p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases regulate the myogenic program at multiple steps

p38 MAPK signaling regulates recruitment of Ash2L-containing methyltransferase complexes to specific genes during differentiation

Cell-specific patterns of gene expression are established through the antagonistic functions of trithorax group (TrxG) and Polycomb group (PcG) proteins. Several muscle-specific genes have previously been shown to be epigenetically marked for repression by PcG proteins in muscle progenitor cells. Here we demonstrate that these developmentally regulated genes become epigenetically marked for gene expression (trimethylated on histone H3 Lys4, H3K4me3) during muscle differentiation through specific recruitment of Ash2L-containing methyltransferase complexes. Targeting of Ash2L to specific genes is mediated by the transcriptional regulator Mef2d. Furthermore, this interaction is modulated during differentiation through activation of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway via phosphorylation of Mef2d. Thus, we provide evidence that signaling pathways regulate the targeting of TrxG-mediated epigenetic modifications at specific promoters during cellular differentiation.

The chemokine SDF1 controls multiple steps of myogenesis through atypical PKCζ

Mice deficient in the SDF1-chemokine-receptor CXCR4, exhibit severe defects of secondary limb myogenesis. To further elucidate the role of SDF1 in muscle development, we have now analyzed putative effects of this chemokine on proliferation, migration and myogenic differentiation of mouse C2C12 myogenic progenitor/myoblast cells. In addition, we have characterized the signaling pathways employed by SDF1-CXCR4 to control myogenesis. We found that SDF1 stimulates proliferation and induces migration of C2C12 cells with a potency similar to that of FGF2 and HGF, which both represent prototypical extracellular regulators of myogenesis. In addition, SDF1 inhibits myogenic differentiation in both C2C12 cells and primary myoblasts, as assessed by MyoD, myosin heavy chain and/or myogenin expression. Regarding signaling pathways, C2C12 cells responded to SDF1 with activation (phosphorylation) of Erk and PKCζ, whereas even after prolonged SDF1 treatment for up to 120 minutes, levels of activated Akt, p38 and PKCα or PKCβ remained unaffected. Preventing activation of the classic MAP kinase cascade with the Erk inhibitor UO126 abolished SDF1-induced proliferation and migration of C2C12 cells but not the inhibitory action of SDF1 on myogenic differentiation. Moreover, the effects of SDF1 on proliferation, migration and differentiation of C2C12 cells were all abrogated in the presence of myristoylated PKCζ peptide pseudosubstrate and/or upon cellular depletion of PKCζ by RNA interference. In conclusion, our findings unravel a previously unknown role of CXCR4-PKCζ signaling in myogenesis. The potent inhibitory effects of SDF1 on myogenic differentiation point to a major function of CXCR4-PKCζ signaling in the control of secondary muscle growth.

p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase regulates myelination

The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase family is emerging as a crucial signaling molecule for a vast number of cellular functions including cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. The function of p38 in myelination has only been recently addressed. Using pyridinyl imidazole-based p38 alpha/beta selective inhibitors, we have reported a critical role for this kinase in the regulation of myelination, specifically, in controlling the differentiation of Schwann cells, and oligodendrocytes, the myelinating glia of the peripheral and central nervous systems, respectively. These compounds inhibited the accumulation of myelin-cell-specific markers, including myelin-specific glycosphingolipids, myelin-associated glycoprotein, and myelin basic protein. More significantly, myelination of dorsal root ganglia neurons by oligodendrocytes was irreversibly blocked by p38 inhibitors. Our current studies are focusing on the molecular mechanisms by which p38 regulates oligodendrocyte and Schwann cell differentiation and its role in models of myelination and remyelination.

Global and targeted gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of young men following short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation

Creatine monohydrate (CrM) supplementation has been shown to increase fat-free mass and muscle power output possibly via cell swelling. Little is known about the cellular response to CrM. We investigated the effect of short-term CrM supplementation on global and targeted mRNA expression and protein content in human skeletal muscle. In a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover, double-blind design, 12 young, healthy, nonobese men were supplemented with either a placebo (PL) or CrM (loading phase, 20 g/day x 3 days; maintenance phase, 5 g/day x 7 days) for 10 days. Following a 28-day washout period, subjects were put on the alternate supplementation for 10 days. Muscle biopsies of the vastus lateralis were obtained and were assessed for mRNA expression (cDNA microarrays + real-time PCR) and protein content (Kinetworks KPKS 1.0 Protein Kinase screen). CrM supplementation significantly increased fat-free mass, total body water, and body weight of the participants (P < 0.05). Also, CrM supplementation significantly upregulated (1.3- to 5.0-fold) the mRNA content of genes and protein content of kinases involved in osmosensing and signal transduction, cytoskeleton remodeling, protein and glycogen synthesis regulation, satellite cell proliferation and differentiation, DNA replication and repair, RNA transcription control, and cell survival. We are the first to report this large-scale gene expression in the skeletal muscle with short-term CrM supplementation, a response that suggests changes in cellular osmolarity.

Creatine enhances differentiation of myogenic C2C12cells by activating both p38 and Akt/PKB pathways

In myogenic C2C12cells, 5 mM creatine increased the incorporation of labeled [35S]methionine into sarcoplasmic (+20%, P < 0.05) and myofibrillar proteins (+50%, P < 0.01). Creatine also promoted the fusion of myoblasts assessed by an increased number of nuclei incorporated within myotubes (+40%, P < 0.001). Expression of myosin heavy chain type II (+1,300%, P < 0.001), troponin T (+65%, P < 0.01), and titin (+40%, P < 0.05) was enhanced by creatine. Mannitol, taurine, and β-alanine did not mimic the effect of creatine, ruling out an osmolarity-dependent mechanism. The addition of rapamycin, the inhibitor of mammalian target of rapamycin/70-kDa ribosomal S6 protein kinase (mTOR/p70s6k) pathway, and SB 202190, the inhibitor of p38, completely blocked differentiation in control cells, and creatine did not reverse this inhibition, suggesting that the mTOR/p70s6kand p38 pathways could be potentially involved in the effect induced by creatine on differentiation. Creatine upregulated phosphorylation of protein kinase B (Akt/PKB; +60%, P < 0.001), glycogen synthase kinase-3 (+70%, P < 0.001), and p70s6k(+50%, P < 0.001). Creatine also affected the phosphorylation state of p38 (−50% at 24 h and +70% at 96 h, P < 0.05) as well as the nuclear content of its downstream targets myocyte enhancer factor-2 (−55% at 48 h and +170% at 96 h, P < 0.05) and MyoD (+60%, P < 0.01). In conclusion, this study points out the involvement of the p38 and the Akt/PKB-p70s6kpathways in the enhanced differentiation induced by creatine in C2C12cells.

JAK1-STAT1-STAT3, a key pathway promoting proliferation and preventing premature differentiation of myoblasts

Skeletal muscle stem cell-derived myoblasts are mainly responsible for postnatal muscle growth and injury-induced muscle regeneration. However, the cellular signaling pathways controlling the proliferation and differentiation of myoblasts are not fully understood. We demonstrate that Janus kinase 1 (JAK1) is required for myoblast proliferation and that it also functions as a checkpoint to prevent myoblasts from premature differentiation. Deliberate knockdown of JAK1 in both primary and immortalized myoblasts induces precocious myogenic differentiation with a concomitant reduction in cell proliferation. This is caused, in part, by an accelerated induction of MyoD, myocyte enhancer-binding factor 2 (MEF2), p21Cip1, and p27Kip1, a faster down-regulation of Id1, and an increase in MEF2-dependent gene transcription. Downstream of JAK1, of all the signal transducer and activator of transcriptions (STATs) present in myoblasts, we find that only STAT1 knockdown promotes myogenic differentiation in both primary and immortalized myoblasts. Leukemia inhibitory factor stimulates myoblast proliferation and represses differentiation via JAK1-STAT1-STAT3. Thus, JAK1-STAT1-STAT3 constitutes a signaling pathway that promotes myoblast proliferation and prevents premature myoblast differentiation.

Mutations in ERK2 Binding Sites Affect Nuclear Entry

The MAPK ERK2 can enter and exit the nucleus by an energy-independent process that is facilitated by direct interactions with nuclear pore proteins. Several studies also suggest that the localization of ERK2 can be influenced by carrier proteins. Using import reconstitution assays, we examined a group of ERK2 mutants defective in known protein interactions to determine structural properties of ERK2 that contribute to its nuclear entry. ERK2 mutants defective in binding to substrates near the active site or to basic/hydrophobic docking (D) motifs were imported normally. Several ERK2 mutants defective in interactions with FXF motifs displayed slowed rates of nuclear import. The import-impaired mutants also showed reduced binding to a recombinant C-terminal fragment of nucleoporin 153 that is rich in FXF motifs. Despite the deficit revealed in some mutants via reconstitution assays, all but one of the ERK2 mutants accumulated in nuclei of stimulated cells in a manner comparable with the wild type protein; the mutant most defective in import remained in the cytoplasm. These results further support the idea that direct interactions with nucleoporins are involved in ERK2 nuclear entry and that multiple events contribute to the ligand-dependent relocalization of these protein kinases.

RAGE expression in rhabdomyosarcoma cells results in myogenic differentiation and reduced proliferation, migration, invasiveness, and tumor growth

Activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) by its ligand, HMGB1, stimulates myogenesis via a Cdc42-Rac1-MKK6-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In addition, functional inactivation of RAGE in myoblasts results in reduced myogenesis, increased proliferation, and tumor formation in vivo. We show here that TE671 rhabdomyosarcoma cells, which do not express RAGE, can be induced to differentiate on transfection with RAGE (TE671/RAGE cells) but not a signaling-deficient RAGE mutant (RAGEDeltacyto) (TE671/RAGEDeltacyto cells) via activation of a Cdc42-Rac1-MKK6-p38 pathway and that TE671/RAGE cell differentiation depends on RAGE engagement by HMGB1. TE671/RAGE cells also show p38-dependent inactivation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 and c-Jun NH(2) terminal protein kinase and reduced proliferation, migration, and invasiveness and increased apoptosis, volume, and adhesiveness in vitro; they also grow smaller tumors and show a lower tumor incidence in vivo compared with wild-type cells. Two other rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines that express RAGE, CCA and RMZ-RC2, show an inverse relationship between the level of RAGE expression and invasiveness in vitro and exhibit reduced myogenic potential and enhanced invasive properties in vitro when transfected with RAGEDeltacyto. The rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines used here and C2C12 myoblasts express and release HMGB1, which activates RAGE in an autocrine manner. These data suggest that deregulation of RAGE expression in myoblasts might concur in rhabdomyosarcomagenesis and that increasing RAGE expression in rhabdomyosarcoma cells might reduce their tumor potential.

Delineating v-Src downstream effector pathways in transformed myoblasts

In this study, we delineate the intracellular signalling pathways modulated by a conditional v-Src tyrosine kinase that lead to unrestrained proliferation and block of differentiation of primary avian myoblasts. By inhibiting Ras-MAPK kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase with different means, we find that both pathways play crucial roles in controlling v-Src-sustained growth factor and anchorage independence for proliferation. The Ras-MAPK kinase pathway also contributes to block of differentiation independently of cell proliferation since inhibition of this pathway both in proliferating and growth-arrested v-Src-transformed myoblasts induces expression of muscle-specific genes, fusion into multinucleated myotubes and assembly of specialized contractile structures. Importantly, we find that the p38 MAPK pathway is inhibited by v-Src in myoblasts and its forced activation results in growth inhibition and expression of differentiation, indicating p38 MAPK as a critical target of v-Src in growth transformation and myogenic differentiation. Furthermore, we show that downregulation of p38 MAPK activation may occur via Ras-MAPK kinase, thus highlighting a cross-regulation between the two pathways. Finally, we report that the simultaneous inhibition of MAPK kinase and calpain, combined to activation of p38 MAPK, are sufficient to reconstitute largely the differentiation potential of v-Src-transformed myoblasts.

Global gene expression profiling of PAX-FKHR fusion-positive alveolar and PAX-FKHR fusion-negative embryonal rhabdomyosarcomas

Paediatric rhabdomyosarcomas (RMS) are classified into two major subtypes based on histological appearance, embryonal (ERMS) and alveolar (ARMS), but this clinically critical distinction is often difficult on morphological grounds alone. ARMS, the more aggressive subtype, is associated in most cases with unique recurrent translocations fusing the PAX3 or PAX7 transcription factor genes to FKHR. In contrast, ERMS lacks unique genetic alterations. To identify novel diagnostic markers and potential therapeutic targets, we analysed the global gene expression profiles of these two RMS subtypes in 23 ARMS (16 PAX3-FKHR, 7 PAX7-FKHR) and 15 ERMS (all PAX-FKHR-negative) using Affymetrix HG-U133A oligonucleotide arrays. A statistically stringent supervised comparison of the ARMS and ERMS expression profiles revealed 121 genes that were significantly differentially expressed, of which 112 were higher in ARMS, including genes of interest as potential diagnostic markers or therapeutic targets, such as CNR1, PIPOX (sarcosine oxidase), and TFAPbeta. Interestingly, many known or putative downstream targets of PAX3-FKHR were highly overexpressed in ARMS relative to ERMS, including CNR1, DCX, ABAT, ASS, JAKMIP2, DKFZp762M127, and NRCAM. We validated the highly differential expression of five genes, including CNR1, DKFZp762M127, DCX, PIPOX, and FOXF1 in ARMS relative to ERMS by quantitative RT-PCR on an independent set of samples. Finally, we developed a ten-gene microarray-based predictor that distinguished ARMS from ERMS with approximately 95% accuracy both in our data by cross-validation and in an independent validation using a published dataset of 26 samples. The gene expression signature of ARMS provides a source of potential diagnostic markers, therapeutic targets, and PAX-FKHR downstream genes, and can be used to reliably distinguish these sarcomas from ERMS.

Suppression of c-Src activity stimulates muscle differentiation via p38 MAPK activation

Role of c-Src in muscle differentiation has been controversial. Here, we investigated if c-Src positively or negatively regulates muscle differentiation, using H9c2 and C2C12 cell lines. Inhibition of c-Src by treatment with PP1 and SU6656, pharmacologic inhibitors of Src family kinases, or by expression of a dominant negative c-Src, all induced muscle differentiation in proliferation medium (PM). In differentiating cells in differentiation medium (DM), c-Src activity gradually decreased and reached basal level 3 days after induction of differentiation. Inhibition of c-Src suppressed Raf/MEK/ERK pathway but activated p38 MAPK. Inhibition of p38 MAPK did not affect c-Src activity in PM. However, it reactivated Raf/MEK/ERK pathway in c-Src-inhibited cells regardless of PM or DM. Concomitant inhibition of c-Src and p38 MAPK activities blocked muscle differentiation in both media. In conclusion, suppression of c-Src activity stimulates muscle differentiation by activating p38 MAPK uni-directionally.

Sema4C participates in myogenic differentiation in vivo and in vitro through the p38 MAPK pathway

Sema4C is a member of transmembrane semaphorin proteins which regulate axonal guidance in the developing nervous system. The expression of Sema4C was dramatically induced not only during differentiation of C2C12 mouse myoblasts, but also during injury-induced skeletal muscle regeneration. C2C12 cells stably or transiently expressing Sema4C both showed increased myogenic differentiation reflected by accelerated myotube formation and expression of muscle-specific proteins. Overexpression of Sema4C elicited p38 phosphorylation directly, and the effects of Sema4C during myogenic differentiation could be abolished by the p38alpha-specific inhibitor SB203580. Knockdown of Sema4C by siRNA transfection during C2C12 myoblasts differentiation could suppress the phosphorylation of p38 followed by dramatically diminished myotube formation. Sema4C could activate the myogenin promoter during myogenic differentiation. This activation could be abolished by p38 inhibitor SB203580. Taken together, these observations reveal novel functional potentialities of Sema4C which suggest that Sema4C promotes terminal myogenic differentiation in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner.

Cardiac myocyte cell cycle control in development, disease, and regeneration

Cardiac myocytes rapidly proliferate during fetal life but exit the cell cycle soon after birth in mammals. Although the extent to which adult cardiac myocytes are capable of cell cycle reentry is controversial and species-specific differences may exist, it appears that for the vast majority of adult cardiac myocytes the predominant form of growth postnatally is an increase in cell size (hypertrophy) not number. Unfortunately, this limits the ability of the heart to restore function after any significant injury. Interest in novel regenerative therapies has led to the accumulation of much information on the mechanisms that regulate the rapid proliferation of cardiac myocytes in utero, their cell cycle exit in the perinatal period, and the permanent arrest (terminal differentiation) in adult myocytes. The recent identification of cardiac progenitor cells capable of giving rise to cardiac myocyte-like cells has challenged the dogma that the heart is a terminally differentiated organ and opened new prospects for cardiac regeneration. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of cardiomyocyte cell cycle control in normal development and disease. In addition, we also discuss the potential usefulness of cardiomyocyte self-renewal as well as feasibility of therapeutic manipulation of the cardiac myocyte cell cycle for cardiac regeneration.

Sequential recruitment of PCAF and BRG1 contributes to myogenin activation in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced early differentiation of rhabdomyosarcoma-derived cells

Myogenin and its upstream regulator MyoD are known to be required for myogenic cell differentiation. Although both of them can be expressed in rhabdomyosarcoma-derived RD cells, the cells are unable to undergo full-scale terminal myogenic differentiation. 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) has been found to be functional in the induction of RD cell differentiation, whereas its mechanism is not fully understood. By using quantitative real-time-based chromatin immunoprecipitation and real-time reverse transcription-PCR-based promoter activity assays, we examined the activation mechanism of the myogenin gene during TPA-induced differentiation of the RD cells. We have shown that a histone acetyltransferase PCAF and ATPase subunit BRG1 of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex are sequentially recruited to the promoter of the myogenin gene. Both PCAF and BRG1 are also involved in the activation of the myogenin gene. In addition, we have found that the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase is required for BRG1 recruitment in TPA-mediated myogenin induction. We propose that there are two distinct activation steps for the induction of myogenin in TPA-induced early differentiation of RD cells: 1) an early step that requires PCAF activity to acetylate core histones and MyoD to initiate myogenin gene expression, and 2) a later step that requires p38-dependent activity of the SWI/SNF remodeling complex to provide an open conformation for the induction of myogenin. Our studies reveal an essential role for epigenetic regulation in TPA-induced differentiation of RD cells and provide potential drug targets for future treatment of the rhabdomyosarcoma.

Beta catenin-independent activation of MyoD in presomitic mesoderm requires PKC and depends on Pax3 transcriptional activity

Early activation of myogenesis in the somite depends on signals from surrounding tissues. Canonical beta-catenin dependent Wnt signalling preferentially activates Myf5. We now show, in explant experiments with presomitic mesoderm, that the expression of another myogenic determination factor, MyoD, depends on non-canonical Wnt signalling, probably emanating from the dorsal ectoderm. Inhibitors of PKC block MyoD expression, indicating that the intracellular Wnt pathway depends on this kinase. In the absence of Myf5 and Mrf4, this activation is only minorily affected and we identify Pax3 as the transcriptional mediator responsible for MyoD expression. When embryos expressing a constitutively active form of Pax3, PAX3-FKHR, are used for these studies in the presence of PKC inhibitors, MyoD expression is not affected, suggesting that Wnt signalling acts on the transcriptional activity of Pax3.

p38 MAP-kinases pathway regulation, function and role in human diseases

Mammalian p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are activated by a wide range of cellular stresses as well as in response to inflammatory cytokines. There are four members of the p38MAPK family (p38alpha, p38beta, p38gamma and p38delta) which are about 60% identical in their amino acid sequence but differ in their expression patterns, substrate specificities and sensitivities to chemical inhibitors such as SB203580. A large body of evidences indicates that p38MAPK activity is critical for normal immune and inflammatory response. The p38MAPK pathway is a key regulator of pro-inflammatory cytokines biosynthesis at the transcriptional and translational levels, which makes different components of this pathway potential targets for the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. However, recent studies have shed light on the broad effect of p38MAPK activation in the control of many other aspects of the physiology of the cell, such as control of cell cycle or cytoskeleton remodelling. Here we focus on these emergent roles of p38MAPKs and their implication in different pathologies.

Fibroblast growth factor inducible 14 (Fn14) is required for the expression of myogenic regulatory factors and differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes. Evidence for TWEAK-independent functions of Fn14 during myogenesis

Fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14), distantly related to tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily and a receptor for TWEAK cytokine, has been implicated in several biological responses. In this study, we have investigated the role of Fn14 in skeletal muscle formation in vitro. Flow cytometric and Western blot analysis revealed that Fn14 is highly expressed on myoblastic cell line C2C12 and mouse primary myoblasts. The expression of Fn14 was decreased upon differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes. Suppression of Fn14 expression using RNA interference inhibited the myotube formation in both C2C12 and primary myoblast cultures. Fn14 was required for the transactivation of skeletal alpha-actin promoter and the expression of specific muscle proteins such as myosin heavy chain fast type and creatine kinase. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of Fn14 receptor in C2C12 myoblasts decreased the levels of myogenic regulatory factors MyoD and myogenin upon induction of differentiation. Conversely, overexpression of MyoD increased differentiation in Fn14-knockdown C2C12 cultures. Suppression of Fn14 expression in C2C12 myoblasts also inhibited the differentiation-associated increase in the activity of serum response factor and RhoA GTPase. In addition, our data suggest that the role of Fn14 during myogenic differentiation could be independent of TWEAK cytokine. Collectively, our study suggests that the Fn14 receptor is required for the expression of myogenic regulatory factors and differentiation of myoblasts into myotubes.

The p38α/β Mitogen-activated Protein Kinases Mediate Recruitment of CREB-binding Protein to Preserve Fast Myosin Heavy Chain IId/x Gene Activity in Myotubes

In skeletal muscle, the transformation of fast into slow fiber type is accompanied by shifts in fiber type-specific gene expression that includes down-regulation of the adult fast fiber myosin heavy chain IId/x (MyHCIId/x) gene. Here, we report that the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) p38alpha/beta regulate MyHCIId/x gene expression. Electrical stimulation of rabbit skeletal muscle cells with a slow fiber type activity pattern and treatment of C2C12 myotubes with Ca(2+)-ionophore inhibited p38alpha/beta MAPKs and reduced fast fiber type MyHC protein expression and promoter activity. Pharmacological inhibition of p38alpha/beta also down-regulated MyHCII gene expression. In controls, binding of the myocyte enhancer factor-2 (MEF-2) isoforms C and D as a heterodimer to a proximal consensus site within the MyHCIId/x promoter and recruitment of a transcriptional coactivator, the CREB-binding protein CBP, were observed. Overexpression of wild type MEF-2C but not of a MEF-2C mutant that cannot be phosphorylated by p38 induced promoter activity. Mutation of the MEF-2-binding site decreased the inducing effect of overexpressed CBP. Inhibition of p38alpha/beta MAPKs abolished CBP binding, whereas enforced induction of p38 by activated MAPK kinase 6 (MKK6EE) enhanced binding of CBP and increased promoter activity. Furthermore, knockdown of endogenous CBP by RNA interference eliminated promoter activation by MEF-2C or MKK6EE. In electrical stimulated and Ca(2+)-ionophore-treated myotubes, CBP was absent in complex formation at that site. Taken together, the data indicate that p38alpha/beta MAPKs-mediated coactivator recruitment at a proximal MEF-2 site is important for MyHCIId/x gene regulation in skeletal muscle.

Conditional Activation of MET in Differentiated Skeletal Muscle Induces Atrophy

Skeletal muscle atrophy is a common debilitating feature of many systemic diseases, including cancer. Here we examined the effects of inducing expression of an oncogenic version of the Met receptor (Tpr-Met) in terminally differentiated skeletal muscle. A responder mouse containing the Tpr-Met oncogene and GFP (green fluorescent protein) as a reporter was crossed with a transactivator mouse expressing tTA under the control of the muscle creatine kinase promoter. Tpr-Met induction during fetal development and in young adult mice caused severe muscle wasting, with decreased fiber size and loss of myosin heavy chain protein. Concomitantly, in the Tpr-Met-expressing muscle the mRNA of the E3 ubiquitin ligases atrogin-1/MAFbx, MuRF1, and of the lysosomal protease cathepsin L, which are markers of skeletal muscle atrophy, was significantly increased. In the same muscles phosphorylation of the Met downstream effectors Akt, p38 MAPK, and IkappaBalpha was higher than in normal controls. Induction of Tpr-Met in differentiating satellite cells derived from the double transgenics caused aberrant cell fusion, protein loss, and myotube collapse. Increased phosphorylation of Met downstream effectors was also observed in the Tpr-Met-expressing myotubes cultures. Treatment of these cultures with either a proteasomal or a p38 inhibitor prevented Tpr-Met-mediated myotube breakdown, establishing accelerated protein degradation consequent to inappropriate activation of p38 as the major route for the Tpr-Met-induced muscle phenotype.

Genetic analysis of p38 MAP kinases in myogenesis: fundamental role of p38alpha in abrogating myoblast proliferation

The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway plays a critical role in skeletal muscle differentiation. However, the relative contribution of the four p38 MAPKs (p38alpha, p38beta, p38gamma and p38delta) to this process is unknown. Here we show that myoblasts lacking p38alpha, but not those lacking p38beta or p38delta, are unable to differentiate and form multinucleated myotubes, whereas p38gamma-deficient myoblasts exhibit an attenuated fusion capacity. The defective myogenesis in the absence of p38alpha is caused by delayed cell-cycle exit and continuous proliferation in differentiation-promoting conditions. Indeed, activation of JNK/cJun was enhanced in p38alpha-deficient myoblasts leading to increased cyclin D1 transcription, whereas inhibition of JNK activity rescued the proliferation phenotype. Thus, p38alpha controls myogenesis by antagonizing the activation of the JNK proliferation-promoting pathway, before its direct effect on muscle differentiation-specific gene transcription. More importantly, in agreement with the defective myogenesis of cultured p38alpha(Delta/Delta) myoblasts, neonatal muscle deficient in p38alpha shows cellular hyperproliferation and delayed maturation. This study provides novel evidence of a fundamental role of p38alpha in muscle formation in vitro and in vivo.

IL-13 mediates the recruitment of reserve cells for fusion during IGF-1-induced hypertrophy of human myotubes

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) has been shown to induce skeletal muscle hypertrophy, to prevent the loss of muscle mass with ageing and to improve the muscle phenotype of dystrophic mice. We previously developed a model of IGF-1-induced hypertrophy of human myotubes, in which hypertrophy was not only characterized by an increase in myotube size and myosin content but also by an increased recruitment of reserve cells for fusion. Here, we describe a new mechanism of IGF-1-induced hypertrophy by demonstrating that IGF-1 signals exclusively to myotubes but not to reserve cells, leading, under the control of the transcription factor NFATc2, to the secretion of IL-13 that will secondly recruit reserve cells for differentiation and fusion. In addition, we show that IGF-1 also signals to myotubes to stimulate protein metabolism via Akt by (1) activating the mTOR-p70S6K-S6 pathway and inhibiting GSK-3β, both involved in the control of protein translation, and (2) inhibiting the Foxo1–atrogin-1 protein degradation pathway.

TACE release of TNF-alpha mediates mechanotransduction-induced activation of p38 MAPK and myogenesis

Skeletal muscle responds to mechanical stimulation by activating p38 MAPK, a key signal for myogenesis. However, the mechanotransduction mechanism that activates p38 is unknown. Here we show that mechanical stimulation of myoblasts activates p38 and myogenesis through stimulating TNF-alpha release by TNF-alpha converting enzyme (TACE). In C2C12 or mouse primary myoblasts cultured in growth medium, static stretch activated p38 along with ERK1/2, JNK and AKT. Disrupting TNF-alpha signaling by TNF-alpha-neutralizing antibody or knocking out TNF-alpha receptors blocked stretch activation of p38, but not ERK1/2, JNK or AKT. Stretch also activated differentiation markers MEF2C, myogenin, p21 and myosin heavy chain in a TNF-alpha- and p38-dependent manner. Stretch stimulated the cleavage activity of TACE. Conversely, TACE inhibitor TAPI or TACE siRNA abolished stretch activation of p38. In addition, conditioned medium from stretched myoblast cultures activated p38 in unstretched myoblasts, which required TACE activity in the donor myoblasts, and TNF-alpha receptors in the recipient myoblasts. These results indicate that posttranscriptional activation of TACE mediates the mechanotransduction that activates p38-dependent myogenesis via the release of TNF-alpha.

Ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin promote differentiation and fusion of C2C12 skeletal muscle cells

Ghrelin is an acylated peptidyl gastric hormone acting on the pituitary and hypothalamus to stimulate appetite, adiposity, and growth hormone release, through activation of growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR)-1a receptor. Moreover, ghrelin features several activities such as inhibition of apoptosis, regulation of differentiation, and stimulation or inhibition of proliferation of several cell types. Ghrelin acylation is absolutely required for both GHSR-1a binding and its central endocrine activities. However, the unacylated ghrelin form, des-acyl ghrelin, which does not bind GHSR-1a and is devoid of any endocrine activity, is far more abundant than ghrelin in plasma, and it shares with ghrelin some of its cellular activities. In here we show that both ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin stimulate proliferating C2C12 skeletal myoblasts to differentiate and to fuse into multinucleated myotubes in vitro through activation of p38. Consistently, both ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin inhibit C2C12 proliferation in growth medium. Moreover, the ectopic expression of ghrelin in C2C12 enhances differentiation and fusion of these myoblasts in differentiation medium. Finally, we show that C2C12 cells do not express GHSR-1a, but they do contain a common high-affinity binding site recognized by both acylated and des-acylated ghrelin, suggesting that the described activities on C2C12 are likely mediated by this novel, yet unidentified receptor for both ghrelin forms.

Notch signaling suppresses p38 MAPK activity via induction of MKP-1 in myogenesis

Cross-talks among intracellular signaling pathways are important for the regulation of cell fate decisions and cellular responses to extracellular signals. Both the Notch pathway and the MAPK pathways play important roles in many biological processes, and the Notch pathway has been shown to interact with the ERK-type MAPK pathway. However, its interaction with the other MAPK pathways is unknown. Here we show that Notch signaling activation in C2C12 cells suppresses the activity of p38 MAPK to inhibit myogenesis. Our results show that Notch specifically induces expression of MKP-1, a member of the dual-specificity MAPK phosphatase, which directly inactivates p38 to negatively regulate C2C12 myogenesis. The Notch-induced expression of MKP-1 is shown to depend on RBP-J. Moreover, inhibition of MKP-1 expression by short interfering RNA suppresses p38 inactivation and partially rescues the negative regulation of myogenesis. These results reveal a novel cross-talk between the Notch pathway and the p38 MAPK pathway that is mediated by Notch induction of MKP-1.

TNF-alpha regulates myogenesis and muscle regeneration by activating p38 MAPK

Although p38 MAPK activation is essential for myogenesis, the upstream signaling mechanism that activates p38 during myogenesis remains undefined. We recently reported that p38 activation, myogenesis, and regeneration in cardiotoxin-injured soleus muscle are impaired in TNF-alpha receptor double-knockout (p55(-/-)p75(-/-)) mice. To fully evaluate the role of TNF-alpha in myogenic activation of p38, we tried to determine whether p38 activation in differentiating myoblasts requires autocrine TNF-alpha, and whether forced activation of p38 rescues impaired myogenesis and regeneration in the p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus. We observed an increase of TNF-alpha release from C2C12 or mouse primary myoblasts placed in low-serum differentiation medium. A TNF-alpha-neutralizing antibody added to differentiation medium blocked p38 activation and suppressed differentiation markers myocyte enhancer factor (MEF)-2C, myogenin, p21, and myosin heavy chain in C2C12 myoblasts. Conversely, recombinant TNF-alpha added to differentiation medium stimulated myogenesis at 0.05 ng/ml while inhibited it at 0.5 and 5 ng/ml. In addition, differentiation medium-induced p38 activation and myogenesis were compromised in primary myoblasts prepared from p55(-/-)p75(-/-) mice. Increased TNF-alpha release was also seen in cardiotoxin-injured soleus over the course of regeneration. Forced activation of p38 via the constitutive activator of p38, MKK6bE, rescued impaired myogenesis and regeneration in the cardiotoxin-injured p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus. These results indicate that TNF-alpha regulates myogenesis and muscle regeneration as a key activator of p38.

The centrosome and cell proliferation

Centrosomes are frequently amplified in cancer cells. Increased numbers of centrosomes can give rise to multipolar spindles in mitosis, and thereby lead to the formation of aneuploid daughter cells. However, whether centrosome amplification is a cause or a consequence of cancer is unclear. In contrast, loss of a functional centrosome has been shown to lead to cell cycle arrest. In this review, the potential mechanisms underlying centrosome amplification and centrosome-dependent cell cycle regulation are discussed.

Convergence of Igf2 expression and adhesion signalling via RhoA and p38 MAPK enhances myogenic differentiation

Cell-cell contact is essential for appropriate co-ordination of development and it initiates significant signalling events. During myogenesis, committed myoblasts migrate to sites of muscle formation, align and form adhesive contacts that instigate cell-cycle exit and terminal differentiation into multinucleated myotubes; thus myogenesis is an excellent paradigm for the investigation of signals derived from cell-cell contact. PI3-K and p38 MAPK are both essential for successful myogenesis. Pro-myogenic growth factors such as IGF-II activate PI3-K via receptor tyrosine kinases but the extracellular cues and upstream intermediates required for activation of the p38 MAPK pathway in myoblast differentiation are not known. Initial observations suggested a correlation between p38 MAPK phosphorylation and cell density, which was also related to N-cadherin levels and Igf2 expression. Subsequent studies using N-cadherin ligand, dominant-negative N-cadherin, constitutively active and dominant-negative forms of RhoA, and MKK6 and p38 constructs, reveal a novel pathway in differentiating myoblasts that links cell-cell adhesion via N-cadherin to Igf2 expression (assessed using northern and promoter-reporter analyses) via RhoA and p38alpha and/or beta but not gamma. We thus define a regulatory mechanism for p38 activation that relates cell-cell-derived adhesion signalling to the synthesis of the major fetal growth factor, IGF-II.

Activation of p38alpha/beta MAPK in myogenesis via binding of the scaffold protein JLP to the cell surface protein Cdo

The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway plays an important role in cell differentiation, but the signaling mechanisms by which it is activated during this process are largely unknown. Cdo is an immunoglobulin superfamily member that functions as a component of multiprotein cell surface complexes to promote myogenesis. In this study, we report that the Cdo intracellular region interacts with JLP, a scaffold protein for the p38alpha/beta MAPK pathway. Cdo, JLP, and p38alpha/beta form complexes in differentiating myoblasts, and Cdo and JLP cooperate to enhance levels of active p38alpha/beta in transfectants. Primary myoblasts from Cdo(-/-) mice, which display a defective differentiation program, are deficient in p38alpha/beta activity, and the expression of an activated form of MKK6 (an immediate upstream activator of p38) rescues the ability of Cdo(-/-) cells to differentiate. These results document a novel mechanism of signaling during cell differentiation: the interaction of a MAPK scaffold protein with a cell surface receptor.

Smad7 promotes and enhances skeletal muscle differentiation

Transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1) and myostatin signaling, mediated by the same Smad downstream effectors, potently repress skeletal muscle cell differentiation. Smad7 inhibits these cytokine signaling pathways. The role of Smad7 during skeletal muscle cell differentiation was assessed. In these studies, we document that increased expression of Smad7 abrogates myostatin- but not TGF-beta1-mediated repression of myogenesis. Further, constitutive expression of exogenous Smad7 potently enhanced skeletal muscle differentiation and cellular hypertrophy. Conversely, targeting of endogenous Smad7 by small interfering RNA inhibited C2C12 muscle cell differentiation, indicating an essential role for Smad7 during myogenesis. Congruent with a role for Smad7 in myogenesis, we observed that the muscle regulatory factor (MyoD) binds to and transactivates the Smad7 proximal promoter region. Finally, we document that Smad7 directly interacts with MyoD and enhances MyoD transcriptional activity. Thus, Smad7 cooperates with MyoD, creating a positive loop to induce Smad7 expression and to promote MyoD driven myogenesis. Taken together, these data implicate Smad7 as a fundamental regulator of differentiation in skeletal muscle cells.

Mu- and kappa-opioids induce the differentiation of embryonic stem cells to neural progenitors

Growth factors, hormones, and neurotransmitters have been implicated in the regulation of stem cell fate. Since various neural precursors express functional neurotransmitter receptors, which include G protein-coupled receptors, it is anticipated that they are involved in cell fate decisions. We detected mu-opioid receptor (MOR-1) and kappa-opioid receptor (KOR-1) expression and immunoreactivity in embryonic stem (ES) cells and in retinoic acid-induced ES cell-derived, nestin-positive, neural progenitors. Moreover, these G protein-coupled receptors are functional, since [D-Ala(2),MePhe(4),Gly-ol(5)]enkephalin, a MOR-selective agonist, and U69,593, a KOR-selective agonist, induce a sustained activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling throughout a 24-h treatment period in undifferentiated, self-renewing ES cells. Both opioids promote limited proliferation of undifferentiated ES cells via the ERK/MAP kinase signaling pathway. Importantly, biochemical and immunofluorescence data suggest that [D-Ala(2),MePhe(4),Gly-ol(5)]enkephalin and U69,593 divert ES cells from self-renewal and coax the cells to differentiate. In retinoic acid-differentiated ES cells, opioid-induced signaling features a biphasic ERK activation profile and an opioid-induced, ERK-independent inhibition of proliferation in these neural progenitors. Collectively, the data suggest that opioids may have opposite effects on ES cell self-renewal and ES cell differentiation and that ERK activation is only required by the latter. Finally, opioid modulation of ERK activity may play an important role in ES cell fate decisions by directing the cells to specific lineages.

JX401, A p38α Inhibitor Containing a 4-Benzylpiperidine Motif, Identified via a Novel Screening System in Yeast

In vivo screening of compounds for potential pharmacological activity is more advantageous than in vitro screening. In vivo screens eliminate the isolation of compounds that cannot cross biological membranes, are cytotoxic, or are not specific to the target. However, animal-based or even cell-based systems are usually expensive, time-consuming, and laborious. Here we describe the identification of inhibitors of the mitogen-activated protein kinase p38alpha via a high throughput screen using yeast cells. p38alpha is hyperactive in inflammatory diseases, and various indications suggest that its inhibition would reverse inflammation. However, there are currently no p38alpha inhibitors in clinical use. Because the human p38alpha imposes severe growth retardation when expressed in yeast, we screened a library of 40,000 randomly selected small molecules for compounds that would restore a normal growth rate. We identified two compounds; both share a structural motif of 4-benzylpiperidine, and both were shown to be efficient and selective p38alpha inhibitors in vitro. They were also active in mammalian cells, as manifested by their ability to reversibly inhibit myoblast differentiation. Thus, the yeast screen identified efficient and specific p38alpha inhibitors that are capable of crossing biological membranes, are not toxic, and function in mammalian cells. The rapid and cost-efficient high-throughput screening used here could be applied for isolation of inhibitors of various targets.

The calcineurin pathway links hyperpolarization (Kir2.1)-induced Ca2+ signals to human myoblast differentiation and fusion

In human myoblasts triggered to differentiate, a hyperpolarization, resulting from K+ channel (Kir2.1) activation, allows the generation of an intracellular Ca2+ signal. This signal induces an increase in expression/activity of two key transcription factors of the differentiation process, myogenin and MEF2. Blocking hyperpolarization inhibits myoblast differentiation. The link between hyperpolarization-induced Ca2+ signals and the four main regulatory pathways involved in myoblast differentiation was the object of this study. Of the calcineurin, p38-MAPK, PI3K and CaMK pathways, only the calcineurin pathway was inhibited when Kir2.1-linked hyperpolarization was blocked. The CaMK pathway, although Ca2+ dependent, is unaffected by changes in membrane potential or block of Kir2.1 channels. Concerning the p38-MAPK and PI3K pathways, their activity is present already in proliferating myoblasts and they are unaffected by hyperpolarization or Kir2.1 channel block. We conclude that the Kir2.1-induced hyperpolarization triggers human myoblast differentiation via the activation of the calcineurin pathway, which, in turn, induces expression/activity of myogenin and MEF2.

The p38 MAPK signaling pathway: a major regulator of skeletal muscle development

Skeletal muscle development is regulated by extracellular growth factors that transmit largely unknown signals into the cell affecting the muscle-transcription program. One intracellular signaling pathway activated during the differentiation of myogenic cell lines is p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). As a result of modifying the activity of p38 in myoblasts, the pathway proved essential for the expression of muscle-specific genes. P38 affects the activities of transcription factors from the MyoD and MEF2 families and participates in the remodeling of chromatin at specific muscle-regulatory regions. P38 cooperates with the myogenic transcription factors in the activation of a subset of late-transcribed genes, hence contributing to the temporal expression of genes during differentiation. Recent developmental studies with mouse and Xenopus embryos, substantiated and further extended the essential role of p38 in myogenesis. Evidence exists supporting the crucial role for p38 signaling in activating MEF2 transcription factors during somite development in mice. In Xenopus, p38 signaling was shown to be needed for the early expression of Myf5 and for the expression of several muscle structural genes. The emerging data indicate that p38 participates in several stages of the myogenic program.

S100B stimulates myoblast proliferation and inhibits myoblast differentiation by independently stimulating ERK1/2 and inhibiting p38 MAPK

The Ca2+-modulated protein of the EF-hand type, S100B, was shown to inhibit rat L6 myoblast differentiation and myotube formation by interacting with a high affinity with an unidentified receptor (Sorci et al., 2003). We show here that S100B independently inhibits the MKK6-p38 MAPK pathway and stimulates the Ras-MEK-ERK1/2 pathway. The inhibitory effect of S100B on p38 MAPK translates into a defective induction of the muscle-specific transcription factor myogenin and the antiproliferative factor p21(WAF1), while S100B's stimulatory effect on ERK1/2 results in stimulation of myoblast proliferation via cyclin D1 induction and Rb phosphorylation and protection against apoptosis via activation of NF-kappaB transcriptional activity. Also, the S100B's effects that are mediated by the Ras-MEK-ERK1/2 pathway that is, stimulation of proliferation and protection against apoptosis, depend on reactive oxygen species production, being inhibited by antioxidants, while the S100B inhibitory effect on the MKK6-p38 MAPK pathway is not. We propose that S100B might participate in the regulation of myoblast differentiation by stimulating myoblast proliferation, protecting myoblasts against apoptosis, and modulating myotube formation.

SWI/SNF: the crossroads where extracellular signaling pathways meet chromatin

The coordinated expression of the genome in response to extracellular cues is ensured by enzymatic cascades signaling to the nucleus. These pathways generate chromatin modifications at specific loci controlling the transcription of signal-dependent and tissue-specific genes. The SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex offers the ideal surface for integrating these signals in the execution of diverse or even opposite biological programs.

The epigenetic network regulating muscle development and regeneration

This review focuses on our current knowledge of the epigenetic changes regulating gene expression at the chromatin and DNA level, independently on the primary DNA sequence, to reprogram the nuclei of muscle precursors during developmental myogenesis and muscle regeneration. These epigenetic marks provide the blueprint by which the extra-cellular cues are interpreted at the nuclear level by the transcription machinery to select the repertoire of tissue-specific genes to be expressed. The reversibility of some of these changes necessarily reflects the dynamic nature of skeletal myogenesis, which entails the progression through two antagonistic processes--proliferation and differentiation. Other epigenetic modifications are instead associated to events conventionally considered as irreversible--e.g. maintenance of lineage commitment and terminal differentiation. However, recent results support the possibility that these events can be reversed, at least upon certain experimental conditions, thereby revealing a dynamic nature of many of the epigenetic modifications underlying skeletal myogenesis. The elucidation of the epigenetic network that regulates transcription during developmental myogenesis and muscle regeneration might provide the information instrumental to devise pharmacological interventions toward selective manipulation of gene expression to promote regeneration of skeletal muscles and possibly other tissue.

DNp73α protects myogenic cells from apoptosis

The P73 gene is transcribed from two promoters, P1 and P2, that direct the expression of multiple transactivation competent (TA) and dominant negative (DN) isoforms. TAp73 transcription factors mediate cell cycle arrest and/or apoptosis in response to DNA damage and are involved in developmental processes. P73 mRNA levels increase and the P1p73 promoter is upregulated during myogenic differentiation of C2C12 skeletal muscle satellite cells. The DNp73 proteins act as trans-repressors of p53- and p73-dependent transcription, and possess both antiapoptotic and pro-proliferative potential. Here, we show that DNp73alpha is expressed in proliferating C2C12 myoblasts, rapidly accumulates in differentiating myocytes and remains elevated in C2C12 myotubes. By combining transactivation assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis, we could show that the upregulation of the P2p73 promoter during myogenic differentiation is mediated by the coordinated recruitment and activity of MyoD and p53/p73. Abrogation of DNp73 expression by specific siRNA led to a strong potentiation of the spontaneous apoptosis of C2C12 myoblasts induced to differentiate. Finally, unlike TAp73 that contributes to DNA damage-induced apoptosis of myotubes, endogenous DNp73 mediates the relative resistance of differentiated myotubes to DNA damage. Altogether, our findings identify DNp73alpha as an important target in designing strategies aimed at the potentiation of the regenerative potential of skeletal satellite cells.

Embryonic stem cells utilize reactive oxygen species as transducers of mechanical strain-induced cardiovascular differentiation

Growing stem cells are subjected to mechanical forces, which may initiate differentiation programs. Mechanical strain stimulated cardiovascular differentiation of mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells as evaluated by quantification of contracting cardiac foci and capillary areas, respectively. Mechanical strain rapidly elevated intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). After 24 h up-regulation of NADPH oxidase subunits p22-phox, p47-phox, p67-phox, and Nox-4 as well as Nox-1 and Nox-4 mRNA was observed. In parallel, mechanical strain increased hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) mRNA and protein as well as MEF2C and GATA-4 mRNA, which are involved in cardiovascular development. Furthermore, phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinase 1,2 (ERK1,2), p38, and c-jun N-terminal kinase (c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK)) was observed. Stimulation of cardiovascular commitment, HIF-1alpha, VEGF, and MEF2C expression as well as MAPK activation were abolished by free radical scavengers, whereas GATA-4 expression was increased. Cardiomyogenesis was inhibited by the p38 inhibitor SB203580, the ERK1,2 inhibitor UO126, and the JNK inhibitor SP600125. Vasculogenesis/angiogenesis was blunted following inhibition of ERK1,2 and JNK, whereas p38 inhibition was ineffective. Our data outline a role of ROS as mechanotransducing molecules in mechanical strain-stimulated cardiovascular differentiation of ES cells, and point toward a microenvironment of elevated ROS required for signaling cascades initiating cardiovascular differentiation programs.

Plectin scaffolds recruit energy-controlling AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) in differentiated myofibres

Plectin, a cytolinker protein greater than 500 kDa in size, has an important role as a mechanical stabiliser of cells. It interlinks the various cytoskeletal filament systems and anchors intermediate filaments to peripheral junctional complexes. In addition, there is increasing evidence that plectin acts as a scaffolding platform that controls the spatial and temporal localisation and interaction of signaling proteins. In this study we show that, in differentiated mouse myotubes, plectin binds to the regulatory gamma1 subunit of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), the key regulatory enzyme of energy homeostasis. No interaction was observed in undifferentiated myoblasts, and plectin-deficient myotubes showed altered positioning of gamma1-AMPK. In addition we found that plectin affects the subunit composition of AMPK, because isoform alpha1 of the catalytic subunit decreased in proportion to isoform alpha2 during in vitro differentiation of plectin(-/-) myotubes. In plectin-deficient myocytes we could also detect a higher level of activated (Thr172-phosphorylated) AMPK, compared with wild-type cells. Our data suggest a differentiation-dependent association of plectin with AMPK, where plectin selectively stabilises alpha1-gamma1 AMPK complexes by binding to the gamma1 regulatory subunit. The distinct plectin expression patterns in different fibre types combined with its involvement in the regulation of isoform compositions of AMPK complexes could provide a mechanism whereby cytoarchitecture influences energy homeostasis.

Inhibition of mechanosensitive cation channels inhibits myogenic differentiation by suppressing the expression of myogenic regulatory factors and caspase-3 activity

Mechanosensitive cation channels (MSC) are ubiquitous in eukaryotic cell types. However, the physiological functions of MSC in several tissues remain in question. In this study we have investigated the role of MSC in skeletal myogenesis. Treatment of C2C12 myoblasts with gadolinium ions (MSC blocker) inhibited myotube formation and the myogenic index in differentiation medium (DM). The enzymatic activity of creatine kinase (CK) and the expression of myosin heavy chain-fast twitch (MyHCf) in C2C12 cultures were also blocked in response to gadolinium. Treatment of C2C12 myoblasts with gadolinium ions did not affect the expression of either cyclin A or cyclin D1 in DM. Other inhibitors of MSC such as streptomycin and GsTMx-4 also suppressed the expression of CK and MyHCf in C2C12 cultures. The inhibitory effect of gadolinium ions on myogenic differentiation was reversible and independent of myogenic cell type. Real-time-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that inhibition of MSC decreases the expression of myogenic transcription factors MyoD, myogenin, and Myf-5. Furthermore, the activity of skeletal alpha-actin promoter was suppressed on MSC blockade. Treatment of C2C12 myoblasts with gadolinium ions prevented differentiation-associated cell death and inhibited the cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and activation of caspase-3. On the other hand, delivery of active caspase-3 protein to C2C12 myoblasts reversed the inhibitory effect of gadolinium ions on myogenesis. Our data suggest that inhibition of MSC suppresses myogenic differentiation by inhibiting the caspase-3 activity and the expression of myogenic regulatory factors.

p38-dependent phosphorylation of the mRNA decay-promoting factor KSRP controls the stability of select myogenic transcripts

Transcriptional and posttranscriptional processes regulate expression of genetic networks in response to environmental cues. The extracellular signal-activated p38 MAP kinase (p38) pathway plays a fundamental role in conversion of myoblasts to differentiated myocytes. p38 phosphorylates specific transcription factors and chromatin-associated proteins promoting assembly of the myogenic transcriptome. Here, we demonstrate that p38 alpha and beta isoforms also control muscle-gene expression posttranscriptionally, by stabilizing critical myogenic transcripts. KSRP, an important factor for AU-rich element (ARE)-directed mRNA decay, undergoes p38-dependent phosphorylation during muscle differentiation. KSRP phosphorylated by p38 displays compromised binding to ARE-containing transcripts and fails to promote their rapid decay, although it retains the ability to interact with the mRNA degradation machinery. Overexpression of KSRP selectively impairs induction of ARE-containing early myogenic transcripts, without affecting p38-mediated transcriptional responses. Our results uncover an unanticipated role for KSRP in establishing a biochemical link between differentiation-activated p38 signaling and turnover of myogenic mRNAs.

The amphoterin (HMGB1)/receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) pair modulates myoblast proliferation, apoptosis, adhesiveness, migration, and invasiveness. Functional inactivation of RAGE in L6 myoblasts results in tumor formation in vivo

We reported that RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products), a multiligand receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily expressed in myoblasts, when activated by its ligand amphoterin (HMGB1), stimulates rat L6 myoblast differentiation via a Cdc42-Rac-MKK6-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, and that RAGE expression in skeletal muscle tissue is developmentally regulated. We show here that inhibition of RAGE function via overexpression of a signaling deficient RAGE mutant (RAGE delta cyto) results in increased myoblast proliferation, migration, and invasiveness, and decreased apoptosis and adhesiveness, whereas myoblasts overexpressing RAGE behave the opposite, compared with mock-transfected myoblasts. These effects are accompanied by a decreased induction of the proliferation inhibitor, p21(Waf1), and increased induction of cyclin D1 and extent of Rb, ERK1/2, and JNK phosphorylation in L6/RAGE delta cyto myoblasts, the opposite occurring in L6/RAGE myoblasts. Neutralization of culture medium amphoterin negates effects of RAGE activation, suggesting that amphoterin is the RAGE ligand involved in RAGE-dependent effects in myoblasts. Finally, mice injected with L6/RAGE delta cyto myoblasts develop tumors as opposed to mice injected with L6/RAGE or L6/mock myoblasts that do not. Thus, the amphoterin/RAGE pair stimulates myoblast differentiation by the combined effect of stimulation of differentiation and inhibition of proliferation, and deregulation of RAGE expression in myoblasts might contribute to their neoplastic transformation.

Regulation of skeletal muscle gene expression by p38 MAP kinases

The formation of skeletal muscle is a multistep process orchestrated by the basic helix-loop-helix myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs). A wide array of proteins can interact with the MRFs, resulting in either induction or repression of their myogenic potential and subsequent MRF-mediated muscle-specific transcription. Findings published over the past few years have unambiguously established a key role for the p38 MAP kinase pathway in the control of muscle gene expression at different stages of the myogenic process. Here, we discuss the mechanisms by which p38 MAP kinase controls skeletal muscle differentiation by regulating the sequential activation of MRFs and their transcriptional coactivators, including chromatin remodeling enzymes.

p21WAF1 expression induced by MEK/ERK pathway activation or inhibition correlates with growth arrest, myogenic differentiation and onco-phenotype reversal in rhabdomyosarcoma cells

Background

p21^WAF1, implicated in the cell cycle control of both normal and malignant cells, can be induced by p53-dependent and independent mechanisms. In some cells, MEKs/ERKs regulate p21^WAF1 transcriptionally, while in others they also affect the post-transcriptional processes. In myogenic differentiation, p21^WAF1 expression is also controlled by the myogenic transcription factor MyoD. We have previously demonstrated that the embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma cell line undergoes growth arrest and myogenic differentiation following treatments with TPA and the MEK inhibitor U0126, which respectively activate and inhibit the ERK pathway.

In this paper we attempt to clarify the mechanism of ERK-mediated and ERK-independent growth arrest and myogenic differentiation of embryonal and alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines, particularly as regards the expression of the cell cycle inhibitor p21^WAF1.

Results

p21^WAF1 expression and growth arrest are induced in both embryonal (RD) and alveolar (RH30) rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines following TPA or MEK/ERK inhibitor (U0126) treatments, whereas myogenic differentiation is induced in RD cells alone. Furthermore, the TPA-mediated post-transcriptional mechanism of p21^WAF1-enhanced expression in RD cells is due to activation of the MEK/ERK pathway, as shown by transfections with constitutively active MEK1 or MEK2, which induces p21^WAF1 expression, and with ERK1 and ERK2 siRNA, which prevents p21^WAF1 expression. By contrast, U0126-mediated p21^WAF1 expression is controlled transcriptionally by the p38 pathway. Similarly, myogenin and MyoD expression is induced both by U0126 and TPA and is prevented by p38 inhibition. Although MyoD and myogenin depletion by siRNA prevents U0126-mediated p21^WAF1 expression, the over-expression of these two transcription factors is insufficient to induce p21^WAF1. These data suggest that the transcriptional mechanism of p21^WAF1 expression in RD cells is rescued when MEK/ERK inhibition relieves the functions of myogenic transcription factors. Notably, the forced expression of p21^WAF1 in RD cells causes growth arrest and the reversion of anchorage-independent growth.

Conclusion

Our data provide evidence of the key role played by the MEK/ERK pathway in the growth arrest of Rhabdomyosarcoma cells. The results of this study suggest that the targeting of MEK/ERKs to rescue p21^WAF1 expression and myogenic transcription factor functions leads to the reversal of the Rhabdomyosarcoma phenotype.

p38 MAP kinase regulates the expression of XMyf5 and affects distinct myogenic programs during Xenopus development

The p38 MAPK signaling pathway is essential for skeletal muscle differentiation in tissue culture models. We demonstrate a novel role for p38 MAPK in myogenesis during early Xenopus laevis development. Interfering with p38 MAPK causes distinct defects in myogenesis. The initial expression of Myf5 is selectively blocked, while expression of MyoD is unaffected. Expression of a subset of muscle structural genes is reduced. Convergent extension movements are prevented and segmentation of the paraxial mesoderm is delayed, probably due to the failure of cells to withdraw from the cell cycle. Myotubes are properly formed; however, at later stages, they begin to degenerate, and the boundaries between somites disappear. Significant apoptotic cell death occurs in most parts of the somites. The ventral body wall muscle derived from migratory progenitor cells of the ventral somite region is poorly formed. Our data indicate that the developmental defects caused by p38alpha-knockdown were mediated by the loss of XMyf5 expression. Thus, this study identifies a specific intracellular pathway in which p38 MAPK and Myf5 proteins regulate a distinct myogenic program.

Regulation of vertebrate myotome development by the p38 MAP kinase-MEF2 signaling pathway

Biochemical and cell culture studies have characterized the myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) transcriptional regulatory proteins as obligatory partners for the myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) in the differentiation of myogenic cells in culture. However, the role of MEF2 activation in somitic myogenesis has not been fully characterized. Here, we report a critical interaction between the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and MEF2 in the developing somite myotome. We document expression of MEF2A and p38 MAPK proteins in the somite of 9.5 dpc mouse embryos concurrent with Myf 5 protein expression. We also observed that abrogation of p38 MAPK signaling blocks MEF2 activation using a MEF2 transgenic 'sensor' mouse. Inhibition of p38 MAPK signaling concurrently inhibited myogenic differentiation in somite cultures and in embryos in vivo using transplacental injection of a p38 inhibitor (SB203580). Finally, we document that commitment to the myogenic lineage is not appreciably affected by p38 MAPK inhibition since the activation of an early marker of myogenic commitment (Myf 5) occurs normally when p38 MAPK signaling is inhibited. Thus, we present novel evidence indicating a crucial role for p38 MAPK signaling to the MEF2 transcriptional regulators during early mammalian somite development and myotome formation.

Role of TNF-{alpha} signaling in regeneration of cardiotoxin-injured muscle

Recent data suggest a physiological role for the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha in skeletal muscle regeneration. However, the underlying mechanism is not understood. In the present study, we analyzed TNF-alpha-activated signaling pathways involved in myogenesis in soleus muscle injured by cardiotoxin (CTX) in TNF-alpha receptor double-knockout mice (p55(-/-)p75(-/-)). We found that activation of p38MAPK, which is critical for myogenesis, was blocked in CTX-injured p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus on day 3 postinjury when myogenic differentiation was being initiated, while activation of ERK1/2 and JNK MAPK, as well as transcription factor NF-kappaB, was not reduced. Consequently, the phosphorylation of transcription factor myocyte enhancer factor-2C, which is catalyzed by p38 and crucial for the expression of muscle-specific genes, was blunted. Meanwhile, expression of p38-dependent differentiation marker myogenin and p21 were suppressed. In addition, expression of cyclin D1 was fivefold that in wild-type (WT) soleus. These results suggest that myogenic differentiation is blocked or delayed in the absence of TNF-alpha signaling. Histological studies revealed abnormalities in regenerating p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus. On day 5 postinjury, new myofiber formation was clearly observed in WT soleus but not in p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus. To the contrary, p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus displayed renewed inflammation and dystrophic calcification. On day 12 postinjury, the muscle architecture of WT soleus was largely restored. Yet, in p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus, multifocal areas of inflammation, myofiber death, and myofibers with smaller cross-sectional area were observed. Functional studies demonstrated an attenuated recovery of contractile force in injured p55(-/-)p75(-/-) soleus. These data suggest that TNF-alpha signaling plays a critical regulatory role in muscle regeneration.

Modulation of tyrosine phosphorylation signalling pathways by 1alpha,25(OH)2-vitamin D3

Hormonally active vitamin D(3), 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3), interacts with the classic vitamin D nuclear receptor that regulates gene transcription and with a putative cell membrane receptor that mediates rapid biological responses. 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) actions on target tissues regulate: mineral metabolism and intracellular Ca(2+); protein kinase cascades leading to cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis; muscle growth and contractility; and the immune system. There is evidence for underlying 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3)-mediated protein tyrosine phosphorylation signalling in bone, intestine, muscle, epidermal and cancer cells. Extracellular-signal-regulated kinases-1/2, p38 and/or c-jun N-terminal kinase pathways play important roles in mediating 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) actions. Studies to elucidate key regulatory metabolic steps and crosstalk sites in these pathways would enhance our understanding of the significance of tyrosine phosphorylation cascades in normal 1alpha,25(OH)(2)D(3) physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology.

Signaling to the chromatin during skeletal myogenesis: Novel targets for pharmacological modulation of gene expression

Cellular differentiation entails an extensive reprogramming of the genome toward the expression of discrete subsets of genes, which establish the tissue-specific phenotype. This program is achieved by epigenetic marks of the chromatin at particular loci, and is regulated by environmental cues, such as soluble factors and cell-to-cell interactions. How the intracellular cascades convert the myriad of external stimuli into the nuclear information necessary to reprogram the genome toward specific responses is a question of biological and medical interest. The elucidation of the signaling converting cues from outside the cells into chromatin modifications at individual promoters holds the promise to unveil the targets for selective pharmacological interventions to modulate gene expression for therapeutic purposes. Enhancing muscle regeneration and preventing muscle breakdown are important goals in the therapy of muscular diseases, cancer-associated cachexia and aging-associated sarcopenia. We will summarize the recent progress of our knowledge of the regulation of gene expression by intracellular cascades elicited by external cues during skeletal myogenesis. And will illustrate the potential importance of targeting the chromatin signaling in regenerative medicine--e.g. to boost muscle regeneration.