMID: 15805991 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2004.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cough is a frequent symptom in children, but the differentiation of asthmatic cough from cough of other origins can be difficult. Chemokines recruit T lymphocytes to inflamed tissues, and the corresponding chemokine receptors are differentially expressed on T H 1 and T H 2 cells. OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether levels of T H 1/T H 2-related chemokines and their receptors differ in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) from 12 children with allergic asthma, 15 nonatopic children with chronic cough, and 10 children without airway disease. METHODS The T H 1-related (IFN-gamma-inducible protein of 10 kd [IP-10], IFN-gamma-inducible T cell alpha chemoattractant [ITAC], monokine induced by IFN-gamma [Mig], and IFN-gamma) and T H 2-related (thymus- and activation-regulated chemokine [TARC], macrophage-derived chemokine [MDC], IL-5, and IL-4) chemokines and cytokines were quantified in BALF by ELISA and a particle-based multiplex array. Percentages of pulmonary lymphocytes expressing CXCR3 + and CCR5 + (T H 1) and CCR4 + and CCR3 + (T H 2) chemokine receptors were determined in BALF by flow cytometry. RESULTS Pulmonary CCR4 + CD4 + cells and levels of TARC and MDC were significantly increased in asthmatic children versus children with chronic cough or without airway disease. In asthmatic children CCR4 + CD4 + cells correlated positively with levels of TARC, MDC, and serum IgE levels and negatively with FEV 1 . In contrast, CXCR3 + CD8 + cells and levels of ITAC were significantly increased in children with non-atopic chronic cough compared with the other groups. In children with chronic cough, CXCR3 + CD8 + cells correlated with levels of ITAC and IFN-gamma. CONCLUSION Pulmonary CCR4 + CD4 + and CXCR3 + CD8 + cells and their ligands TARC, MDC, and ITAC clearly differentiate asthmatic children from nonatopic children with chronic cough. The analysis of these markers could facilitate the diagnostic discrimination of asthma versus other reasons for chronic cough in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Hartl
- Children's Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Lindwurmstrasse 2a, D-80337 Munich, Germany
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237
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Abstract
Motility is a hallmark of leukocytes, and breakdown in the control of migration contributes to many inflammatory diseases. Chemotactic migration of leukocytes largely depends on adhesive interaction with the substratum and recognition of a chemoattractant gradient. Chemokines are secreted proteins and have emerged as key controllers of integrin function and cell locomotion. Numerous distinct chemokines exist that target all types of leukocytes, including hematopoietic precursors, leukocytes of the innate immune system, as well as naive memory, and effector lymphocytes. The combinatorial diversity in responsiveness to chemokines ensures the proper tissue distribution of distinct leukocyte subsets under normal and pathological conditions. Inflammatory chemokines are readily detected in lesional tissue and local cellular infiltrates carry corresponding chemokine receptors. Blocking of inflammatory chemokines represents a promising strategy for the development of novel anti-inflammatory therapeutics. This review focuses on a separate class of chemokines, termed homeostatic chemokines, with steady-state production at diverse sites, including primary and secondary lymphoid tissues as well as peripheral (extralymphoid) tissues. More precisely, we discuss the chemokines involved in T-cell traffic during the initiation of adaptive immunity and compare the distinct migration properties of short-lived effector T cells and long-lived memory T cells. Memory T cells are currently classified according to the presence of the lymph node-homing receptor CCR7 into CCR7+ central memory T (T(CM)) cells and CCR7- effector memory T (T(EM)) cells. For better understanding memory T-cell function, we propose the distinction of a third category, termed peripheral immune surveillance T (T(PS)) cells, which typically reside in healthy peripheral tissues, such as skin, lung, and gastrointestinal tract. Localization and relocation of memory T cells is strictly related to their function in recall responses. Therefore, detailed knowledge of their generation and tissue distribution may help to design better vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Schaerli
- Theodor-Kocher Institute, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 1, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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238
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Kallinich T, Schmidt S, Hamelmann E, Fischer A, Qin S, Luttmann W, Virchow JC, Kroczek RA. Chemokine-receptor expression on T cells in lung compartments of challenged asthmatic patients. Clin Exp Allergy 2005; 35:26-33. [PMID: 15649262 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.02132.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The interaction of chemokines with their receptors strongly influences the migration of leucocytes. OBJECTIVE In order to assess the contribution of these molecules to the local recruitment of T cells in bronchial asthma, we analysed the expression of 14 chemokine receptors on lung-derived T cells. METHODS Chemokine-receptor expression by T cells derived from the peripheral blood, the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and the bronchial mucosa was analysed by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Expression profiles in healthy and mildly asthmatic individuals were compared, the latter prior and after segmental allergen provocation. RESULTS Compared with peripheral blood, alveolar T cells expressed significantly more CCR2, CCR5, CCR6, CXCR3 and CCR4. However, no differences were observed between healthy controls and unchallenged asthmatics. In patients developing significant inflammatory responses following specific allergen challenge, a marked increase in the percentage of CCR4+ and CCR7+, and reduced numbers of CXCR3-bearing alveolar T cells were detected. Following specific allergen challenge, chemokine-receptor expression profiles of T cells from the alveolar space and the mucosa or the submucosa were similar, excluding a particular subcompartmentalization of the chemokine/chemokine-receptor system. CONCLUSION The expression of certain chemokine receptors by lung T cells suggests a contribution to the physiological recruitment of T cells to the lungs, both in healthy controls and unchallenged mild asthmatics. However, strong allergen-induced airway responses were associated with a specific chemokine-receptor profile, suggesting the involvement of certain chemokine receptors in the pathogenesis of allergic bronchial inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kallinich
- Department of Pediatric Pneumology and Immunology, Charité Campus Virchow Klinikum, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
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Bisset LR, Schmid-Grendelmeier P. Chemokines and their receptors in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma: progress and perspective. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2005; 11:35-42. [PMID: 15591886 DOI: 10.1097/01.mcp.0000144502.50149.e0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The importance of chemokines and their receptors to development and maintenance of allergic asthma is reflected in the burgeoning amount of literature currently devoted to this topic. Based on a series of selected references published during the last year, this review now summarizes recent advances and discusses the likely implications of these findings. RECENT FINDINGS Of particular interest are reports describing novel interactions between chemokines and both eosinophils and mast cells, including a role for CXCL5 (epithelial cell-derived neutrophil-activating peptide-78) and intracellular CCR3. New insights into TH2-cell dominance are presented in reports dealing with a range of chemokines, including CCL3 (MIP-1alpha), CCL4 (MIP-1beta), CCL5 (RANTES), CXCL9 (Mig), and CXCL10 (IP-10). The increasing importance of structural cell participation is emphasized by reports focusing on the eotaxin family (CCL11, CCL24, and CCL26), as well as CCL17 (TARC), CCL22 (MDC), CXCL9 (Mig), and CX3CL1 (Fractalkine). A developing role for nonreceptor regulatory mechanisms is also emphasized by seminal work relating to metalloproteinases, as well as reports focusing on proteoglycans and beta-Arrestin-2. Finally, significant progress in the field of asthma heritability is featured in reports relating to both known and novel genes, including those encoding CCR5 and DPP-10. SUMMARY The critical influence of chemokine biology on the outcome of allergic asthma continues to be highlighted in recent reports describing novel mechanisms by which eosinophils are recruited into the lung and local TH2-cell dominance is maintained. Also of considerable interest is the increasing emphasis currently being realized for structural cell participation, nonreceptor regulatory mechanisms, and the influence of susceptibility genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie R Bisset
- Swiss National Center for Retroviruses, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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Abstract
In order for an immune response to be successful, it must be of the appropriate type and magnitude. Intracellular residing pathogens require a cell-mediated immune response, whereas extracellular pathogens evoke a humoral immune response. T-helper (Th) cells orchestrate the immune response and are divided into two subsets, Th1 and Th2 cells. Here, we discuss the mechanisms of Th2 development with a focus on signal transduction pathways that influence Th2 differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerri A Mowen
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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241
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Heijink IH, Vellenga E, Oostendorp J, de Monchy JGR, Postma DS, Kauffman HF. Exposure to TARC alters beta2-adrenergic receptor signaling in human peripheral blood T lymphocytes. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2005; 289:L53-9. [PMID: 15749741 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00357.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The beta(2)-adrenergic receptor (beta(2)-AR) negatively regulates T cell activity through the activation of the G(s)/adenylyl cyclase/cAMP pathway. beta(2)-AR desensitization, which can be induced by its phosphorylation, may have important consequences for the regulation of T cell function in asthma. In the present study we demonstrate that the C-C chemokine thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC) impairs the ability of beta(2)-agonist fenoterol to activate the cAMP downstream effector cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB) in freshly isolated human T cells. The TARC-induced activation of Src kinases resulted in membrane translocation of both G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) 2 and beta-arrestin. Moreover, TARC was able to induce Src-dependent serine phosphorylation of the beta(2)-AR as well as its association with GRK2 and beta-arrestin. Finally, in contrast to CREB, phosphorylation of Src and extracellular signal-regulated kinase was enhanced by fenoterol upon TARC pretreatment. In summary, we show for the first time that TARC exposure impairs beta(2)-AR function in T cells. Our data suggest that this is mediated by Src-dependent activation of GRK2, resulting in receptor phosphorylation, binding to beta-arrestin, and a switch from cAMP-dependent signaling to activation of the MAPK pathway. We propose that aberrant T cell control in the presence of endogenous beta-agonists promotes T cell-mediated inflammation in asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene H Heijink
- Department of Allergology, University Medical Center Groningen, The Netherlands
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Heijink IH, van den Berge M, Vellenga E, de Monchy JGR, Postma DS, Kauffman HF. Altered beta2-adrenergic regulation of T cell activity after allergen challenge in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2005; 34:1356-63. [PMID: 15347367 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.02037.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Airway inflammation in asthma is orchestrated by recruitment of T helper (Th)2 lymphocytes to the lung and subsequent production of Th2-like cytokines upon allergen challenge. OBJECTIVE To examine whether allergen-induced dysfunction of the beta2-adrenergic receptor (beta2-AR) contributes to the enhanced T(h2) cell activity in asthma. METHODS Beta2-adrenergic regulation of cytokine mRNA expression was studied in alpha-CD3/alpha-CD28-activated peripheral blood lymphocytes from seven asthma patients before and 6 h after allergen challenge, in conjunction with the effects of beta2-agonist fenoterol on T cell chemotaxis and signalling pathways. RESULTS A complete loss of beta2-AR control over expression of the Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13, but not of the Th1 cytokine IFN-gamma, was observed after allergen challenge. Furthermore, we found impaired beta2-AR regulation of T cell migration as well as signal transduction pathways, i.e. the phosphorylation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate-responsive element binding protein and the inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. The loss of beta2-AR control was associated with increased beta-adrenergic receptor kinase expression, which might be involved in beta2-AR desensitization. In addition, we demonstrate for the first time that T cells exposed to the chemokine thymus and activation-regulated chemokine show hyporesponsiveness to fenoterol. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that allergen-induced loss of beta2-AR control, possibly mediated by chemokine release, plays an important role in enhanced Th2-like activity in asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- I H Heijink
- Department of Allergology, University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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244
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Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors in Pulmonary Disease. CURRENT TOPICS IN MEMBRANES 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1063-5823(04)55008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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245
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246
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Miller AL, Lukacs NW. Chemokine receptors: understanding their role in asthmatic disease. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2004; 24:667-83, vii. [PMID: 15474865 DOI: 10.1016/j.iac.2004.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The incidence, prevalence, and severity of asthma have been increasing steadily in recent years. Prophylactic treatment of this disease and of episodic asthmatic flares is aimed at preventing excessive inflammation in lung tissue and airways. Because chemokines and chemokine receptors are critical mediators of leukocyte trafficking and recruitment, there is the potential to pharmaceutically target these proteins to regulate inflammation. Asthma-associated inflammation is characterized by the infiltration of eosinophils and T helper type 2 cells. Early studies investigated the role of chemokine receptors, which have been shown to predominate on these cell populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison L Miller
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine, 5214 MSI, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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247
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Gardner LM, Thien FC, Douglass JA, Rolland JM, O'Hehir RE. Induction of T 'regulatory' cells by standardized house dust mite immunotherapy: an increase in CD4+ CD25+ interleukin-10+ T cells expressing peripheral tissue trafficking markers. Clin Exp Allergy 2004; 34:1209-19. [PMID: 15298560 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.02009.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clinically effective subcutaneous allergen-specific immunotherapy (SIT) is associated with altered circulating T cell cytokine production and altered local cytokine responses with increased IL-10 following allergen challenge in target organs. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to elucidate mechanisms for these T cell changes, by examining surface expression of markers for peripheral tissue trafficking on circulating cytokine-positive T cells following standardized house dust mite- (HDM-) SIT. METHODS A randomized conventional HDM immunotherapy study was performed on a panel of 12 HDM-allergic subjects. Nine subjects received treatment with conventional HDM immunotherapy using a standardized extract and three subjects were treated by standard pharmacotherapy alone. Symptom and medication scores and allergen-induced cutaneous late-phase responses were assessed before and 9 months after institution of therapy. Before and at 3 and 9 months of SIT, peripheral blood mononuclear cells were cultured for 14 days with HDM extract and CD4+ and CD8+ T cell expression of CD62L, CD49d and CCR5 and production of IL-10, IFN-gamma and IL-4 were analysed by flow cytometry. Allergen-specific T cell proliferation was assessed by 3H-thymidine incorporation. RESULTS At 9 months, all SIT-treated patients showed reduced symptom scores and late-phase cutaneous responses to HDM compared with baseline levels. The proportions of CD4+ T cells which were IL-10+ were increased (P < 0.01), and the proportions of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells which were IL-4+ decreased (P < 0.05) compared with baseline. CD4+ and CD8+ T cell IFN-gamma production, expression of surface markers for peripheral tissue trafficking and allergen-specific proliferation remained unchanged during SIT treatment. However, increased proportions of CD4+CD62L(-), CD4+CD49d(hi), CD4+CCR5+ T cells expressing IL-10 were detected at 9 months of SIT compared with baseline (P < 0.05). IL-10 staining co-localized with CD4+CD25+ T cells. CONCLUSION Clinically effective subcutaneous immunotherapy with a standardized HDM Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus preparation results in decreased numbers of IL-4+ T cells and expansion of CD4+IL-10+ T cells expressing a peripheral tissue trafficking phenotype. The co-localization of IL-10+ staining to CD4+CD25+ T cells is consistent with the induction of a T regulatory cell population by SIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Gardner
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Atanackovic D, Block A, de Weerth A, Faltz C, Hossfeld DK, Hegewisch-Becker S. Characterization of effusion-infiltrating T cells: benign versus malignant effusions. Clin Cancer Res 2004; 10:2600-8. [PMID: 15102661 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-03-0239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE While naïve T cells circulate between peripheral blood and lymph nodes, memory effector T cells acquire certain surface molecules that enable them to travel to peripheral tissues and exert their effector function. We analyzed whether deficient numbers of effector-type T cells within the malignant effusion might contribute to tumor escape from immunosurveillance. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We analyzed the expression of a broad range of adhesion molecules and chemokine receptors (CD62L, CD56, CCR4, CCR5, CCR7, CXCR3, CLA, and integrin alpha 4 beta 7) on tumor-associated lymphocytes in effusions and peripheral blood lymphocytes of patients with malignant ascites (n = 11) or malignant pleural effusion (n = 16). A tumor-associated lymphocyte:peripheral blood lymphocyte ratio was calculated as an indicator for homing of lymphocytes into the effusions and was compared with patients with nonmalignant ascites (n = 17). RESULTS Patients with malignancies show an increased enrichment of T cells expressing the phenotype of "naïve" (CD62L+ and CD45RA+CCR7+), "central memory" (CD45RA-CCR7+), and type 2-polarized (CCR4+) T cells within their effusions. In contrast, enrichment of "effector"-type (CD45RA-CCR7- or CD45RA+CCR7-) and presumably type 1-polarized T cells (CCR5+) at the tumor site is deficient. The same is true for natural killer cells and potentially cytotoxic CD56+ T cells. CONCLUSIONS Here we show for the first time that patients with malignant effusions show a deficient enrichment of T cells expressing the phenotype of type-1-polarized effector T cells at the tumor site. This mechanism is likely to contribute to the escape of tumor cells from immunosurveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Djordje Atanackovic
- Oncology/Hematology, Department of Medicine, University Hospital Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
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249
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Belperio JA, Dy M, Murray L, Burdick MD, Xue YY, Strieter RM, Keane MP. The role of the Th2 CC chemokine ligand CCL17 in pulmonary fibrosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 173:4692-8. [PMID: 15383605 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.173.7.4692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that the development of pulmonary fibrosis is a Th2-mediated process. We hypothesized that the CC chemokines that are associated with a Th2 profile (CCL17 and CCL22) have an important role in the development of pulmonary fibrosis. We measured CCL17 and CCL22 during the pathogenesis of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. We found that both CCL17 and CCL22 were significantly elevated through day 20 as compared with control mice. Peak expression of CCL22 preceded the peak levels of CCL17, as measured by real-time quantitative PCR. CCR4 is the receptor for CCL17 and CCL22 therefore, to further characterize the role of CCL17 and CCL22, we measured CCR4 mRNA in lung tissue of bleomycin-treated mice by real-time quantitative PCR. CCR4 was significantly elevated in bleomycin-treated mice as compared with control mice. Immunolocalization demonstrated that CCR4 was expressed predominantly on macrophages. Neutralization of CCL17, but not CCL22, led to a reduction in pulmonary fibrosis. Immunolocalization of bleomycin-treated lung tissue and human idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis tissue specimens showed that epithelial cells expressed CCL17. These findings demonstrate a central role for Th2 chemokines and the macrophage in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis and are further support for the role of a Th2 phenotype in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Belperio
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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250
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Jakubzick C, Wen H, Matsukawa A, Keller M, Kunkel SL, Hogaboam CM. Role of CCR4 ligands, CCL17 and CCL22, during Schistosoma mansoni egg-induced pulmonary granuloma formation in mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2004; 165:1211-21. [PMID: 15466387 PMCID: PMC1618636 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)63381-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Controversy persists pertaining to the role of CCR4 ligands, namely CCL17 (or thymus and activation regulated chemokine; TARC) and CCL22 (or macrophage-derived chemokine; MDC), in Th2-type cytokine-dominated responses in the lung. Accordingly, the present study addressed the relative role of each of these CC chemokines during an evolving pulmonary granulomatous response elicited by the intrapulmonary embolization of live Schistosoma mansoni eggs into S. mansoni-sensitized mice. CCL22 protein expression peaked at day 4, but CCL17 levels were not increased significantly at any time after egg challenge. CCR4 transcript and protein expression were highest at day 8 after egg embolization and CCR4 protein was prominently expressed in macrophages surrounding S. mansoni eggs. Systemic immunoneutralization of CCL22 from the time of egg injection into S. mansoni-sensitized mice for 8 days significantly decreased CCR4 protein expression, the eosinophil content, the overall size of the egg granuloma, and its hydroxyproline content. Whole lung levels of interferon-gamma were also significantly increased at day 8 in anti-CCL22-treated mice. The systemic immunoneutralization of CCL17 had a lesser effect on all of the granuloma parameters listed above, but this antibody treatment significantly decreased granuloma hydroxyproline content to a greater extent than the anti-CCL22 antibody treatment. In addition, the immunoneutralization of CCL17 significantly increased whole lung levels of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-13, transforming growth factor-beta, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha at day 8 after egg infusion. Thus, these studies demonstrate a major role for CCL22 and a lesser role for CCL17 during an evolving S. mansoni egg granuloma in the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Jakubzick
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine Rd., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0602, USA
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