TNF-alpha in cancer treatment: molecular insights, antitumor effects, and clinical utility

Local delivery of macromolecules to treat diseases associated with the colon

Current treatments for intestinal diseases including inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome, and colonic bacterial infections are typically small molecule oral dosage forms designed for systemic delivery. The intestinal permeability hurdle to achieve systemic delivery from oral formulations of macromolecules is challenging, but this drawback can be advantageous if an intestinal region is associated with the disease. There are some promising formulation approaches to release peptides, proteins, antibodies, antisense oligonucleotides, RNA, and probiotics in the colon to enable local delivery and efficacy. We briefly review colonic physiology in relation to the main colon-associated diseases (inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, infection, and colorectal cancer), along with the impact of colon physiology on dosage form design of macromolecules. We then assess formulation strategies designed to achieve colonic delivery of small molecules and concluded that they can also be applied some extent to macromolecules. We describe examples of formulation strategies in preclinical research aimed at colonic delivery of macromolecules to achieve high local concentration in the lumen, epithelial-, or sub-epithelial tissue, depending on the target, but with the benefit of reduced systemic exposure and toxicity. Finally, the industrial challenges in developing macromolecule formulations for colon-associated diseases are presented, along with a framework for selecting appropriate delivery technologies.

Diffusely Adherent Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Healthy Carriers Suppress Cytokine Secretions of Epithelial Cells Stimulated by Inflammatory Substances

Diarrheagenicity of diffusely adherent Escherichia coli (DAEC) remains controversial. Previously, we found that motile DAEC strains isolated from diarrheal patients induced high levels of interleukin 8 (IL-8) secretion via Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5). However, DAEC strains from healthy carriers hardly induced IL-8 secretion, irrespective of their possessing flagella. In this study, we demonstrated that SK1144, a DAEC strain from a healthy carrier, suppressed IL-8 and IL-6 secretion from human epithelial cell lines. Suppression of IL-8 in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells that were transformed to express TLR5 was observed not only upon inflammatory stimulation by flagellin but also in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), despite the fact that the TNF-α- and PMA-induced inflammatory pathways reportedly are not TLR5 mediated. SK1144 neither decreased IL-8 transcript accumulation nor increased intracellular retention of IL-8. No suppression was observed when the bacteria were cultured in Transwell cups above the epithelial cells; however, a nonadherent bacterial mutant (lacking the afimbrial adhesin gene) still inhibited IL-8 secretion. Direct contact between the bacteria and epithelial cells was necessary, but diffuse adhesion was dispensable for the inhibitory effects. Infection in the presence of chloramphenicol did not suppress cytokine release by the epithelial cells, suggesting that suppression depended on effectors synthesized de novo Inflammatory suppression was attenuated with infection by a bacterial mutant deleted for hcp (encoding a component of a type VI secretion system). In conclusion, DAEC strains from healthy carriers impede epithelial cell cytokine secretion, possibly by interfering with translation via the type VI secretion system.

Targeted nonviral gene therapy in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is the second-most widespread cancer in men worldwide. Treatment choices are limited to prostatectomy, hormonal therapy, and radiotherapy, which commonly have deleterious side effects and vary in their efficacy, depending on the stage of the disease. Among novel experimental strategies, gene therapy holds great promise for the treatment of prostate cancer. However, its use is currently limited by the lack of delivery systems able to selectively deliver the therapeutic genes to the tumors after intravenous administration without major drawbacks. To remediate this problem, a wide range of nonviral delivery approaches have been developed to specifically deliver DNA-based therapeutic agents to their site of action. This review provides an overview of the various nonviral delivery strategies and gene therapy concepts used to deliver therapeutic DNA to prostate cancer cells, and focuses on recent therapeutic advances made so far.

Rosmarinic acid and siRNA combined therapy represses Hsp27 (HSPB1) expression and induces apoptosis in human glioma cells

High expression of Hsp27 in glioma cells has been closely associated with tumor cell proliferation and apoptosis inhibition. The aim of the present study was to asses the effects of rosmarinic acid (RA) on Hsp27 expression and apoptosis in non-transfected and transfected human U-87 MG cells. The effect of rosmarinic acid was compared to quercetin, which is known to be a good Hsp27 inhibitor. In order to block the expression of Hsp27 gene (HSPB1), transfection with specific siRNAs was performed. Western blotting technique was used to assess the Hsp27 expression, and caspase-3 colorimetric activity assay was performed to determine apoptosis induction. According to the results, it was found that RA and quercetin effectively silenced Hsp27 and both agents induced apoptosis by activating the caspase-3 pathway. Eighty and 215 μM RA decreased the level of Hsp27 by 28.8 and 46.7% and induced apoptosis by 30 and 54%, respectively. For the first time, we reported that rosmarinic acid has the ability to trigger caspase-3 induced apoptosis in human glioma cells. As a result of siRNA transfection, the Hsp27 gene was silenced by ~ 50% but did not cause a statistically significant change in caspase-3 activation. It was also observed that apoptosis was induced at a higher level as a result of Hsp27 siRNA and subsequent quercetin or RA treatment. siRNA transfection and 215 μM RA treatment suppressed Hsp27 expression level by 90.5% and increased caspase-3 activity by 58%. Herein, we demonstrated that RA administered with siRNA seems to be a potent combination for glioblastoma therapy.

Unleashing endogenous TNF-alpha as a cancer immunotherapeutic

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha was originally identified in the 1970s as the serum mediator of innate immunity capable of inducing hemorrhagic necrosis in tumors. Today, a wide spectrum of biological activities have been attributed to this molecule, and clinical translation has mainly occurred not in using it to treat cancer, but rather to inhibit its effects to treat autoimmunity. Clinical trials utilizing systemic TNF-alpha administration have resulted in an unacceptable level of toxicities, which blocked its development. In contrast, localized administration of TNF-alpha in the form of isolated limb perfusion have yielded excellent results in soft tissue sarcomas. Here we describe a novel approach to leveraging the potent antineoplastic activities of TNF-alpha by enhancing activity of locally produced TNF-alpha through extracorporeal removal of soluble TNF-alpha receptors. Specifically, it is known that cancerous tissues are infiltrated with monocytes, T cells, and other cells capable of producing TNF-alpha. It is also known that tumors, as well as cells in the tumor microenvironment produce soluble TNF-alpha receptors. The authors believe that by selectively removing soluble TNF-alpha receptors local enhancement of endogenous TNF-alpha activity may provide for enhanced tumor cell death without associated systemic toxicities.

Alteration of Tumor Metabolism by CD4+ T Cells Leads to TNF-α-Dependent Intensification of Oxidative Stress and Tumor Cell Death

The inhibitory effects of cancer on T cell metabolism have been well established, but the metabolic impact of immunotherapy on tumor cells is poorly understood. Here, we developed a CD4+ T cell-based adoptive immunotherapy protocol that was curative for mice with implanted colorectal tumors. By conducting metabolic profiling on tumors, we show that adoptive immunotherapy profoundly altered tumor metabolism, resulting in glutathione depletion and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tumor cells. We further demonstrate that T cell-derived tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) can synergize with chemotherapy to intensify oxidative stress and tumor cell death in an NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen) oxidase-dependent manner. Reduction of oxidative stress, by preventing TNF-α-signaling in tumor cells or scavenging ROS, antagonized the therapeutic effects of adoptive immunotherapy. Conversely, provision of pro-oxidants after chemotherapy can partially recapitulate the antitumor effects of T cell transfer. These findings imply that reinforcing tumor oxidative stress represents an important mechanism underlying the efficacy of adoptive immunotherapy.

A short-chain fatty acid, propionate, enhances the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin by modulating GPR41 signaling pathways in HepG2 cells

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate are generated by microbial fermentation of indigestible fiber by gut flora. SCFAs are ligands of two orphan G protein-coupled receptors, GPR41 and GPR43, that modulate cell proliferation and induce apoptosis. However, it is unclear if SCFAs enhance the effects of chemotherapy in a GPR41- or GPR43-dependent manner. The aim of this study was to investigate whether SCFAs, and particularly propionate, activate GPR41 or GPR43, and thereby enhance the antitumor effects of cisplatin in HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. The inhibitory effects of propionate and cisplatin on proliferation of HCC cells were determined by MTS assay. Changes in apoptosis rate were analyzed by flow cytometry. The effects of combined propionate and cisplatin on these properties in HCC cells were significantly higher than those of cisplatin alone. With combined treatment, the levels of cleaved caspase-3, active caspase-3 forms, and acetylated histone H3 were enhanced in a GPR41-dependent manner; expression of histone deacetylases (HDAC) 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 proteins was significantly reduced; and induction of TNF-α expression was significantly enhanced. These results suggest that propionate and cisplatin synergistically and significantly induce apoptosis of HepG2 cells by increasing expression of autocrine TNF-α via reduction of HDACs through GPR41 signaling. From clinical and translational perspectives, our data suggest that a combination of propionate with cisplatin may have better therapeutic effects on HCC compared with conventional treatment, and that a selective GPR41 agonist may be a candidate as an adjuvant therapeutic agent for HCC.

Losses of cytokines and chemokines are common genetic features of human cancers: the somatic copy number alterations are correlated with patient prognoses and therapeutic resistance

Intricate relationships among cytokines (including chemokines) shape the tumor microenvironment (TME) and reflect cell-cell interactions between malignant cells and other cells from the TME. Although our previous study indicated the transcriptional landscape of cytokines in 19 cancer types, the global pattern somatic copy number (SCN) alterations and the clinical relevance of cytokines have not been systematically investigated. Here, we reported a significant negative selection on cytokine genes. We also linked the SCN losses of cytokine genes to the abundance of immune infiltrates which affects cancer progression and patient prognoses. We also demonstrated and validated the correlations between SCN alterations of cytokine-containing loci and drug sensitivity. The results indicated the genomic loss of cytokines in malignant cells as a crucial theme for interrogating cancer progression, malignant cell-TME interactions, and therapeutics.

Cytokines Produced by Dendritic Cells Administered Intratumorally Correlate with Clinical Outcome in Patients with Diverse Cancers

Purpose: Dendritic cells (DC) initiate adaptive immune responses through the uptake and presentation of antigenic material. In preclinical studies, intratumorally injected activated DCs (aDCs; DCVax-Direct) were superior to immature DCs in rejecting tumors from mice.Experimental Design: This single-arm, open-label phase I clinical trial evaluated the safety and efficacy of aDCs, administered intratumorally, in patients with solid tumors. Three dose levels (2 million, 6 million, and 15 million aDCs per injection) were tested using a standard 3 + 3 dose-escalation trial design. Feasibility, immunogenicity, changes to the tumor microenvironment after direct injection, and survival were evaluated. We also investigated cytokine production of aDCs prior to injection.Results: In total, 39 of the 40 enrolled patients were evaluable. The injections of aDCs were well tolerated with no dose-limiting toxicities. Increased lymphocyte infiltration was observed in 54% of assessed patients. Stable disease (SD; best response) at week 8 was associated with increased overall survival. Increased secretion of interleukin (IL)-8 and IL12p40 by aDCs was significantly associated with survival (P = 0.023 and 0.024, respectively). Increased TNFα levels correlated positively with SD at week 8 (P < 0.01).Conclusions: Intratumoral aDC injections were feasible and safe. Increased production of specific cytokines was correlated with SD and prolonged survival, demonstrating a link between the functional profile of aDCs prior to injection and patient outcomes. Clin Cancer Res; 24(16); 3845-56. ©2018 AACR.

Tumor-associated macrophage-derived cytokines enhance cancer stem-like characteristics through epithelial-mesenchymal transition

Cancer stem cells are a small population of cells with the potential for self-renewal and multi-directional differentiation and are an important source of cancer initiation, treatment resistance, and recurrence. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process in which epithelial cells lose their epithelial phenotype and convert to mesenchymal cells. Recent studies have shown that cancer cells undergoing EMT can become stem-like cells. Many kinds of tumors are associated with chronic inflammation, which plays a role in tumor progression. Among the various immune cells mediating chronic inflammation, macrophages account for ~30%-50% of the tumor mass. Macrophages are highly infiltrative in the tumor microenvironment and secrete a series of inflammatory factors and cytokines, such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, which promote EMT and enhance the stemness of cancer cells. This review summarizes and discusses recent research findings on some specific mechanisms of tumor-associated macrophage-derived cytokines in EMT and cancer stemness transition, which are emerging targets of cancer treatment.

Combination of IAP Antagonists and TNF-α-Armed Oncolytic Viruses Induce Tumor Vascular Shutdown and Tumor Regression

Smac mimetic compounds (SMCs) are anti-cancer drugs that antagonize Inhibitor of Apoptosis proteins, which consequently sensitize cancer cells to death in the presence of proinflammatory ligands such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). SMCs synergize with the attenuated oncolytic vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔ51) by eliciting an innate immune response, which is dependent on the endogenous production of TNF-α and type I interferon. To improve on this SMC-mediated synergistic response, we generated TNF-α-armed VSVΔ51 to produce elevated levels of this death ligand. Due to ectopic expression of TNF-α from infected cells, a lower viral dose of TNF-α-armed VSVΔ51 combined with treatment of the SMC LCL161 was sufficient to improve the survival rate compared to LCL161 and unarmed VSVΔ51 co-therapy. This improved response is attributed to a bystander effect whereby the spread of TNF-α from infected cells leads to the death of uninfected cells in the presence of LCL161. In addition, the treatments induced vascular collapse in solid tumors with a concomitant increase of tumor cell death, revealing another mechanism by which cytokine-armed VSVΔ51 in combination with LCL161 can kill tumor cells. Our studies demonstrate the potential for cytokine-engineered oncolytic virus and SMCs as a new combination immunotherapy for cancer treatment.

[Immunotherapy - The New Era of Oncology]

In the field of immunotherapy, essential progress was achieved over the past years partially demonstrating long lasting therapeutic responses in different tumor entities. A better understanding of the interactions between the tumor and the immune system as well as the integration of immunotherapeutic approaches into clinical routine were the foundations for this development. The different approaches intervene on multiple levels of the immune response and directly or indirectly mount the patient‘s own immune defense against tumor cells. Immunotherapeutic approaches are represented by cytokine therapies, vaccinations, the use of oncolytic viruses and monoclonal antibody therapies as well as adoptive cell transfer strategies.

The immunological synapse as a pharmacological target

The development of T cell mediated immunity relies on the assembly of a highly specialized interface between T cell and antigen presenting cell (APC), known as the immunological synapse (IS). IS assembly is triggered when the T cell receptor (TCR) binds to specific peptide antigen presented in association to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) by the APC, and is followed by the spatiotemporal dynamic redistribution of TCR, integrins, co-stimulatory receptors and signaling molecules, allowing for the fine-tuning and integration of the signals that lead to T cell activation. The knowledge acquired to date about the mechanisms of IS assembly underscores this structure as a robust pharmacological target. The activity of molecules involved in IS assembly and function can be targeted by specific compounds to modulate the immune response in a number of disorders, including cancers and autoimmune diseases, or in transplanted patients. Here, we will review the state-of-the art of the current therapies which exploit the IS to modulate the immune response.

TP53 gain-of-function mutation promotes inflammation in glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM), the most severe and common brain tumor in adults, is characterized by multiple somatic mutations and aberrant activation of inflammatory responses. Immune cell infiltration and subsequent inflammation cause tumor growth and resistance to therapy. Somatic loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding tumor suppressor protein p53 (TP53) are frequently observed in various cancers. However, numerous studies suggest that TP53 regulates malignant phenotypes by gain-of-function (GOF) mutations. Here we demonstrate that a TP53 GOF mutation promotes inflammation in GBM. Ectopic expression of a TP53 GOF mutant induced transcriptomic changes, which resulted in enrichment of gene signatures related to inflammation and chemotaxis. Bioinformatics analyses revealed that a gene signature, upregulated by the TP53 GOF mutation, is associated with progression and shorter overall survival in GBM. We also observed significant correlations between the TP53 GOF mutation signature and inflammation in the clinical database of GBM and other cancers. The TP53 GOF mutant showed upregulated C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFA) expression via nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signaling, consequently increasing microglia and monocyte-derived immune cell infiltration. Additionally, TP53 GOF mutation and CCL2 and TNFA expression correlated positively with tumor-associated immunity in patients with GBM. Taken together, our findings suggest that the TP53 GOF mutation plays a crucial role in inflammatory responses, thereby deteriorating prognostic outcomes in patients with GBM.

Oncodriver inhibition and CD4+ Th1 cytokines cooperate through Stat1 activation to induce tumor senescence and apoptosis in HER2+ and triple negative breast cancer: implications for combining immune and targeted therapies

In patients with HER2-expressing breast cancer many develop resistance to HER2 targeted therapies. We show that high and intermediate HER2-expressing cancer cell lines are driven toward apoptosis and tumor senescence when treated with either CD4⁺ Th1 cells, or Th1 cytokines TNF-α and IFN-γ, in a dose dependent manner. Depletion of HER2 activity by either siRNA or trastuzumab and pertuzumab, and subsequent treatment with either anti-HER2 Th1 cells or TNF-α and IFN-γ resulted in synergistic increased tumor senescence and apoptosis in cells both sensitive and cells resistant to trastuzumab which was inhibited by neutralizing anti-TNF-α and IFN-γ. Th1 cytokines induced minimal senescence or apoptosis in triple negative breast cancer cells (TNBC); however, inhibition of EGFR in combination with Th1 cytokines sensitized those cells causing both senescence and apoptosis. TNF-α and IFN-γ led to increased Stat1 phosphorylation through serine and tyrosine sites and a compensatory reduction in Stat3 activation. Single agent IFN-γ enhanced Stat1 phosphorylation on tyrosine 701 and similar effects were observed in combination with TNF-α and EGFR inhibition. These results demonstrate Th1 cytokines and anti-oncodriver blockade cooperate in causing tumor senescence and apoptosis in TNBC and HER2-expressing breast cancer, suggesting these combinations could be explored as non-cross-reactive therapy preventing recurrence in breast cancer.

Tumor targeting via EPR: Strategies to enhance patient responses

The tumor accumulation of nanomedicines relies on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. In the last 5-10 years, it has been increasingly recognized that there is a large inter- and intra-individual heterogeneity in EPR-mediated tumor targeting, explaining the heterogeneous outcomes of clinical trials in which nanomedicine formulations have been evaluated. To address this heterogeneity, as in other areas of oncology drug development, we have to move away from a one-size-fits-all tumor targeting approach, towards methods that can be employed to individualize and improve nanomedicine treatments. To this end, efforts have to be invested in better understanding the nature, the complexity and the heterogeneity of the EPR effect, and in establishing systems and strategies to enhance, combine, bypass and image EPR-based tumor targeting. In the present manuscript, we summarize key studies in which these strategies are explored, and we discuss how these approaches can be employed to enhance patient responses.

Emerging Roles of Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 (VCAM-1) in Immunological Disorders and Cancer

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that triggers the expression of inflammatory molecules, including other cytokines and cell adhesion molecules. TNFα induces the expression of intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). VCAM-1 was originally identified as a cell adhesion molecule that helps regulate inflammation-associated vascular adhesion and the transendothelial migration of leukocytes, such as macrophages and T cells. Recent evidence suggests that VCAM-1 is closely associated with the progression of various immunological disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, transplant rejection, and cancer. This review covers the role and relevance of VCAM-1 in inflammation, and also highlights the emerging potential of VCAM-1 as a novel therapeutic target in immunological disorders and cancer.

The STAT3 Target Gene TNFRSF1A Modulates the NF-κB Pathway in Breast Cancer Cells

The transcription factor STAT3 is activated inappropriately in 70% of breast cancers, most commonly in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC). Although the transcriptional function of STAT3 is essential for tumorigenesis, the key target genes regulated by STAT3 in driving tumor pathogenesis have remained unclear. To identify critical STAT3 target genes, we treated TNBC cell lines with two different compounds that block STAT3 transcriptional function, pyrimethamine and PMPTP. We then performed gene expression analysis to identify genes whose expression is strongly down-regulated by both STAT3 inhibitors. Foremost among the down-regulated genes was TNFRSF1A, which encodes a transmembrane receptor for TNFα. We showed that STAT3 binds directly to a regulatory region within the TNFRSF1A gene, and that TNFRSF1A levels are dependent on STAT3 function in both constitutive and cytokine-induced models of STAT3 activation. Furthermore, TNFRSF1A is a major mediator of both basal and TNFα-induced NF-κB activity in breast cancer cells. We extended these findings to primary human breast cancers, in which we found that high TNFRSF1A transcript levels correlated with STAT3 activation. In addition, and consistent with a causal role, increased TNFRSF1A expression was associated with an NF-κB gene expression in signature in breast cancers. Thus, TNFRSF1A is a STAT3 target gene that regulates the NF-κB pathway. These findings reveal a novel functional crosstalk between STAT3 and NF-κB signaling in breast cancer. Furthermore, elevated TNFRSF1A levels may predict a subset of breast tumors that are sensitive to STAT3 transcriptional inhibitors, and may be a biomarker for response to inhibition of this pathway.

Therapeutic benefit of Salmonella attributed to LPS and TNF-α is exhaustible and dictated by tumor susceptibility

The potential of bacteria-mediated tumor therapy (BMTT) is highlighted by more than a century of investigation. Attenuated Salmonella has prevailed as promising therapeutic agents. For BMTT - categorized as an immune therapy - the exact contribution of particular immune reactions to the therapeutic effect remains ambiguous. In addition, one could argue for or against the requirement of bacterial viability and tumor targeting. Herein we evaluate the isolated therapeutic efficacy of purified LPS and TNF-α, which together account for a dominant immunogenic pathway of gram negative bacteria like Salmonella. We show that therapeutic efficacy against CT26 tumors does not require bacterial viability. Analogous to viable Salmonella SL7207, tumor regression by a specific CD8⁺ T cell response can be induced by purified LPS or recombinant TNF-α (rTNF-α). Conversely, therapeutic effects against RenCa tumors were abrogated upon bacterial avitalization and limited using isolated adjuvants. This argues for an alternative mechanistic explanation for SL7207 against RenCa that depends on viability and persistence. Unable to boost bacterial therapies by co-injection of rTNF-α suggested therapeutic effects along this axis are exhausted by the intrinsic adjuvanticity of bacteria alone. However, the importance of TNF-α for BMTT was highlighted by its support of tumor invasion and colonization in concert with lower infective doses of Salmonella. In consideration, bacterial therapeutic effectiveness along the axis of LPS and TNF-α appears limited, and does not offer the necessary plasticity for different tumors. This emphasizes a need for recombinant strengthening and vehicular exploitation to accommodate potency, plasticity and distinctiveness in BMTT.

Pathway analysis of global gene expression change in dendritic cells induced by the polysaccharide from the roots of Actinidia eriantha

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The roots of Actinidia eriantha Benth have been used clinically to treat a variety of cancers in traditional Chinese medicine. The polysaccharide from this drug (AEPS) was previously reported to be a potential antitumor agent with immunomodulatory activity. However, the mechanisms of its antitumor action in immunomodulation have not yet been well-defined.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the effects of AEPS on the phenotypic and functional maturation of dendritic cells and to explore the intracellular signaling mechanisms of its antitumor action in the immunomodulation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of AEPS on the phagocytic activity, expression of surface molecules, mRNA and protein expression levels of cytokines and chemokines in mouse bone-marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) were determined by flow cytometry, qRT-PCR and ELISA, respectively. The transcriptional profile induced by AEPS was established using oligonucleotide microarray, and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was used to identify potential signaling pathways. Western blotting, neutralization experiments and inhibition assay were performed to confirm signaling pathway involved in maturation of DCs induced by AEPS. Furthermore, we discussed the downstream effects of the action of AEPS using clustering, network and pathway mapping approaches.

RESULTS

AEPS could significantly reduced phagocytic activity, promoted expression of accessory and co-stimulatory molecules, and up-regulated the mRNA and protein expression levels of cytokines and chemokines in BMDCs. Microarray assay revealed that AEPS induced significantly differential expression of 452 genes including up-regulated cytokines (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-12p40, IFN-β and IFN-γ), chemokines (MIP-1α, MIP-1β, CCL5, MDC and MCP-1), transcription factors (STAT1, STAT2, STAT5b, IRF1 and IRF7) and pattern recognition receptors (TLR3, DDX58, DHX58 and IFIH1) in the BMDCs. AEPS-induced production of TNF-α and IL-12p40 from BMDCs was inhibited by antibodies against TLR2 and TLR4. Furthermore, AEPS induced the phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 in a time-dependent manner, and BAY 11-7082, an inhibitor of NF-κB, remarkably suppressed the production of cytokines induced by AEPS.

CONCLUSION

AEPS triggers the phenotypic and functional maturation of DCs via TLR2/4 and NF-κB signaling pathway, resulting in augmented antitumor immune responses. Our results suggested that AEPS might be helpful in potentiating the efficiency of DC-based cancer immunotherapy. This study further expanded current knowledge on the mechanisms of antitumor action of AEPS.

Zymosan attenuates melanoma growth progression, increases splenocyte proliferation and induces TLR-2/4 and TNF-α expression in mice

Background

Melanoma is one of the most common types of skin malignancies. Since current therapies are suboptimal, considerable interest has focused on novel natural-based treatments. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in evoking innate immunity against cancer cells. Zymosan, a known TLR-2 agonist, is a glucan derived from yeast cell walls with promising immunomodulatory effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether Saccharomyces cerevisiae-derived zymosan-modulated skin melanoma progression by regulation of TLR-2 and TLR-4 expression in peritoneal macrophages and serum TNF-α level.

Methods

Male C57BL/6 mice were divided into four groups: i) zymosan-treated (Z), ii) Melanoma-bearing mice (M), iii) Melanoma-bearing mice treated with zymosan (ZM) and iv) a healthy control group (negative control). 15 days after melanoma induction, mice were injected i.p. with zymosan (10 μg) daily for 4 consecutive days. Mice were CO₂-euthanized and serum TNF-α level, TLR-2 and TLR-4 expression in peritoneal macrophages and tumor growth measured. Splenocytes were treated ex-vivo with zymosan to determine viability and proliferation.

Results

Tumor weight significantly decreased following therapeutic dosing with zymosan (P < 0.05). This was associated with zymosan-induced upregulation of TLR-2, TLR-4 and TNF-α mRNA in peritoneal macrophages and enhanced serum TNF-α levels (P < 0.05). Splenocyte number and viability were increased in a concentration-dependent manner by zymosan.

Conclusions

Our study suggests that zymosan-induced upregulation of TLR-2, TLR-4 and TNF-α gene expression and of TNF-α release; together with increased level of lymphocyte proliferation may play a role in the inhibition of melanoma progression.

The Effect of TNF-α on Regulatory T Cell Function in Graft-versus-Host Disease

FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a subset of CD4⁺ T cells that can suppress proliferation and effector functions of T cells, B cells, NK cells, and antigen-presenting cells. Treg deficiency causes dramatic immunologic disease in both animal models and humans. As they are capable to suppress the function and the proliferation of conventional CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, Treg-based cell therapies are under evaluation for the treatment of various autoimmune diseases and are currently employed to prevent graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) in clinical trials of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Even though tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) is well known for its pro-inflammatory role, recent studies show that it promotes Treg activation and suppressive function. In the present review, we discuss the role of TNF-α in Treg function and the possible implications on the actual treatments for immune-mediated diseases, with a particular attention to GvHD.

Anti-cancer therapy with TNFα and IFNγ: A comprehensive review

Tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interferon gamma (IFNγ) were originally found to be produced by inflammatory cells and play important roles in the immune system and surveillance of tumour growth. By activating distinct signalling pathways of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and JAK/STAT, TNFα and IFNγ were reported to effectively trigger cell death and perform powerful anti-cancer effects. In this review, we will discuss the new advancements of TNFα and IFNγ in anti-cancer therapy.

Antitumor in situ vaccination effect of TNFα and IL-12 plasmid DNA electrotransfer in a murine melanoma model

Gene electrotransfer (GET) is one of the most efficient non-viral gene therapy approaches for the localized transfer of multiple genes into tumors in vivo; therefore, it is especially promising for delivering different cytokines that are toxic if administered systemically. In this study, we used concomitant intratumoral GET of two cytokines: tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), a potent cytotoxic cytokine to induce in situ vaccination, and interleukin 12 (IL-12), an immunostimulatory cytokine to boost the primed local immune response into a systemic one. After performing GET in murine melanoma tumors, both TNFα and IL-12 mRNA levels were significantly increased, which resulted in a pronounced delay in tumor growth of 27 days and a prolonged survival time of mice. An antitumor immune response was confirmed by extensive infiltration of immune cells in the tumor site, and expansion of the effector immune cells in the sentinel lymph nodes. Furthermore, the effect of in situ vaccination was indicated by the presence of vitiligo localized to the treatment area and resistance of the mice to secondary challenge with tumor cells. Intratumoral GET of two cytokines, one for in situ vaccination and one for an immune boost, proved feasible and effective in eliciting a potent and durable antitumor response; therefore, further studies of this approach are warranted.

Nimotuzumab enhances the sensitivity of non-small cell lung cancer cells to tumor necrosis factor-α by inhibiting the nuclear factor-кB signaling pathway

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for ~85% of lung cancer cases worldwide. Current guidelines recommend the use of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors for patients with NSCLC. The EGF/EGFR signaling pathway has been demonstrated to activate nuclear factor (NF)-κB, which may inhibit tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α induced cell apoptosis. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether inhibiting the EGF/EGFR signaling pathway sensitizes NSCLC cell lines to TNF-α-induced apoptosis. The resistance of NSCLC cell lines to TNF-α was evaluated by cell viability assay. The effect of nimotuzumab (Ni) on NSCLC cell sensitivity to TNF-α, as well as the role of NF-κB in mediating resistance to TNF-α-induced apoptosis, was explored by western blot analysis, cell viability assay, apoptosis assay and an NF-κB DNA binding assay. It was demonstrated that EGFR protein expression was markedly higher in the H292 and H1975 cell lines compared with H460 and H1299 cell lines. H292 and H1975 also exhibited significantly increased TNF-α resistance compared with H460 and H1299 cells. Low dose Ni treatment slightly reduced the viability of H292 and H1975 cells; however, combined treatment with low dose Ni and TNF-α significantly inhibited H292 and H1299 cell viability compared with H460 and H1299 cells by inducing cell apoptosis. NF-κB protein expression and activity were also inhibited by the combination treatment. TNF-α treatment alone induced apoptosis in NF-κB deficient H292 and H1975 cells, similar to the effect of combination treatment in wild type H292 and H1975 cells. The results of the present study suggest that Ni sensitizes NSCLC cell lines to TNF-α-induced cell death by inhibiting NF-κB protein expression and activation, indicating a novel mechanism by which Ni suppresses the development of NSCLC.

Epigenetic Changes of the Immune System with Role in Tumor Development

Tumor development is closely related to chronic inflammation and to evasion of immune defense mechanisms by neoplastic cells. The mediators of the inflammatory process as well as proteins involved in immune response or immune response evasion can be subject to various epigenetic changes such as methylation, acetylation, or phosphorylation. Some of these, such as cytokine suppressors, are undergoing repression through epigenetic changes, and others such as cytokines or chemokines are undergoing activation through epigenetic changes, both modifications having as a result tumor progression. The activating changes can affect the receptor molecules involved in immune response and these promote inflammation and subsequently tumor development while the inactivating changes seem to be related to the tumor regression process. The proteins involved in antigen presentation, and, therefore in immune response escape, such as classical HLA proteins and related APM (antigen presentation machinery) with their epigenetic changes contribute to the tumor development process, either to tumor progression or regression, depending on the immune effector cells that are in play.

In Vivo MR Imaging of Glioma Recruitment of Adoptive T-Cells Labeled with NaGdF4 -TAT Nanoprobes

Adoptive T lymphocyte immunotherapy is one of the most promising methods to treat residual lesions after glioma surgery. However, the fate of the adoptively transferred T-cells in vivo is unclear, hampering the understanding of this emerging therapy. Thus, it is highly desirable to develop noninvasive and quantitative in vivo tracking of these T-cells to glioma for better identification of the migratory fate and to provide objective evaluation of outcomes of adoptive T-cell immunotherapy targeting glioma. In this work, ultrasmall T₁ MR-based nanoprobes, NaGdF₄ -TAT, as molecular probes with high longitudinal relaxivity (8.93 mm^-1 s^-1 ) are designed. By means of HIV-1 transactivator (TAT) peptides, nearly 95% of the adoptive T-cells are labeled with the NaGdF₄ -TAT nanoprobes without any measurable side effects on the labeled T-cells, which is remarkably superior to that of the control fluorescein isothiocyanate-NaGdF₄ concerning labeling efficacy. Labeled adoptive T-cell clusters can be sensitively tracked in an orthotopic GL261-glioma model 24 h after intravenous infusion of 10⁷ labeled T-cells by T₁ -weighted MR imaging. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments show that the NaGdF₄ -TAT nanoprobes labeling of T-cells may be a promising method to track adoptive T-cells to improve our understanding of the pathophysiology in adoptive immunotherapy for gliomas.

Potential usefulness of Brevibacillus for bacterial cancer therapy: intratumoral provision of tumor necrosis factor-α and anticancer effects

Bacterial cancer therapy, wherein bacteria are used as a gene expression system for the exogenous protein of interest in the body, has started becoming a focus area of research; therefore, studying potential bacterial species for use is extremely important. Here, we investigated the use of Brevibacillus choshinensis as an effective and safe provider of anticancer proteins in the body, using a transformant expressing murine tumor necrosis factor-α (mTNF-α). The transformant sustainably provided mTNF-α in tumors in mice for a few hours post-injection. The growth of TNF-α-sensitive tumors was inhibited even by the control transformant, which did not provide mTNF-α; intratumoral mTNF-α provision by Brevibacillus choshinensis had additive effects on tumor growth inhibition. In contrast, intratumorally injected recombinant mTNF-α did not inhibit tumor growth because of rapid elimination from the tumor. Blood biochemical and histochemical analyses showed that intravenous injection of the transformant that did not provide mTNF-α did not lead to tissue injury and dysfunction or infiltration of inflammatory cells over 1 week. Considering the findings, this approach is expected to have a high degree of usability as a delivery system for protein pharmaceuticals, especially from the viewpoints of loading capacity and cost effectiveness.

Tomatidine inhibits tumor necrosis factor-α-induced apoptosis in C2C12 myoblasts via ameliorating endoplasmic reticulum stress

In this study, we examined the effect of tomatidine on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-induced apoptosis in C₂C₁₂ myoblasts. TNF-α treatment increased cleaved caspase 3 and cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) protein levels in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Pretreatment of cells with 10 μM tomatidine prevented TNF-α-induced apoptosis, caspase 3 cleavage, and PARP cleavage. Cells were treated with 100 ng/mL TNF-α for 24 h, and flow cytometry was utilized to assess apoptosis using annexin-V and 7-aminoactinomycin D. TNF-α up-regulated activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) expression. This effect was suppressed by pretreatment with tomatidine. Pretreatment with 4-phenylbutyric acid (a chemical chaperone) also inhibited TNF-α-induced cleavage of caspase 3 and PARP and up-regulation of ATF4 and CHOP expression. In addition, tomatidine-mediated inhibition of phosphorylation of c-Jun amino terminal kinase (JNK) attenuated TNF-α-induced cleavage of PARP and caspase 3. However, tomatidine did not affect NF-κB activation in TNF-α-treated C₂C₁₂ myoblast cells. Taken together, the present study demonstrates that tomatidine attenuates TNF-α-induced apoptosis through down-regulation of CHOP expression and inhibition of JNK activation.

Colon cancer-induced interleukin-35 inhibits beta-catenin-mediated pro-oncogenic activity

The occurrence and development of colon cancer is closely related to inflammation. Therefore, this study was conducted a current retrospective research to study the effect of IL-35 (interleukin 35), a newly identified anti-infective factor, on colon cancer development. The expression of IL-35 in colon cancer samples and their adjacent normal mucosa by real-time PCR, ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). The effect of IL-35 on patient survival, colon cancer progression, and its effect on Wnt/β-catenine signaling pathway was also assessed. IL-35 is minimally expressed in colon cancer tissues but is highly expressed in adjacent normal tissues. The down-regulation of IL-35 was significantly associated with the American Cancer Joint Committee stage and overall survival of colon cancer patients. The overexpression of IL-35 in colon cancer cells inhibits cell migration, invasion, proliferation, colony formation and cancer stem cells by inhibiting beta-catenin. IL-35 inhibits colon neoplasms in mouse. Our results suggest that IL-35 has an inhibitory effect on the development of colon cancer as a novel prognostic indicator and potential therapeutic target.

Delivering Type I Interferon to Dendritic Cells Empowers Tumor Eradication and Immune Combination Treatments

An ideal generic cancer immunotherapy should mobilize the immune system to destroy tumor cells without harming healthy cells and remain active in case of recurrence. Furthermore, it should preferably not rely on tumor-specific surface markers, as these are only available in a limited set of malignancies. Despite approval for treatment of various cancers, clinical application of cytokines is still impeded by their multiple toxic side effects. Type I IFN has a long history in the treatment of cancer, but its multifaceted activity pattern and complex side effects prevent its clinical use. Here we develop AcTakines (Activity-on-Target cytokines), optimized (mutated) immunocytokines that are up to 1,000-fold more potent on target cells, allowing specific signaling in selected cell types only. Type I IFN-derived AcTaferon (AFN)-targeting Clec9A⁺ dendritic cells (DC) displayed strong antitumor activity in murine melanoma, breast carcinoma, and lymphoma models and against human lymphoma in humanized mice without any detectable toxic side effects. Combined with immune checkpoint blockade, chemotherapy, or low-dose TNF, complete tumor regression and long-lasting tumor immunity were observed, still without adverse effects. Our findings indicate that DC-targeted AFNs provide a novel class of highly efficient, safe, and broad-spectrum off-the-shelf cancer immunotherapeutics with no need for a tumor marker.Significance: Targeted type I interferon elicits powerful antitumor efficacy, similar to wild-type IFN, but without any toxic side effects. Cancer Res; 78(2); 463-74. ©2017 AACR.

A safe and highly efficient tumor-targeted type I interferon immunotherapy depends on the tumor microenvironment

Despite approval for the treatment of various malignancies, clinical application of cytokines such as type I interferon (IFN) is severely impeded by their systemic toxicity. AcTakines (Activity-on-Target cytokines) are optimized immunocytokines that, when injected in mice, only reveal their activity upon cell-specific impact. We here show that type I IFN-derived AcTaferon targeted to the tumor displays strong antitumor activity without any associated toxicity, in contrast with wild type IFN. Treatment with CD20-targeted AcTaferon of CD20⁺ lymphoma tumors or melanoma tumors engineered to be CD20⁺, drastically reduced tumor growth. This antitumor effect was completely lost in IFNAR- or Batf3-deficient mice, and depended on IFN signaling in conventional dendritic cells. Also the presence of, but not the IFN signaling in, CD8⁺ T lymphocytes was critical for proficient antitumor effects. When combined with immunogenic chemotherapy, low-dose TNF, or immune checkpoint blockade strategies such as anti-PDL1, anti-CTLA4 or anti-LAG3, complete tumor regressions and subsequent immunity (memory) were observed, still without any concomitant morbidity, again in sharp contrast with wild type IFN. Interestingly, the combination therapy of tumor-targeted AcTaferon with checkpoint inhibiting antibodies indicated its ability to convert nonresponding tumors into responders. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that AcTaferon targeted to tumor-specific surface markers may provide a safe and generic addition to cancer (immuno)therapies.

Oxaliplatin and infliximab synergize to induce regression of colon cancer

There is currently a lack of therapeutic options for patients with advanced colon cancer. Although certain chemotherapies are able to suppress the progression slightly, the response rate is low, and side effects of treatment and tumor recurrence continue to present problems for clinicians. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) has been identified to possess tumor-promoting properties. In the present study, the effect of anti-TNF-α treatment (infliximab) in combination with chemotherapy on colon cancer was investigated. Tumor tissue samples were collected from patients with colon cancer who received oxaliplatin (OXA) treatment. Their TNF-α expression levels were examined with regard to their sensitivity to OXA. OXA-resistant colon cancer cell lines were established to explore the effects of anti-TNF-α treatment and OXA treatment. Furthermore, an OXA-resistant colon cancer xenograft mouse model was created and the effects of the combination treatment of anti-TNF-α and OXA on the mice were assessed. The results of the present study indicated that TNF-α was increased in the tumor tissue of patients with colon cancer who were resistant to OXA and also in OXA-resistant colon cancer cell lines. Anti-TNF-α treatment using infliximab inhibited the survival of OXA-resistant colon cancer cell lines by inducing antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and complement-dependent cytotoxicity effects. The combination of infliximab and OXA treatment achieved increased efficacy on the OXA-resistant colon cancer xenograft mouse model compared with treatment with OXA alone. On the basis of the results of the present study, it was concluded that infliximab may sensitize colon cancer cells to OXA treatment.

Potency-matched Dual Cytokine-Antibody Fusion Proteins for Cancer Therapy

A novel biopharmaceutical, consisting of the F8 mAb (specific to a splice isoform of fibronectin) simultaneously fused to both TNF and IL2, was found to react with the majority of solid tumors and hematologic malignancies in mouse and man, but not with healthy adult tissues. The product selectively localized to neoplastic lesions in vivo, as evidenced by quantitative biodistribution studies using radioiodinated protein preparations. When the potency of the cytokine payloads was matched by a single-point mutation, the resulting fusion protein (IL2-F8-TNFmut) eradicated soft-tissue sarcomas in immunocompetent mice, which did not respond to individual antibody-cytokine fusion proteins or by standard doxorubicin treatment. Durable complete responses were also observed in mice bearing CT26, C1498, and F9 tumors. The simultaneous delivery of multiple proinflammatory payloads to the cancer site conferred protective immunity against subsequent tumor challenges. A fully human homolog of IL2-F8-TNFmut, which retained selectivity similar to its murine counterpart when tested on human material, may open new clinical applications for the immunotherapy of cancer. Mol Cancer Ther; 16(11); 2442-51. ©2017 AACR.

Tumor-linked HER2 expression: association with obesity and lipid-related microenvironment

Obesity is associated with the risk of several health disorders including certain cancers. Among obesity-related cancers, postmenopausal breast carcinoma is a well-studied one. Apart from an increase in certain types of lipids in obesity, excess adipose tissue releases many hormone-like cytokines/adipokines, which are usually pro-inflammatory in nature. Leptin is one of such adipokines and significantly linked with the intracellular signaling pathways of other growth factors such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). In general, HER2 is overexpressed in roughly 30% of breast carcinomas; its presence indicates aggressive tumor behavior. Conversely, HER2 has certain effects in normal conditions such as differentiation of preadipocytes, cardiovascular health and vitamin D metabolism. HER2 has no known endogenous ligand, but it may form dimers with other three members of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) family and can activate downstream signaling pathways. Furthermore, HER2 is intimately connected with several enzymes, e.g. fatty acid synthase (FASN), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), AKT and mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), all of which play significant regulatory roles in lipogenic pathways or lipid metabolism. In obesity-related carcinogenesis, characteristics like insulin resistance and elevated IGF-1 are commonly observed. Both IGF-1 and leptin can modulate EGFR and HER2 signaling pathways. Although clinical studies have shown mixed results, the behavior of HER2+ tumor cells including HER2 levels can be altered by several factors such as obesity, leptin and fatty acids. A precise knowledge is useful in new therapeutic approaches against HER+ tumors.

Ficolin-2 triggers antitumor effect by activating macrophages and CD8+ T cells

Ficolin-2 is an important serum complement lectin. Here, we describe novel findings indicating that serum ficolin-2 concentrations in multiple tumor patients are significantly lower than those in healthy donors. Administration of exogenous ficolin-2 or ficolin-A (a ficolin-2-like molecule in mouse), with only once, could remarkably inhibit the tumor cells growth in murine tumor models via early macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs) and CD8+ T cells, but not CD4+ T cells. Ficolin-A (FCN-A) knockout (KO) mice exhibits significantly increased tumor cell growth. Ficolin-2 induces macrophage activation, promotes M1 polarization and facilitates proliferation and antigen-specific cytotoxicity of CD8+ T cells. Ficolin-2 binds to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on macrophages and DCs and promotes their antigen-presenting abilities to CD8+ T cells. Our findings provide a new therapeutic strategy for tumors based on the triggering of immune-mediated antitumor effect by ficolin-2.

A Primary Human Trophoblast Model to Study the Effect of Inflammation Associated with Maternal Obesity on Regulation of Autophagy in the Placenta

Maternal obesity is associated with an increased risk of adverse perinatal outcomes that are likely mediated by compromised placental function that can be attributed to, in part, the dysregulation of autophagy. Aberrant changes in the expression of autophagy regulators in the placentas from obese pregnancies may be regulated by inflammatory processes associated with both obesity and pregnancy. Described here is a protocol for sampling of villous tissue and isolation of villous cytotrophoblasts from the term human placenta for primary cell culture. This is followed by a method for simulating the inflammatory milieu in the obese intrauterine environment by treating primary trophoblasts from lean pregnancies with tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), a proinflammatory cytokine that is elevated in obesity and in pregnancy. Through the implementation of the protocol described here, it is found that exposure to exogenous TNFα regulates the expression of Rubicon, a negative regulator of autophagy, in trophoblasts from lean pregnancies with female fetuses. While a variety of biological factors in the obese intrauterine environment maintain the potential to modulate critical pathways in trophoblasts, this ex vivo system is especially useful for determining if expression patterns observed in vivo in human placentas with maternal obesity are a direct result of TNFα signaling. Ultimately, this approach affords the opportunity to parse out the regulatory and molecular implications of inflammation associated with maternal obesity on autophagy and other critical cellular pathways in trophoblasts that have the potential to impact placental function.

Validation of the ELISA Method for Quantitative Detection of TNF-α in Patients with Intracerebral Hemorrhage

AIM:

We aimed to investigate the sensitivity, reproducibility and validity of the commercial ELISA kits for quantitative detection of TNF-α and their potential application for screening purposes in patients with ICH.

METHODS:

Analysis of six independent standard series, evaluation of the deviation of the TNF-α concentration in patients with ICH, standard addition and visual analysis of whole UV-Vis spectra were carefully performed.

RESULTS:

Low standard deviations of the absorbance were detected for every standard, as well as in the samples of healthy controls and patients with ICH. The standard addition series have also confirmed high sensitivity and reproducibility of the assay, with a congruent shift of the standard curves with the concentration of TNF-α for the added plasma. The visual analyses of the gained spectra have revealed the absence of any matrix effects from the addition of the human plasma in the reconstituted standards.

CONCLUSION:

The commercial ELISA kits can be used in the clinical practice for screening purposes of the plasma TNF-α levels in patients with ICH.

Anti-tumor effects of the American cockroach, Periplaneta americana

Since the incidence of cancer has been on the rise due to increasing exposure to various carcinogenic factors in recent years, cancer has gradually become the first killer to the health of human beings. A growing attention has been paid to anti-cancer effects of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with low toxicity and good efficacy. As a kind of TCM, Periplaneta americana (P. americana) has a good effect on clinical application, and its anti-tumor effects has been increasingly well studied. In this review, the research progress on the anti-tumor effects of P. americana was summarized. The main mechanisms of its anti-tumor effects include suppression of tumor cell growth, induction of cell cycle arrest and tumor cell apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis, enhancement of immunity, and reversal of tumor drug resistance. This review aims to provide an overview of the research on anti-tumor effects of P. americana and aids in its further application as an anti-tumor drug.

Litopenaeus vannamei hemocyanin exhibits antitumor activity in S180 mouse model in vivo

Hemocyanin is a multifunctional glycoprotein, which also plays multiple roles in immune defense. While it has been demonstrated that hemocyanin from some mollusks can induce potent immune response and is therefore undergoing clinical trials to be used in anti-tumor immunotherapy, little is currently known about how hemocyanin from arthropods affect tumors. In this study we investigated the anti-tumor activity of hemocyanin from Litopenaeus vannamei on Sarcoma-180 (S180) tumor-bearing mice model. Eight days treatment with 4mg/kg bodyweight of hemocyanin significantly inhibited the growth of S180 up to 49% as compared to untreated. Similarly, histopathology analysis showed a significant decrease in tumor cell number and density in the tissues of treated mice. Moreover, there was a significant increase in immune organs index, lymphocyte proliferation, NK cell cytotoxic activity and serum TNF-α level, suggesting that hemocyanin could improve the immunity of the S180 tumor-bearing mice. Additionally, there was a significant increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and a decrease in the level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum and liver, which further suggest that hemocyanin improved the anti-oxidant ability of the S180 tumor-bearing mice. Collectively, our data demonstrated that L. vannamei hemocyanin had a significant antitumor activity in mice.

Effects of polysaccharides from abalone viscera (Haliotis discus hannai Ino) on MGC 803 cells proliferation

The polysaccharides (AVP) was obtained from abalone (Haliotis discus hannai Ino) viscera, using the alkaline protease to enzymolysis, sevage method and repeated freezing and thawing method to remove protein and hydrogen peroxide method to depigment. The total sugar content was 46.27±1.5% and uronic acid, sulfate radical, hexosamine and protein contents were 17.44±0.22%, 16.98±0.15%, 0.65±0.02% and 1.64±0.13% in AVP respectively. The main monosaccharide compositions of AVP were d-galactose, d-xylose, d-mannose, d-glucose and d-glucuronic acid. MTT assay showed AVP had a significant anti-tumor activity to gastric carcinoma cells, especially to MGC 803, while it had no influence upon proliferation of normal stomach cells GES 1. The results of Morphological changes, cell migration ability and AO/EB staining indicated that MGC803 cells underwent apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner induced by AVP. Moreover, the western blotting results showed that the expressions of survivin, Bcl-2 and VEGF were decreased, while the expression of Bax and p53 were increased in a dose-dependent manner of AVP. The results suggested that AVP might be a potential anti-tumor agent securely and naturally.