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Klooster DCW, de Louw AJA, Aldenkamp AP, Besseling RMH, Mestrom RMC, Carrette S, Zinger S, Bergmans JWM, Mess WH, Vonck K, Carrette E, Breuer LEM, Bernas A, Tijhuis AG, Boon P. Technical aspects of neurostimulation: Focus on equipment, electric field modeling, and stimulation protocols. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 65:113-41. [PMID: 27021215 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Neuromodulation is a field of science, medicine, and bioengineering that encompasses implantable and non-implantable technologies for the purpose of improving quality of life and functioning of humans. Brain neuromodulation involves different neurostimulation techniques: transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), and deep brain stimulation (DBS), which are being used both to study their effects on cognitive brain functions and to treat neuropsychiatric disorders. The mechanisms of action of neurostimulation remain incompletely understood. Insight into the technical basis of neurostimulation might be a first step towards a more profound understanding of these mechanisms, which might lead to improved clinical outcome and therapeutic potential. This review provides an overview of the technical basis of neurostimulation focusing on the equipment, the present understanding of induced electric fields, and the stimulation protocols. The review is written from a technical perspective aimed at supporting the use of neurostimulation in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- D C W Klooster
- Kempenhaeghe Academic Center for Epileptology, P.O. Box 61, 5590 AB Heeze, The Netherlands; Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - A J A de Louw
- Kempenhaeghe Academic Center for Epileptology, P.O. Box 61, 5590 AB Heeze, The Netherlands; Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Department of Neurology, Maastricht University Medical Center, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - A P Aldenkamp
- Kempenhaeghe Academic Center for Epileptology, P.O. Box 61, 5590 AB Heeze, The Netherlands; Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Department of Neurology, Maastricht University Medical Center, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands; School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Neurology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - R M H Besseling
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - R M C Mestrom
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - S Carrette
- Department of Neurology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - S Zinger
- Kempenhaeghe Academic Center for Epileptology, P.O. Box 61, 5590 AB Heeze, The Netherlands; Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - J W M Bergmans
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - W H Mess
- Departments of Clinical Neurophysiology, Maastricht University Medical Center, P.O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - K Vonck
- Department of Neurology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - E Carrette
- Department of Neurology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - L E M Breuer
- Kempenhaeghe Academic Center for Epileptology, P.O. Box 61, 5590 AB Heeze, The Netherlands.
| | - A Bernas
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - A G Tijhuis
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
| | - P Boon
- Kempenhaeghe Academic Center for Epileptology, P.O. Box 61, 5590 AB Heeze, The Netherlands; Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology Eindhoven, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands; Department of Neurology, Ghent University Hospital, De Pintelaan 185, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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302
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A systematic review of the clinical efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in psychiatric disorders. J Psychiatr Res 2016; 74:70-86. [PMID: 26765514 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique, which can be used to selectively disrupt patterns of neural activity that are associated with symptoms of mental illness. tDCS has been implemented in numerous therapeutic trials across a range of patient populations, with a rapidly increasing number of studies being published each year. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the efficacy of tDCS in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Four electronic databases were searched from inception until December 2015 by two independent reviewers, and 66 eligible studies were identified. Depression was the most extensively researched condition, followed by schizophrenia and substance use disorders. Data on obsessive compulsive disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, and anorexia nervosa were also obtained. The quality of included studies was appraised using a standardised assessment framework, which yielded a median score corresponding to "weak" on the three-point scale. This improved to "moderate" when case reports/series were excluded from the analysis. Overall, data suggested that tDCS interventions comprising multiple sessions can ameliorate symptoms of several major psychiatric disorders, both acutely and in the long-term. Nevertheless, the tDCS field is still in its infancy, and several methodological and ethical issues must be addressed before clinical efficacy can truly be determined. Studies probing the mechanisms of action of tDCS and those facilitating the definition of optimised stimulation protocols are warranted. Furthermore, evidence from large-scale, multi-centre randomised controlled trials is required if the transition of this therapy from the laboratory to the clinic is to be considered.
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303
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Akhtar H, Bukhari F, Nazir M, Anwar MN, Shahzad A. Therapeutic Efficacy of Neurostimulation for Depression: Techniques, Current Modalities, and Future Challenges. Neurosci Bull 2016; 32:115-26. [PMID: 26781880 PMCID: PMC5563754 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-015-0009-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Depression is the most prevalent debilitating mental illness; it is characterized as a disorder of mood, cognitive function, and neurovegetative function. About one in ten individuals experience depression at some stage of their lives. Antidepressant drugs are used to reduce the symptoms but relapse occurs in ~20% of patients. However, alternate therapies like brain stimulation techniques have shown promising results in this regard. This review covers the brain stimulation techniques electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial direct current stimulation, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation, and deep brain stimulation, which are used as alternatives to antidepressant drugs, and elucidates their research and clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafsah Akhtar
- Human Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Faiza Bukhari
- Human Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Misbah Nazir
- Human Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Nabeel Anwar
- Human Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan.
| | - Adeeb Shahzad
- Human Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Sector H-12, Islamabad, 44000, Pakistan
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304
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Brietzke AP, Rozisky JR, Dussan-Sarria JA, Deitos A, Laste G, Hoppe PFT, Muller S, Torres ILS, Alvares-da-Silva MR, de Amorim RFB, Fregni F, Caumo W. Neuroplastic Effects of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Painful Symptoms Reduction in Chronic Hepatitis C: A Phase II Randomized, Double Blind, Sham Controlled Trial. Front Neurosci 2016; 9:498. [PMID: 26793047 PMCID: PMC4707227 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Pegylated Interferon Alpha (Peg-IFN) in combination with other drugs is the standard treatment for chronic hepatitis C infection (HCV) and is related to severe painful symptoms. The aim of this study was access the efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in controlling the painful symptoms related to Peg-IFN side effects. Materials and Methods: In this phase II double-blind trial, twenty eight (n = 28) HCV subjects were randomized to receive either 5 consecutive days of active tDCS (n = 14) or sham (n = 14) during 5 consecutive days with anodal stimulation over the primary motor cortex region using 2 mA for 20 min. The primary outcomes were visual analogue scale (VAS) pain and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) serum levels. Secondary outcomes were the pressure-pain threshold (PPT), the Brazilian Profile of Chronic Pain: Screen (B-PCP:S), and drug analgesics use. Results: tDCS reduced the VAS scores (P < 0.003), with a mean pain drop of 56% (p < 0.001). Furthermore, tDCS was able to enhance BDNF levels (p < 0.01). The mean increase was 37.48% in the active group. Finally, tDCS raised PPT (p < 0.001) and reduced the B-PCP:S scores and analgesic use (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Five sessions of tDCS were effective in reducing the painful symptoms in HCV patients undergoing Peg-IFN treatment. These findings support the efficacy of tDCS as a promising therapeutic tool to improve the tolerance of the side effects related to the use of Peg-IFN. Future larger studies (phase III and IV trials) are needed to confirm the clinical use of the therapeutic effects of tDCS in such condition. Trial registration: Brazilian Human Health Regulator for Research with the approval number CAAE 07802012.0.0000.5327.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline P Brietzke
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Joanna R Rozisky
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Jairo A Dussan-Sarria
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Alicia Deitos
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Laste
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Priscila F T Hoppe
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Suzana Muller
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Iraci L S Torres
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Mário R Alvares-da-Silva
- Department of Internal Medicine (Gastroenterology/Hepatology), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Rivadavio F B de Amorim
- Laboratory of Neuromodulation and Center for Clinical Research Learning, Physics and Rehabilitation Department, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital Boston, MA, USA
| | - Felipe Fregni
- Laboratory of Neuromodulation and Center for Clinical Research Learning, Physics and Rehabilitation Department, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital Boston, MA, USA
| | - Wolnei Caumo
- Laboratory of Pain and Neuromodulation, Department of Clinical Research Center, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, Brazil
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305
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Accoto D, Valentini S, Portaccio I, Guglielmelli E. A theoretical framework for studying the electromagnetic stimulation of nervous tissue. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2016; 2015:2079-82. [PMID: 26736697 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2015.7318797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In this paper we present a model for calculating the electric field, and its spatial derivatives, produced by arbitrarily shaped, oriented and placed coils carrying time-varying currents. The model has been validated by comparing its results with those obtained using FEM simulations. The model provides a simple and fast computation framework to investigate the electromagnetic stimulation of neural tissues. Some example applications are also provided.
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306
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Wang KS, Smith DV, Delgado MR. Using fMRI to study reward processing in humans: past, present, and future. J Neurophysiol 2016; 115:1664-78. [PMID: 26740530 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00333.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a noninvasive tool used to probe cognitive and affective processes. Although fMRI provides indirect measures of neural activity, the advent of fMRI has allowed for1) the corroboration of significant animal findings in the human brain, and2) the expansion of models to include more common human attributes that inform behavior. In this review, we briefly consider the neural basis of the blood oxygenation level dependent signal to set up a discussion of how fMRI studies have applied it in examining cognitive models in humans and the promise of using fMRI to advance such models. Specifically, we illustrate the contribution that fMRI has made to the study of reward processing, focusing on the role of the striatum in encoding reward-related learning signals that drive anticipatory and consummatory behaviors. For instance, we discuss how fMRI can be used to link neural signals (e.g., striatal responses to rewards) to individual differences in behavior and traits. While this functional segregation approach has been constructive to our understanding of reward-related functions, many fMRI studies have also benefitted from a functional integration approach that takes into account how interconnected regions (e.g., corticostriatal circuits) contribute to reward processing. We contend that future work using fMRI will profit from using a multimodal approach, such as combining fMRI with noninvasive brain stimulation tools (e.g., transcranial electrical stimulation), that can identify causal mechanisms underlying reward processing. Consequently, advancements in implementing fMRI will promise new translational opportunities to inform our understanding of psychopathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kainan S Wang
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey; and
| | - David V Smith
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Mauricio R Delgado
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey; and Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
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307
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Lavidor M. tES Stimulation as a Tool to Investigate Cognitive Processes in Healthy Individuals. EUROPEAN PSYCHOLOGIST 2016. [DOI: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Abstract. This paper is aimed at providing an introduction to up-to-date noninvasive brain stimulation tools that have been successful in modulating higher-level cognitive functions in healthy individuals. The current review focuses on transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) studies aiming to explore cognitive models from an experimental rather than clinical viewpoint. It focuses primarily on major advances in language, working memory, learning, response inhibition, and other executive functions in healthy individuals, and the use of different methods of electrical brain stimulation such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), and transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS). The final section summarizes the scientific novelty of the reviewed papers and discusses the possible roles of brain stimulation in future experimental research and clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Lavidor
- Department of Psychology, The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
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308
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Valiengo L, Casati R, Bolognini N, Lotufo PA, Benseñor IM, Goulart AC, Brunoni AR. Transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of post-stroke depression in aphasic patients: a case series. Neurocase 2016; 22:225-8. [PMID: 26743441 DOI: 10.1080/13554794.2015.1130231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Aphasia is a common consequence of stroke; it is estimated that about two-thirds of aphasic patients will develop depression in the first year after the stroke. Treatment of post-stroke depression (PSD) is challenging due to the adverse effects of pharmacotherapy and difficulties in evaluating clinical outcomes, including aphasia. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a novel treatment that may improve clinical outcomes in the traditionally pharmacotherapy-refractory PSD. Our aim was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tDCS for patients with PSD and with aphasia. The Stroke Aphasic Depression Questionnaire (SADQ) and the Aphasic Depression Rating Scale (ADRS) were used to evaluate the severity of PSD. The diagnoses of PSD and aphasia were confirmed by a psychiatrist and a speech-language pathologist, respectively. In this open case series, patients (n = 4) received 10 sessions (once a day) of bilateral tDCS to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and two additional sessions after two and four weeks, for a total of 12 sessions. All patients exhibited improvement in depression after tDCS, as indicated by a decrease in SADQ (47.5%) and in ADRS (65.7%). This improvement was maintained four weeks after the treatment. In this preliminary, open-label study conducted in four PSD patients with aphasia, bilateral tDCS over the DLPFC was shown to induce a substantial mood improvement; tDCS was safe and well tolerated by every patient. Stroke patients with aphasia can be safely treated for PSD with tDCS. Sham-controlled studies are necessary to evaluate this technique further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro Valiengo
- a Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research & Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Neuromodulation (CINA) , University Hospital, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.,b Service of Interdisciplinary Neuromodulation (SIN), Department and Institute of Psychiatry , Faculty of Medicine of University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.,c Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM27), Department and Institute of Psychiatry , University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Roberta Casati
- a Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research & Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Neuromodulation (CINA) , University Hospital, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.,b Service of Interdisciplinary Neuromodulation (SIN), Department and Institute of Psychiatry , Faculty of Medicine of University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.,d Department of Psychology , University of Milano-Bicocca , Milan , Italy
| | - Nadia Bolognini
- d Department of Psychology , University of Milano-Bicocca , Milan , Italy.,e Laboratory of Neuropsychology , IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano , Milan , Italy
| | - Paulo A Lotufo
- a Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research & Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Neuromodulation (CINA) , University Hospital, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Isabela M Benseñor
- a Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research & Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Neuromodulation (CINA) , University Hospital, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Alessandra C Goulart
- a Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research & Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Neuromodulation (CINA) , University Hospital, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - André R Brunoni
- a Center for Clinical and Epidemiological Research & Interdisciplinary Center for Applied Neuromodulation (CINA) , University Hospital, University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.,b Service of Interdisciplinary Neuromodulation (SIN), Department and Institute of Psychiatry , Faculty of Medicine of University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil.,c Laboratory of Neuroscience (LIM27), Department and Institute of Psychiatry , University of São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
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309
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310
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Pisegna JM, Kaneoka A, Pearson WG, Kumar S, Langmore SE. Effects of non-invasive brain stimulation on post-stroke dysphagia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Neurophysiol 2016; 127:956-968. [PMID: 26070517 PMCID: PMC5326549 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2015.04.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The primary aim of this review is to evaluate the effects of non-invasive brain stimulation on post-stroke dysphagia. METHODS Thirteen databases were systematically searched through July 2014. Studies had to meet pre-specified inclusion and exclusion criteria. Each study's methodological quality was examined. Effect sizes were calculated from extracted data and combined for an overall summary statistic. RESULTS Eight randomized controlled trials were included. These trials revealed a significant, moderate pooled effect size (0.55; 95% CI=0.17, 0.93; p=0.004). Studies stimulating the affected hemisphere had a combined effect size of 0.46 (95% CI=-0.18, 1.11; p=0.16); studies stimulating the unaffected hemisphere had a combined effect size of 0.65 (95% CI=0.14, 1.16; p=0.01). At long-term follow up, three studies demonstrated a large but non-significant pooled effect size (0.81, p=0.11). CONCLUSIONS This review found evidence for the efficacy of non-invasive brain stimulation on post-stroke dysphagia. A significant effect size resulted when stimulating the unaffected rather than the affected hemisphere. This finding is in agreement with previous studies implicating the plasticity of cortical neurons in the unaffected hemisphere. SIGNIFICANCE Non-invasive brain stimulation appears to assist cortical reorganization in post-stroke dysphagia but emerging factors highlight the need for more data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica M Pisegna
- Boston University Medical Center, FGH Building 820 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02118, United States; Boston University, Sargent College, 635 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, United States.
| | - Asako Kaneoka
- Boston University Medical Center, FGH Building 820 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02118, United States; Boston University, Sargent College, 635 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, United States.
| | - William G Pearson
- Georgia Regents University, 1120 15th St., Augusta, GA 30912, United States.
| | - Sandeep Kumar
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 330 Brookline Ave., Boston, MA 02215, United States.
| | - Susan E Langmore
- Boston University Medical Center, FGH Building 820 Harrison Ave., Boston, MA 02118, United States; Boston University, Sargent College, 635 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, United States.
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311
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Ono K, Mikami Y, Fukuyama H, Mima T. Motion-induced disturbance of auditory-motor synchronization and its modulation by transcranial direct current stimulation. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 43:509-15. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Ono
- Human Brain Research Center; Graduate School of Medicine; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8507 Japan
| | - Yusuke Mikami
- Human Brain Research Center; Graduate School of Medicine; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8507 Japan
| | - Hidenao Fukuyama
- Human Brain Research Center; Graduate School of Medicine; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8507 Japan
| | - Tatsuya Mima
- Human Brain Research Center; Graduate School of Medicine; Kyoto University; Kyoto 606-8507 Japan
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312
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Oberman LM, Enticott PG, Casanova MF, Rotenberg A, Pascual-Leone A, McCracken JT. Transcranial magnetic stimulation in autism spectrum disorder: Challenges, promise, and roadmap for future research. Autism Res 2015; 9:184-203. [PMID: 26536383 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2015] [Revised: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a behaviorally defined complex neurodevelopmental syndrome characterized by impairments in social communication, by the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviors, interests and activities, and by abnormalities in sensory reactivity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a promising, emerging tool for the study and potential treatment of ASD. Recent studies suggest that TMS measures provide rapid and noninvasive pathophysiological ASD biomarkers. Furthermore, repetitive TMS (rTMS) may represent a novel treatment strategy for reducing some of the core and associated ASD symptoms. However, the available literature on the TMS use in ASD is preliminary, composed of studies with methodological limitations. Thus, off-label clinical rTMS use for therapeutic interventions in ASD without an investigational device exemption and outside of an IRB approved research trial is premature pending further, adequately powered and controlled trials. Leaders in this field have gathered annually for a two-day conference (prior to the 2014 and 2015 International Meeting for Autism Research, IMFAR) to share recent progress, promote collaboration across laboratories, and establish consensus on protocols. Here we review the literature in the use of TMS in ASD in the context of the unique challenges required for the study and exploration of treatment strategies in this population. We also suggest future directions for this field of investigations. While its true potential in ASD has yet to be delineated, TMS represents an innovative research tool and a novel, possibly transformative approach to the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay M Oberman
- Neuroplasticity and Autism Spectrum Disorder Program and Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, E.P. Bradley Hospital and Warren Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode, Island
| | - Peter G Enticott
- Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Burwood, Victoria, Australia
| | - Manuel F Casanova
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Alexander Rotenberg
- Neuromodulation Program, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Alvaro Pascual-Leone
- Neuromodulation Program, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.,Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - James T McCracken
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California
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Shpektor A, Bartrés-Faz D, Feurra M. Commentary: Duration-dependent effects of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism on anodal tDCS induced motor cortex plasticity in older adults: a group and individual perspective. Front Aging Neurosci 2015; 7:183. [PMID: 26441642 PMCID: PMC4585066 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Shpektor
- School of Psychology, Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, National Research University Higher School of Economics Moscow, Russia
| | - David Bartrés-Faz
- Department of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychobiology, University of Barcelona Barcelona, Spain
| | - Matteo Feurra
- School of Psychology, Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, National Research University Higher School of Economics Moscow, Russia ; Unit of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology, Brain Investigation and Neuromodulation laboratory (Si-BIN Lab), Department of Medicine, Surgery and Neuroscience, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria of Siena Siena, Italy
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Edelman BJ, Johnson N, Sohrabpour A, Tong S, Thakor N, He B. Systems Neuroengineering: Understanding and Interacting with the Brain. ENGINEERING (BEIJING, CHINA) 2015; 1:292-308. [PMID: 34336364 PMCID: PMC8323844 DOI: 10.15302/j-eng-2015078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we review the current state-of-the-art techniques used for understanding the inner workings of the brain at a systems level. The neural activity that governs our everyday lives involves an intricate coordination of many processes that can be attributed to a variety of brain regions. On the surface, many of these functions can appear to be controlled by specific anatomical structures; however, in reality, numerous dynamic networks within the brain contribute to its function through an interconnected web of neuronal and synaptic pathways. The brain, in its healthy or pathological state, can therefore be best understood by taking a systems-level approach. While numerous neuroengineering technologies exist, we focus here on three major thrusts in the field of systems neuroengineering: neuroimaging, neural interfacing, and neuromodulation. Neuroimaging enables us to delineate the structural and functional organization of the brain, which is key in understanding how the neural system functions in both normal and disease states. Based on such knowledge, devices can be used either to communicate with the neural system, as in neural interface systems, or to modulate brain activity, as in neuromodulation systems. The consideration of these three fields is key to the development and application of neuro-devices. Feedback-based neuro-devices require the ability to sense neural activity (via a neuroimaging modality) through a neural interface (invasive or noninvasive) and ultimately to select a set of stimulation parameters in order to alter neural function via a neuromodulation modality. Systems neuroengineering refers to the use of engineering tools and technologies to image, decode, and modulate the brain in order to comprehend its functions and to repair its dysfunction. Interactions between these fields will help to shape the future of systems neuroengineering-to develop neurotechniques for enhancing the understanding of whole-brain function and dysfunction, and the management of neurological and mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley J. Edelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Nessa Johnson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Abbas Sohrabpour
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Shanbao Tong
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Nitish Thakor
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- SINAPSE Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Bin He
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Institute for Engineering in Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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315
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Jacquin-Courtois S. Hemi-spatial neglect rehabilitation using non-invasive brain stimulation: Or how to modulate the disconnection syndrome? Ann Phys Rehabil Med 2015; 58:251-258. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rehab.2015.07.388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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316
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Vaghefi E, Cai P, Fang F, Byblow WD, Stinear CM, Thompson B. MRI Guided Brain Stimulation without the Use of a Neuronavigation System. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:647510. [PMID: 26413537 PMCID: PMC4564628 DOI: 10.1155/2015/647510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Revised: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A key issue in the field of noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) is the accurate localization of scalp positions that correspond to targeted cortical areas. The current gold standard is to combine structural and functional brain imaging with a commercially available "neuronavigation" system. However, neuronavigation systems are not commonplace outside of specialized research environments. Here we describe a technique that allows for the use of participant-specific functional and structural MRI data to guide NIBS without a neuronavigation system. Surface mesh representations of the head were generated using Brain Voyager and vectors linking key anatomical landmarks were drawn on the mesh. Our technique was then used to calculate the precise distances on the scalp corresponding to these vectors. These calculations were verified using actual measurements of the head and the technique was used to identify a scalp position corresponding to a brain area localized using functional MRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehsan Vaghefi
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Auckland, Building 502, Level 4, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland 1023, New Zealand
| | - Peng Cai
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Haidian Road, Haidian, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Fang Fang
- Department of Psychology, Peking University, Haidian Road, Haidian, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Winston D. Byblow
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Auckland, Symonds Street, Auckland 1023, New Zealand
| | - Cathy M. Stinear
- Department of Medicine, University of Auckland, Symonds Street, Auckland 1023, New Zealand
| | - Benjamin Thompson
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Auckland, Building 502, Level 4, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland 1023, New Zealand
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of Waterloo, 200 Columbia Street W, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1
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317
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Chang WJ, Bennell KL, Hodges PW, Hinman RS, Liston MB, Schabrun SM. Combined exercise and transcranial direct current stimulation intervention for knee osteoarthritis: protocol for a pilot randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open 2015; 5:e008482. [PMID: 26297371 PMCID: PMC4550738 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major health problem and a leading cause of disability. The knee joint is commonly affected, resulting in pain and physical dysfunction. Exercise is considered the cornerstone of conservative management, yet meta-analyses indicate, at best, moderate effect sizes. Treatments that bolster the effects of exercise, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), may improve outcomes in knee OA. The aims of this pilot study are to (1) determine the feasibility, safety and perceived patient response to a combined tDCS and exercise intervention in knee OA, and (2) provide data to support a sample size calculation for a fully-powered trial should trends of effectiveness be present. METHODS AND ANALYSIS A pilot randomised, assessor-blind and participant-blind, sham-controlled trial. 20 individuals with knee OA who report a pain score of 40 or more on a 100 mm visual analogue scale on walking, and meet a priori selection criteria will be randomly allocated to receive either: (1) active tDCS plus exercise, or (2) sham tDCS plus exercise. All participants will receive 20 min of either active or sham tDCS immediately prior to 30 min of supervised muscle strengthening exercise twice a week for 8 weeks. Participants in both groups will also complete unsupervised home exercises twice per week. Outcome measures of feasibility, safety, pain, disability and pain system function will be assessed immediately before and after the 8-week intervention. Analyses of feasibility and safety will be performed using descriptive statistics. Statistical analyses will be used to determine trends of effectiveness and will be based on intention-to-treat as well as per protocol. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION This study was approved by the institutional ethics committee (H10184). Written informed consent will be obtained from all participants. The results of this study will be submitted for peer-reviewed publication. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER ANZCTR365331.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Ju Chang
- University of Western Sydney, School of Science and Health, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kim L Bennell
- The University of Melbourne, School of Health Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul W Hodges
- The University of Queensland, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rana S Hinman
- The University of Melbourne, School of Health Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Matthew B Liston
- University of Western Sydney, School of Science and Health, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Siobhan M Schabrun
- University of Western Sydney, School of Science and Health, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
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318
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Oberman LM, Rotenberg A, Pascual-Leone A. Use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45:524-36. [PMID: 24127165 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-1960-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The clinical, social and financial burden of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is staggering. We urgently need valid and reliable biomarkers for diagnosis and effective treatments targeting the often debilitating symptoms. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is beginning to be used by a number of centers worldwide and may represent a novel technique with both diagnostic and therapeutic potential. Here we critically review the current scientific evidence for the use of TMS in ASD. Though preliminary data suggests promise, there is simply not enough evidence yet to conclusively support the clinical widespread use of TMS in ASD, neither diagnostically nor therapeutically. Carefully designed and properly controlled clinical trials are warranted to evaluate the true potential of TMS in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay M Oberman
- Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, and Division of Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, 330 Brookline Avenue, KS 158, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
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319
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Nardone R, Höller Y, Taylor A, Thomschewski A, Orioli A, Frey V, Trinka E, Brigo F. Noninvasive Spinal Cord Stimulation: Technical Aspects and Therapeutic Applications. Neuromodulation 2015; 18:580-91; discussion 590-1. [DOI: 10.1111/ner.12332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2015] [Revised: 05/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Nardone
- Department of Neurology; Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience; Salzburg Austria
- Department of Neurology; Franz Tappeiner Hospital; Merano Italy
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center; Paracelsus Medical University; Salzburg Austria
| | - Yvonne Höller
- Department of Neurology; Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience; Salzburg Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center; Paracelsus Medical University; Salzburg Austria
| | - Alexandra Taylor
- Department of Neurology; Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience; Salzburg Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center; Paracelsus Medical University; Salzburg Austria
| | - Aljoscha Thomschewski
- Department of Neurology; Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience; Salzburg Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center; Paracelsus Medical University; Salzburg Austria
| | - Andrea Orioli
- Department of Neurology; Franz Tappeiner Hospital; Merano Italy
| | - Vanessa Frey
- Department of Neurology; Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience; Salzburg Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center; Paracelsus Medical University; Salzburg Austria
| | - Eugen Trinka
- Department of Neurology; Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience; Salzburg Austria
- Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center; Paracelsus Medical University; Salzburg Austria
| | - Francesco Brigo
- Department of Neurology; Franz Tappeiner Hospital; Merano Italy
- Department of Neurological and Movement Sciences. Section of Clinical Neurology; University of Verona; Verona Italy
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320
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Kyriakou A, Neufeld E, Werner B, Székely G, Kuster N. Full-wave acoustic and thermal modeling of transcranial ultrasound propagation and investigation of skull-induced aberration correction techniques: a feasibility study. J Ther Ultrasound 2015; 3:11. [PMID: 26236478 PMCID: PMC4521448 DOI: 10.1186/s40349-015-0032-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Accepted: 07/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Transcranial focused ultrasound (tcFUS) is an attractive noninvasive modality for neurosurgical interventions. The presence of the skull, however, compromises the efficiency of tcFUS therapy, as its heterogeneous nature and acoustic characteristics induce significant distortion of the acoustic energy deposition, focal shifts, and thermal gain decrease. Phased-array transducers allow for partial compensation of skull-induced aberrations by application of precalculated phase and amplitude corrections. Methods An integrated numerical framework allowing for 3D full-wave, nonlinear acoustic and thermal simulations has been developed and applied to tcFUS. Simulations were performed to investigate the impact of skull aberrations, the possibility of extending the treatment envelope, and adverse secondary effects. The simulated setup comprised an idealized model of the ExAblate Neuro and a detailed MR-based anatomical head model. Four different approaches were employed to calculate aberration corrections (analytical calculation of the aberration corrections disregarding tissue heterogeneities; a semi-analytical ray-tracing approach compensating for the presence of the skull; two simulation-based time-reversal approaches with and without pressure amplitude corrections which account for the entire anatomy). These impact of these approaches on the pressure and temperature distributions were evaluated for 22 brain-targets Results While (semi-)analytical approaches failed to induced high pressure or ablative temperatures in any but the targets in the close vicinity of the geometric focus, simulation-based approaches indicate the possibility of considerably extending the treatment envelope (including targets below the transducer level and locations several centimeters off the geometric focus), generation of sharper foci, and increased targeting accuracy. While the prediction of achievable aberration correction appears to be unaffected by the detailed bone-structure, proper consideration of inhomogeneity is required to predict the pressure distribution for given steering parameters Conclusions Simulation-based approaches to calculate aberration corrections may aid in the extension of the tcFUS treatment envelope as well as predict and avoid secondary effects (standing waves, skull heating). Due to their superior performance, simulationbased techniques may prove invaluable in the amelioration of skull-induced aberration effects in tcFUS therapy. The next steps are to investigate shear-wave-induced effects in order to reliably exclude secondary hot-spots, and to develop comprehensive uncertainty assessment and validation procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adamos Kyriakou
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS), Zeughausstrasse 43, Zürich, 8004 Switzerland ; Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zürich, Rämistrasse 101, Zürich, 8092 Switzerland
| | - Esra Neufeld
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS), Zeughausstrasse 43, Zürich, 8004 Switzerland
| | - Beat Werner
- Center for MR-Research, University Children's Hospital, Steinwiesstrasse 75, Zürich, 8032 Switzerland
| | - Gábor Székely
- Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zürich, Rämistrasse 101, Zürich, 8092 Switzerland
| | - Niels Kuster
- Foundation for Research on Information Technologies in Society (IT'IS), Zeughausstrasse 43, Zürich, 8004 Switzerland ; Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zürich, Rämistrasse 101, Zürich, 8092 Switzerland
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321
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Colombo B, Bartesaghi N, Simonelli L, Antonietti A. The combined effects of neurostimulation and priming on creative thinking. A preliminary tDCS study on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:403. [PMID: 26236219 PMCID: PMC4505103 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of prefrontal cortex (PFC) in influencing creative thinking has been investigated by many researchers who, while succeeding in proving an effective involvement of PFC, reported suggestive but sometimes conflicting results. In order to better understand the relationships between creative thinking and brain activation in a more specific area of the PFC, we explored the role of dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC). We devised an experimental protocol using transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS). The study was based on a 3 (kind of stimulation: anodal vs. cathodal vs. sham) × 2 (priming: divergent vs. convergent) design. Forty-five healthy adults were randomly assigned to one stimulation condition. Participants' creativity skills were assessed using the Product Improvement subtest from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT). After 20 min of tDCS stimulation, participants were presented with visual images of common objects. Half of the participants were instructed to visualize themselves using the object in an unusual way (divergent priming), whereas the other half were asked to visualize themselves while using the object in a common way (convergent priming). Priming was aimed at inducing participants to adopt different attitudes toward the creative task. Afterwards, participants were asked to describe all of the possible uses of the objects that were presented. Participants' physiological activation was recorded using a biofeedback equipment. Results showed a significant effect of anodal stimulation that enhanced creative performance, but only after divergent priming. Participants showed lower skin temperature values after cathodal stimulation, a finding which is coherent with studies reporting that, when a task is not creative or creative thinking is not prompted, people show lower levels of arousal. Differences in individual levels of creativity as assessed by the Product Improvement test were not influential. The involvement of DLPFC in creativity has been supported, presumably in association to shift of attention modulated by priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Colombo
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred HeartMilano, Italy
- Division of Education and Human Studies, Champlain CollegeBurlington, VT, USA
| | - Noemi Bartesaghi
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred HeartMilano, Italy
| | - Luisa Simonelli
- Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred HeartMilano, Italy
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322
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Harvey M, Kerkhoff G. Effects of non-invasive brain stimulation on attention: Current debates, cognitive studies and novel clinical applications. Neuropsychologia 2015; 74:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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323
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Cipollari S, Veniero D, Razzano C, Caltagirone C, Koch G, Marangolo P. Combining TMS-EEG with transcranial direct current stimulation language treatment in aphasia. Expert Rev Neurother 2015; 15:833-45. [PMID: 26109229 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2015.1049998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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324
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Shanahan CJ, Hodges PW, Wrigley TV, Bennell KL, Farrell MJ. Organisation of the motor cortex differs between people with and without knee osteoarthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2015; 17:164. [PMID: 26080802 PMCID: PMC4494800 DOI: 10.1186/s13075-015-0676-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The aim of this study was to investigate possible differences in the organisation of the motor cortex in people with knee osteoarthritis (OA) and whether there is an association between cortical organisation and accuracy of a motor task. Methods fMRI data were collected while 11 participants with moderate/severe right knee OA (6 male, 69 ± 6 (mean ± SD) years) and seven asymptomatic controls (5 male, 64 ± 6 years) performed three visually guided, variable force, force matching motor tasks involving isolated isometric muscle contractions of: 1) quadriceps (knee), 2) tibialis anterior (ankle) and, 3) finger/thumb flexor (hand) muscles. fMRI data were used to map the loci of peak activation in the motor cortex during the three tasks and to assess whether there were differences in the organisation of the motor cortex between the groups for the three motor tasks. Root mean square of the difference between target and generated forces during muscle contraction quantified task accuracy. Results A 4.1 mm anterior shift in the representation of the knee (p = 0.03) and swap of the relative position of the knee and ankle representations in the motor cortex (p = 0.003) were found in people with knee OA. Poorer performance of the knee task was associated with more anterior placement of motor cortex loci in people with (p = 0.05) and without (p = 0.02) knee OA. Conclusions Differences in the organisation of the motor cortex in knee OA was demonstrated in relation to performance of knee and ankle motor tasks and was related to quality of performance of the knee motor task. These results highlight the possible mechanistic link between cortical changes and modified motor behavior in people with knee OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camille J Shanahan
- Department of Physiotherapy, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia. .,The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia.
| | - Paul W Hodges
- Centre of Clinical Research Excellence in Spinal Pain, Injury and Health, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Tim V Wrigley
- Department of Physiotherapy, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Kim L Bennell
- Department of Physiotherapy, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Michael J Farrell
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Kenneth Myer Building, 30 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC, 3052, Australia. .,Department of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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325
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Reinhart RMG, Woodman GF. The surprising temporal specificity of direct-current stimulation. Trends Neurosci 2015; 38:459-61. [PMID: 26093845 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2015.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
As studies increasingly use transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) to manipulate brain activity, surprising results are emerging. Specifically, research combining tDCS with electrophysiology is showing that the long-lasting effects of tDCS can counter-intuitively influence specific neural mechanisms active for as little as 100 ms during the flow of human information processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M G Reinhart
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Geoffrey F Woodman
- Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative and Cognitive Neuroscience, Vanderbilt Vision Research Center, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
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326
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Player MJ, Taylor JL, Weickert CS, Alonzo A, Sachdev PS, Martin D, Mitchell PB, Loo CK. Increase in PAS-induced neuroplasticity after a treatment course of transcranial direct current stimulation for depression. J Affect Disord 2015; 167:140-7. [PMID: 24968188 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several lines of evidence suggest that neuroplasticity is impaired in depression and improves with effective treatment. However until now, this evidence has largely involved measures such as learning and memory which can be influenced by subject effort and motivation. This pilot study aimed to objectively measure neuroplasticity in the motor cortex using paired associative stimulation (PAS), which induces short term neuroplastic changes. It is hypothesized that neuroplasticity would improve after effective treatment for depression. METHODS Neuroplasticity was measured in 18 depressed subjects before and after a course of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), given as treatment for depression. The relationships between PAS results, mood state and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) serum levels were examined. RESULTS Neuroplasticity (PAS-induced change) was increased after a course of tDCS (t(17)=-2.651, p=0.017). Treatment with tDCS also led to significant mood improvement, but this did not correlate with improved neuroplasticity. Serum BDNF levels did not change after tDCS, or correlate with change in neuroplasticity after tDCS treatment. LIMITATIONS While this study showed evidence of improved neuroplasticity in the motor cortex after effective treatment, we are unable to present evidence that this change is generalized in the depressed brain. Also, the presence of antidepressant medications and the small sample of patients (n=18) meant the study could not definitively resolve the relationship between neuroplasticity, mood and BDNF. CONCLUSION This novel preliminary study provides evidence that a treatment course of tDCS can improve neuroplasticity in depressed patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Player
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Black Dog Institute, Hospital Road, Randwick, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Janet L Taylor
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia; School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, Sydney, Australia
| | - Angelo Alonzo
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Black Dog Institute, Hospital Road, Randwick, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Perminder S Sachdev
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Neuropsychiatric Institute, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, Australia; Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing (CHeBA), University of New South Wales, Australia
| | - Donel Martin
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Black Dog Institute, Hospital Road, Randwick, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Philip B Mitchell
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Black Dog Institute, Hospital Road, Randwick, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia
| | - Colleen K Loo
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Black Dog Institute, Hospital Road, Randwick, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia; St. George Hospital, South Eastern Sydney Health, Australia.
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327
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Yi G, Wang J, Tsang KM, Wei X, Deng B, Han C. Spike-frequency adaptation of a two-compartment neuron modulated by extracellular electric fields. BIOLOGICAL CYBERNETICS 2015; 109:287-306. [PMID: 25652337 DOI: 10.1007/s00422-014-0642-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Spike-frequency adaptation has been shown to play an important role in neural coding. Based on a reduced two-compartment model, here we investigate how two common adaptation currents, i.e., voltage-sensitive potassium current (I(M)) and calcium-sensitive potassium current (I(AHP)), modulate neuronal responses to extracellular electric fields. It is shown that two adaptation mechanisms lead to distinct effects on the dynamical behavior of the neuron to electric fields. These effects depend on a neuronal morphological parameter that characterizes the ratio of soma area to total membrane area and internal coupling conductance. In the case of I(AHP) current, changing the morphological parameter switches spike initiation dynamics between saddle-node on invariant cycle bifurcation and supercritical Hopf bifurcation, whereas it only switches between subcritical and supercritical Hopf bifurcations for I(M) current. Unlike the morphological parameter, internal coupling conductance is unable to alter the bifurcation scenario for both adaptation currents. We also find that the electric field threshold for triggering neuronal steady-state firing is determined by two parameters, especially by the morphological parameter. Furthermore, the neuron with I(AHP) current generates mixed-mode oscillations through the canard phenomenon for some small values of the morphological parameter. All these results suggest that morphological properties play a critical role in field-induced effects on neuronal dynamics, which could qualitatively alter the outcome of adaptation by modulating internal current between soma and dendrite. The findings are readily testable in experiments, which could help to reveal the mechanisms underlying how the neuron responds to electric field stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guosheng Yi
- School of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
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Deer TR, Mekhail N, Petersen E, Krames E, Staats P, Pope J, Saweris Y, Lad SP, Diwan S, Falowski S, Feler C, Slavin K, Narouze S, Merabet L, Buvanendran A, Fregni F, Wellington J, Levy RM. The appropriate use of neurostimulation: stimulation of the intracranial and extracranial space and head for chronic pain. Neuromodulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee. Neuromodulation 2015; 17:551-70; discussion 570. [PMID: 25112890 DOI: 10.1111/ner.12215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The International Neuromodulation Society (INS) has identified a need for evaluation and analysis of the practice of neurostimulation of the brain and extracranial nerves of the head to treat chronic pain. METHODS The INS board of directors chose an expert panel, the Neuromodulation Appropriateness Consensus Committee (NACC), to evaluate the peer-reviewed literature, current research, and clinical experience and to give guidance for the appropriate use of these methods. The literature searches involved key word searches in PubMed, EMBASE, and Google Scholar dated 1970-2013, which were graded and evaluated by the authors. RESULTS The NACC found that evidence supports extracranial stimulation for facial pain, migraine, and scalp pain but is limited for intracranial neuromodulation. High cervical spinal cord stimulation is an evolving option for facial pain. Intracranial neurostimulation may be an excellent option to treat diseases of the nervous system, such as tremor and Parkinson's disease, and in the future, potentially Alzheimer's disease and traumatic brain injury, but current use of intracranial stimulation for pain should be seen as investigational. CONCLUSIONS The NACC concludes that extracranial nerve stimulation should be considered in the algorithmic treatment of migraine and other disorders of the head. We should strive to perfect targets outside the cranium when treating pain, if at all possible.
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329
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Kwon YH, Kang KW, Son SM, Lee NK. Is effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on visuomotor coordination dependent on task difficulty? Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:463-6. [PMID: 25878597 PMCID: PMC4396111 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.153697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), an emerging technique for non-invasive brain stimulation, is increasingly used to induce changes in cortical excitability and modulate motor behavior, especially for upper limbs. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of tDCS of the primary motor cortex on visuomotor coordination based on three levels of task difficulty in healthy subjects. Thirty-eight healthy participants underwent real tDCS or sham tDCS. Using a single-blind, sham-controlled crossover design, tDCS was applied to the primary motor cortex. For real tDCS conditions, tDCS intensity was 1 mA while stimulation was applied for 15 minutes. For the sham tDCS, electrodes were placed in the same position, but the stimulator was turned off after 5 seconds. Visuomotor tracking task, consisting of three levels (levels 1, 2, 3) of difficulty with higher level indicating greater difficulty, was performed before and after tDCS application. At level 2, real tDCS of the primary motor cortex improved the accurate index compared to the sham tDCS. However, at levels 1 and 3, the accurate index was not significantly increased after real tDCS compared to the sham tDCS. These findings suggest that tasks of moderate difficulty may improve visuomotor coordination in healthy subjects when tDCS is applied compared with easier or more difficult tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Hyun Kwon
- Department of Physical Therapy, Yeungnam University College,170, Daemyung-dong, Namgu, Daegu, 705-703, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Woo Kang
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Rehabilitation Science, Daegu University, 15, Jilyang, Gyeongsan-si, Kyeongbuk, 712-714, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Min Son
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health Science, Cheongju University, 298 Daeseong-ro, Cheongwon-gu, Cheongju-si, Chungbuk 363-764, Republic of Korea
| | - Na Kyung Lee
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Rehabilitation Science, Daegu University, 15, Jilyang, Gyeongsan-si, Kyeongbuk, 712-714, Republic of Korea
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330
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Thompson DM, Koppes AN, Hardy JG, Schmidt CE. Electrical stimuli in the central nervous system microenvironment. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 2015; 16:397-430. [PMID: 25014787 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-bioeng-121813-120655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Electrical stimulation to manipulate the central nervous system (CNS) has been applied as early as the 1750s to produce visual sensations of light. Deep brain stimulation (DBS), cochlear implants, visual prosthetics, and functional electrical stimulation (FES) are being applied in the clinic to treat a wide array of neurological diseases, disorders, and injuries. This review describes the history of electrical stimulation of the CNS microenvironment; recent advances in electrical stimulation of the CNS, including DBS to treat essential tremor, Parkinson's disease, and depression; FES for the treatment of spinal cord injuries; and alternative electrical devices to restore vision and hearing via neuroprosthetics (retinal and cochlear implants). It also discusses the role of electrical cues during development and following injury and, importantly, manipulation of these endogenous cues to support regeneration of neural tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna M Thompson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180;
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331
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Bembenek JP, Kurczych K, Członkowska A. TMS-induced motor evoked potentials in Wilson's disease: a systematic literature review. Bioelectromagnetics 2015; 36:255-66. [PMID: 25808411 DOI: 10.1002/bem.21909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Wilson's disease (WD) is a metabolic brain disease resulting from improper copper metabolism. Although pyramidal symptoms are rarely observed, subclinical injury is highly possible as copper accumulates in all brain structures. The usefulness of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in pyramidal tracts damage evaluation still appears to be somehow equivocal. We searched for original papers assessing the value of transcranial magnetic stimulation elicited MEPs with respect to motor function of upper and lower extremity in WD. We searched PubMed for original papers evaluating use of MEPs in WD using key words: "motor evoked potentials Wilson's disease" and "transcranial magnetic stimulation Wilson's disease." We found six articles using the above key words. One additional article and one case report were found while viewing the references lists. Therefore, we included eight studies. Number of patients in studies was low and their clinical characteristic was variable. There were also differences in methodology. Abnormal MEPs were confirmed in 20-70% of study participants. MEPs were not recorded in 7.6-66.7% of patients. Four studies reported significantly increased cortical excitability (up to 70% of patients). Prolonged central motor conduction time was observed in four studies (30-100% of patients). One study reported absent or prolonged central motor latency in 66.7% of patients. Although MEPs may be abnormal in WD, this has not been thoroughly assessed. Hence, further studies are indispensable to evaluate MEPs' usefulness in assessing pyramidal tract damage in WD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan P Bembenek
- 2nd Department of Neurology, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Warsaw, Poland
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332
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Tortella G, Casati R, Aparicio LVM, Mantovani A, Senço N, D’Urso G, Brunelin J, Guarienti F, Selingardi PML, Muszkat D, Junior BDSP, Valiengo L, Moffa AH, Simis M, Borrione L, Brunoni AR. Transcranial direct current stimulation in psychiatric disorders. World J Psychiatry 2015; 5:88-102. [PMID: 25815258 PMCID: PMC4369553 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Revised: 12/12/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The interest in non-invasive brain stimulation techniques is increasing in recent years. Among these techniques, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been the subject of great interest among researchers because of its easiness to use, low cost, benign profile of side effects and encouraging results of research in the field. This interest has generated several studies and randomized clinical trials, particularly in psychiatry. In this review, we provide a summary of the development of the technique and its mechanism of action as well as a review of the methodological aspects of randomized clinical trials in psychiatry, including studies in affective disorders, schizophrenia, obsessive compulsive disorder, child psychiatry and substance use disorder. Finally, we provide an overview of tDCS use in cognitive enhancement as well as a discussion regarding its clinical use and regulatory and ethical issues. Although many promising results regarding tDCS efficacy were described, the total number of studies is still low, highlighting the need of further studies aiming to replicate these findings in larger samples as to provide a definite picture regarding tDCS efficacy in psychiatry.
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333
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Image-guided transcranial focused ultrasound stimulates human primary somatosensory cortex. Sci Rep 2015; 5:8743. [PMID: 25735418 PMCID: PMC4348665 DOI: 10.1038/srep08743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Focused ultrasound (FUS) has recently been investigated as a new mode of non-invasive brain stimulation, which offers exquisite spatial resolution and depth control. We report on the elicitation of explicit somatosensory sensations as well as accompanying evoked electroencephalographic (EEG) potentials induced by FUS stimulation of the human somatosensory cortex. As guided by individual-specific neuroimage data, FUS was transcranially delivered to the hand somatosensory cortex among healthy volunteers. The sonication elicited transient tactile sensations on the hand area contralateral to the sonicated hemisphere, with anatomical specificity of up to a finger, while EEG recordings revealed the elicitation of sonication-specific evoked potentials. Retrospective numerical simulation of the acoustic propagation through the skull showed that a threshold of acoustic intensity may exist for successful cortical stimulation. The neurological and neuroradiological assessment before and after the sonication, along with strict safety considerations through the individual-specific estimation of effective acoustic intensity in situ and thermal effects, showed promising initial safety profile; however, equal/more rigorous precautionary procedures are advised for future studies. The transient and localized stimulation of the brain using image-guided transcranial FUS may serve as a novel tool for the non-invasive assessment and modification of region-specific brain function.
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334
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Fregni F, Nitsche MA, Loo CK, Brunoni AR, Marangolo P, Leite J, Carvalho S, Bolognini N, Caumo W, Paik NJ, Simis M, Ueda K, Ekhitari H, Luu P, Tucker DM, Tyler WJ, Brunelin J, Datta A, Juan CH, Venkatasubramanian G, Boggio PS, Bikson M. Regulatory Considerations for the Clinical and Research Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS): review and recommendations from an expert panel. CLINICAL RESEARCH AND REGULATORY AFFAIRS 2015; 32:22-35. [PMID: 25983531 PMCID: PMC4431691 DOI: 10.3109/10601333.2015.980944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The field of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) has experienced significant growth in the past 15 years. One of the tES techniques leading this increased interest is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). Significant research efforts have been devoted to determining the clinical potential of tDCS in humans. Despite the promising results obtained with tDCS in basic and clinical neuroscience, further progress has been impeded by a lack of clarity on international regulatory pathways. We therefore convened a group of research and clinician experts on tDCS to review the research and clinical use of tDCS. In this report, we review the regulatory status of tDCS, and we summarize the results according to research, off-label and compassionate use of tDCS in the following countries: Australia, Brazil, France, Germany, India, Iran, Italy, Portugal, South Korea, Taiwan and United States. Research use, off label treatment and compassionate use of tDCS are employed in most of the countries reviewed in this study. It is critical that a global or local effort is organized to pursue definite evidence to either approve and regulate or restrict the use of tDCS in clinical practice on the basis of adequate randomized controlled treatment trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Fregni
- Spaulding Neuromodulation Center, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - M A Nitsche
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - C K Loo
- School of Psychiatry & The Black Dog Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - A R Brunoni
- Service of Interdisciplinary Neuromodulation, Department and Institute of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil and Division of Neurology, Santa Casa Medicak School, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - P Marangolo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, and IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy
| | - J Leite
- Spaulding Neuromodulation Center, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA ; Neuropsychophysiology Laboratory, CIPsi, School of Psychology (EPsi), University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal
| | - S Carvalho
- Spaulding Neuromodulation Center, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital and Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA ; Neuropsychophysiology Laboratory, CIPsi, School of Psychology (EPsi), University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal
| | - N Bolognini
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano Bicocca, and Laboratory of Neuropsychology, IRCC Instituto Auxologico Italiano, Milano, Italy
| | - W Caumo
- Laboratory of Pain & Neuromodulation at Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre at UFRGS
| | - N J Paik
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - M Simis
- Service of Interdisciplinary Neuromodulation, Department and Institute of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil and Division of Neurology, Santa Casa Medicak School, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - K Ueda
- National Cardiovascular Center, Osaka, Japan
| | - H Ekhitari
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Institute for Cognitive Science Studies, Tehran, Iran ; Neurocognitive Laboratory, Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - P Luu
- Electrical Geodesics, Inc., and University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
| | - D M Tucker
- Electrical Geodesics, Inc., and University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, USA
| | - W J Tyler
- Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, and School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA USA
| | - J Brunelin
- EA 4615, Centre Hospitalier le Vinatier, Université de Lyon, F-69003, Université Claude Bernard Lyon I, Bron, France
| | - A Datta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Neural Engineering Laboratory, The City College of the City University of New York New York, NY, USA
| | - C H Juan
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Taiwan
| | - G Venkatasubramanian
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India
| | - P S Boggio
- Social and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory and Developmental Disorders Program, Center for Healthy and Biological Sciences, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - M Bikson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Neural Engineering Laboratory, The City College of the City University of New York New York, NY, USA
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335
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Nardone R, Höller Y, Tezzon F, Christova M, Schwenker K, Golaszewski S, Trinka E, Brigo F. Neurostimulation in Alzheimer's disease: from basic research to clinical applications. Neurol Sci 2015; 36:689-700. [PMID: 25721941 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-015-2120-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The development of different methods of brain stimulation provides a promising therapeutic tool with potentially beneficial effects on subjects with impaired cognitive functions. We performed a systematic review of the studies published in the field of neurostimulation in Alzheimer's disease (AD), from basic research to clinical applications. The main methods of non-invasive brain stimulation are repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation. Preliminary findings have suggested that both techniques can enhance performances on several cognitive functions impaired in AD. Another non-invasive emerging neuromodulatory approach, the transcranial electromagnetic treatment, was found to reverse cognitive impairment in AD transgenic mice and even improves cognitive performance in normal mice. Experimental studies suggest that high-frequency electromagnetic fields may be critically important in AD prevention and treatment through their action at mitochondrial level. Finally, the application of a widely known invasive technique, the deep brain stimulation (DBS), has increasingly been considered as a therapeutic option also for patients with AD; it has been demonstrated that DBS of fornix/hypothalamus and nucleus basalis of Meynert might improve or at least stabilize cognitive functioning in AD. Initial encouraging results provide support for continuing to investigate non-invasive and invasive brain stimulation approaches as an adjuvant treatment for AD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Nardone
- Department of Neurology, Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salzburg, Austria,
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336
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Nierhaus T, Pach D, Huang W, Long X, Napadow V, Roll S, Liang F, Pleger B, Villringer A, Witt CM. Differential cerebral response to somatosensory stimulation of an acupuncture point vs. two non-acupuncture points measured with EEG and fMRI. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:74. [PMID: 25741269 PMCID: PMC4327308 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Acupuncture can be regarded as a complex somatosensory stimulation. Here, we evaluate whether the point locations chosen for a somatosensory stimulation with acupuncture needles differently change the brain activity in healthy volunteers. We used EEG, event-related fMRI, and resting-state functional connectivity fMRI to assess neural responses to standardized needle stimulation of the acupuncture point ST36 (lower leg) and two control point locations (CP1 same dermatome, CP2 different dermatome). Cerebral responses were expected to differ for stimulation in two different dermatomes (CP2 different from ST36 and CP1), or stimulation at the acupuncture point vs. the control points. For EEG, mu rhythm power increased for ST36 compared to CP1 or CP2, but not when comparing the two control points. The fMRI analysis found more pronounced insula and S2 (secondary somatosensory cortex) activation, as well as precuneus deactivation during ST36 stimulation. The S2 seed-based functional connectivity analysis revealed increased connectivity to right precuneus for both comparisons, ST36 vs. CP1 and ST36 vs. CP2, however in different regions. Our results suggest that stimulation at acupuncture points may modulate somatosensory and saliency processing regions more readily than stimulation at non-acupuncture point locations. Also, our findings suggest potential modulation of pain perception due to acupuncture stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till Nierhaus
- Mind-Brain Institute at Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Humboldt-University Berlin, Germany ; Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel Pach
- Institute for Social Medicine, Epidemiology, and Health Economics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Wenjing Huang
- Institute for Social Medicine, Epidemiology, and Health Economics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin Berlin, Germany ; Acupuncture and Tuina School, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Chengdu, China
| | - Xiangyu Long
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences Leipzig, Germany
| | - Vitaly Napadow
- Department of Radiology, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital Charlestown, MA, USA ; Department of Radiology, Logan University Chesterfield, MO, USA
| | - Stephanie Roll
- Institute for Social Medicine, Epidemiology, and Health Economics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin Berlin, Germany
| | - Fanrong Liang
- Acupuncture and Tuina School, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine Chengdu, China
| | - Burkhard Pleger
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences Leipzig, Germany
| | - Arno Villringer
- Mind-Brain Institute at Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and Humboldt-University Berlin, Germany ; Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences Leipzig, Germany
| | - Claudia M Witt
- Institute for Social Medicine, Epidemiology, and Health Economics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin Berlin, Germany ; Institute for Complementary and Integrative Medicine, University Hospital Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
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337
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Rossini PM, Burke D, Chen R, Cohen LG, Daskalakis Z, Di Iorio R, Di Lazzaro V, Ferreri F, Fitzgerald PB, George MS, Hallett M, Lefaucheur JP, Langguth B, Matsumoto H, Miniussi C, Nitsche MA, Pascual-Leone A, Paulus W, Rossi S, Rothwell JC, Siebner HR, Ugawa Y, Walsh V, Ziemann U. Non-invasive electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain, spinal cord, roots and peripheral nerves: Basic principles and procedures for routine clinical and research application. An updated report from an I.F.C.N. Committee. Clin Neurophysiol 2015; 126:1071-1107. [PMID: 25797650 PMCID: PMC6350257 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1753] [Impact Index Per Article: 194.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Revised: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
These guidelines provide an up-date of previous IFCN report on “Non-invasive electrical and magnetic stimulation of the brain, spinal cord and roots: basic principles and procedures for routine clinical application” (Rossini et al., 1994). A new Committee, composed of international experts, some of whom were in the panel of the 1994 “Report”, was selected to produce a current state-of-the-art review of non-invasive stimulation both for clinical application and research in neuroscience. Since 1994, the international scientific community has seen a rapid increase in non-invasive brain stimulation in studying cognition, brain–behavior relationship and pathophysiology of various neurologic and psychiatric disorders. New paradigms of stimulation and new techniques have been developed. Furthermore, a large number of studies and clinical trials have demonstrated potential therapeutic applications of non-invasive brain stimulation, especially for TMS. Recent guidelines can be found in the literature covering specific aspects of non-invasive brain stimulation, such as safety (Rossi et al., 2009), methodology (Groppa et al., 2012) and therapeutic applications (Lefaucheur et al., 2014). This up-dated review covers theoretical, physiological and practical aspects of non-invasive stimulation of brain, spinal cord, nerve roots and peripheral nerves in the light of more updated knowledge, and include some recent extensions and developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Rossini
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Geriatrics, Neuroscience and Orthopedics, Catholic University, Policlinic A. Gemelli, Rome, Italy
| | - D Burke
- Department of Neurology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - R Chen
- Division of Neurology, Toronto Western Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - L G Cohen
- Human Cortical Physiology and Neurorehabilitation Section, NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Z Daskalakis
- Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - R Di Iorio
- Institute of Neurology, Department of Geriatrics, Neuroscience and Orthopedics, Catholic University, Policlinic A. Gemelli, Rome, Italy.
| | - V Di Lazzaro
- Department of Neurology, University Campus Bio-medico, Rome, Italy
| | - F Ferreri
- Department of Neurology, University Campus Bio-medico, Rome, Italy; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - P B Fitzgerald
- Monash Alfred Psychiatry Research Centre, Monash University Central Clinical School and The Alfred, Melbourne, Australia
| | - M S George
- Medical University of South Carolina, Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - M Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, Medical Neurology Branch, NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - J P Lefaucheur
- Department of Physiology, Henri Mondor Hospital, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, France; EA 4391, Nerve Excitability and Therapeutic Team, Faculty of Medicine, Paris Est Créteil University, Créteil, France
| | - B Langguth
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - H Matsumoto
- Department of Neurology, Japanese Red Cross Medical Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - C Miniussi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy; IRCCS Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - M A Nitsche
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - A Pascual-Leone
- Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - W Paulus
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - S Rossi
- Brain Investigation & Neuromodulation Lab, Unit of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Neuroscience, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - J C Rothwell
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - H R Siebner
- Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg, Copenhagen, Denmark; Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Y Ugawa
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - V Walsh
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - U Ziemann
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard Karls University, Tübingen, Germany
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338
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Keuters MH, Aswendt M, Tennstaedt A, Wiedermann D, Pikhovych A, Rotthues S, Fink GR, Schroeter M, Hoehn M, Rueger MA. Transcranial direct current stimulation promotes the mobility of engrafted NSCs in the rat brain. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2015; 28:231-239. [PMID: 25521600 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2013] [Revised: 11/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is used in numerous clinical studies and considered an effective and versatile add-on therapy in neurorehabilitation. To date, however, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain elusive. In a rat model of tDCS, we recently observed a polarity-dependent accumulation of endogenous neural stem cells (NSCs) in the stimulated cortex. Based upon these findings, we hypothesized that tDCS may exert a direct migratory effect on endogenous NSCs towards the stimulated cortex. Using noninvasive imaging, we here investigated whether tDCS may also cause a directed migration of engrafted NSCs. Murine NSCs were labeled with superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide (SPIOs) and implanted into rat striatum and corpus callosum. MRI was performed (i) immediately after implantation and (ii) after 10 tDCS sessions of anodal or cathodal polarity. Sham-stimulated rats served as control. Imaging results were validated ex vivo using immunohistochemistry. Overall migratory activity of NSCs almost doubled after anodal tDCS. However, no directed migration within the electric field (i.e. towards or away from the electrode) could be observed. Rather, an undirected outward migration from the center of the graft was detected. Xenograft transplantation induced a neuroinflammatory response that was significantly enhanced following cathodal tDCS. This inflammatory response did not impact negatively on the survival of implanted NSCs. Data suggest that anodal tDCS increases the undirected migratory activity of implanted NSCs. Since the electric field did not guide implanted NSCs over large distances, previously observed polarity-dependent accumulation of endogenous NSCs in the cortex might have originated from local proliferation. Results enhance our understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying tDCS, and may thereby help to develop a targeted and sustainable application of tDCS in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meike Hedwig Keuters
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany; In-vivo-NMR Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Neurological Research, Cologne, Germany
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Giglia G, Pia L, Folegatti A, Puma A, Fierro B, Cosentino G, Berti A, Brighina F. Far Space Remapping by Tool Use: A rTMS Study Over the Right Posterior Parietal Cortex. Brain Stimul 2015; 8:795-800. [PMID: 25732371 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2015.01.412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2014] [Revised: 12/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In previous studies, rTMS has been successfully employed to interfere with the right posterior parietal cortex (rPPC) inducing neglect-like behavior in healthy subjects. Several studies have shown that the use of tools can modulate the boundaries between near and far space: indeed when far space is reached by the stick, far space can be remapped as near. OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study was to investigate whether once that rTMS on the rPPC has selectively induced neglect-like bias in the near space (but not in the far space), neglect can appears also in the far space when the subjects used a tool to perform the task. METHODS Fifteen right-handed healthy subjects executed a line length judgment task in two different spatial positions (60 cm: near space and 120 cm: far space), with or without rPPC on-line rTMS. In the far space condition, subjects performed the perceptual task while holding or not a tool. RESULTS During rTMS, visuospatial performance significantly shifted toward right when the task was performed in the near space and in the far space when the tool was used. No significant effect was found when rTMS was delivered in the far space condition without tool use. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that the application of rTMS on rPPC, specifically affect the representation of near space because it caused neglect both when the subjects acted in the near space and when they acted in a far space that was remapped as near by the use of a tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Giglia
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands; Hypatia School of Medicine of Caltanissetta - Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Pia
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor & Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Psychology Department, University of Turin, Italy; Neuroscience Institute of Turin (NIT), University of Turin, Italy
| | - Alessia Folegatti
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor & Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Psychology Department, University of Turin, Italy; Neuroscience Institute of Turin (NIT), University of Turin, Italy
| | - Angela Puma
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Brigida Fierro
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Cosentino
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Anna Berti
- SAMBA (SpAtial, Motor & Bodily Awareness) Research Group, Psychology Department, University of Turin, Italy; Neuroscience Institute of Turin (NIT), University of Turin, Italy
| | - Filippo Brighina
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
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Triesch J, Zrenner C, Ziemann U. Modeling TMS-induced I-waves in human motor cortex. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2015; 222:105-24. [PMID: 26541378 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Despite many years of research, it is still unknown how exactly transcranial magnetic stimulation activates cortical circuits. A recent computational model by Rusu et al. (2014) has attempted to shed light on potential underlying mechanisms and has successfully explained key experimental findings on I-wave physiology. Here, we critically discuss this model, point out some of its shortcomings, and suggest a number of extensions that may be necessary for it to capture additional existing and emerging data on the physiology of I-waves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Triesch
- Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Christoph Zrenner
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard-Karls University Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulf Ziemann
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Eberhard-Karls University Tübingen, Germany.
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Guerriero F, Botarelli E, Mele G, Polo L, Zoncu D, Renati P, Sgarlata C, Rollone M, Ricevuti G, Maurizi N, Francis M, Rondanelli M, Perna S, Guido D, Mannu P. An innovative intervention for the treatment of cognitive impairment-Emisymmetric bilateral stimulation improves cognitive functions in Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: an open-label study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2015; 11:2391-404. [PMID: 26425094 PMCID: PMC4581783 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s90966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS In the last decade, the development of different methods of brain stimulation by electromagnetic fields (EMF) provides a promising therapeutic tool for subjects with impaired cognitive functions. Emisymmetric bilateral stimulation (EBS) is a novel and innovative EMF brain stimulation, whose working principle is to introduce very weak noise-like stimuli through EMF to trigger self-arrangements in the cortex of treated subjects, thereby improving cognitive faculties. The aim of this pilot study was to investigate in patients with cognitive impairment the effectiveness of EBS treatment with respect to global cognitive function, episodic memory, and executive functions. METHODS Fourteen patients with cognitive decline (six with mild cognitive impairment and eight with Alzheimer's disease) underwent three EBS applications per week to both the cerebral cortex and auricular-specific sites for a total of 5 weeks. At baseline, after 2 weeks and 5 weeks, a neuropsychological assessment was performed through mini-mental state examination, free and cued selective reminding tests, and trail making test. As secondary outcomes, changes in behavior, functionality, and quality of life were also evaluated. RESULTS After 5 weeks of standardized EBS therapy, significant improvements were observed in all neurocognitive assessments. Mini-mental state examination score significantly increased from baseline to end treatment (+3.19, P=0.002). Assessment of episodic memory showed an improvement both in immediate and delayed recalls (immediate recall =+7.57, P=0.003; delayed recall =+4.78, P<0.001). Executive functions significantly improved from baseline to end stimulation (trail making test A -53.35 seconds; P=0.001). Of note, behavioral disorders assessed through neuropsychiatric inventory significantly decreased (-28.78, P<0.001). The analysis concerning the Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment group confirmed a significant improvement of cognitive functions and behavior after EBS treatment. CONCLUSION This pilot study has shown EBS to be a promising, effective, and safe tool to treat cognitive impairment, in addition to the drugs presently available. Further investigations and controlled clinical trials are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Guerriero
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, Section of Geriatrics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy ; Agency for Elderly People Services, Santa Margherita Hospital, Pavia, Italy ; Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy
| | - Emanuele Botarelli
- Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy
| | - Gianni Mele
- Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Polo
- Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy
| | - Daniele Zoncu
- Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy
| | - Paolo Renati
- Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy ; Alberto Sorti Research Institute, Medicine and Metamolecular Biology, Turin, Italy
| | - Carmelo Sgarlata
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, Section of Geriatrics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Marco Rollone
- Agency for Elderly People Services, Santa Margherita Hospital, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Ricevuti
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, Section of Geriatrics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy ; Agency for Elderly People Services, Santa Margherita Hospital, Pavia, Italy
| | - Niccolo Maurizi
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, Section of Geriatrics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Matthew Francis
- Department of Internal Medicine and Medical Therapy, Section of Geriatrics, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Mariangela Rondanelli
- Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, Section of Human Nutrition, Endocrinology and Nutrition Unit, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Simone Perna
- Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, Section of Human Nutrition, Endocrinology and Nutrition Unit, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Davide Guido
- Agency for Elderly People Services, Santa Margherita Hospital, Pavia, Italy ; Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, Biostatistics and Clinical Epidemiology Unit, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Piero Mannu
- Ambra Elektron, Italian Association of Biophysics for the Study of Electromagnetic Fields in Medicine, Turin, Italy
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342
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Lee SW, Fried SI. Suppression of subthalamic nucleus activity by micromagnetic stimulation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2015; 23:116-27. [PMID: 25163063 PMCID: PMC4467829 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2014.2348415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic stimulation delivered via 0.5-mm diameter coils was recently shown to activate retinal neurons; the small coil size raises the possibility that micromagnetic stimulation ( μMS) could underlie a new generation of implanted neural prosthetics. Such an approach has several inherent advantages over conventional electric stimulation, including the potential for selective activation of neuronal targets as well as less susceptibility to inflammatory responses. The viability of μMS for some applications, e.g., deep brain stimulation (DBS), may require suppression (rather than creation) of neuronal activity, however, and therefore we explore here whether (μMS) could, in fact, suppress activity. While single pulses elicited weak and inconsistent spiking in neurons of the mouse subthalamic nucleus (in vitro), repetitive stimulation effectively suppressed activity in ∼ 70% of targeted neurons. This is the same percentage suppressed by conventional electric stimulation; with both modalities, suppression occurred only after an initial increase in spiking. The latency to the onset of suppression was inversely correlated to the energy of the stimulus waveform: larger amplitudes and lower frequencies had the fastest onset of suppression. These findings continue to support the viability of μMS as a next-generation implantable neural prosthetic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung Woo Lee
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neuro-surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114 USA ()
| | - Shelley I. Fried
- Boston Veterans Administration Healthcare System, Rehabilitation, Research and Development, Boston, MA 01230 USA and also with Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114 USA ()
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343
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de Weijer AD, Sommer IEC, Lotte Meijering A, Bloemendaal M, Neggers SFW, Daalman K, Boezeman EHJF. High frequency rTMS; a more effective treatment for auditory verbal hallucinations? Psychiatry Res 2014; 224:204-10. [PMID: 25453990 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2013] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The great majority of studies on repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) as a therapeutic tool for auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) have used 1-Hz stimulation with inconsistent results. Recently, it has been suggested that 20-Hz rTMS has strong therapeutic effects. It is conceivable that this 20-Hz stimulation is more effective than 1-Hz stimulation. The aim of this preliminary study is to investigate the efficacy of 20-Hz rTMS compared with 1-Hz rTMS as a treatment for AVH. Eighteen schizophrenia patients with medication-resistant AVH were randomized over two treatment groups. Each group received either 20 min of 1-Hz rTMS or 13 trains of 20-Hz rTMS daily over 1 week. After week 1, patients received a follow-up treatment once a week for 3 weeks. Stimulation location was based on individual AVH-related activation patterns identified with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Severity of AVH was monitored with the Auditory Hallucination Rating Scale (AHRS). Both groups showed a decrease in AVH after week 1 of rTMS. This decrease was significant for the 20-Hz group and the 1-Hz group. When the two treatment types were compared, no treatment type was superior. Based on these results we cannot conclude whether high frequency rTMS is more effective against AVH than is traditional 1-Hz rTMS. More research is needed to optimize stimulation parameters and to investigate potential target locations for stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoin D de Weijer
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Iris E C Sommer
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Lotte Meijering
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Mirjam Bloemendaal
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastiaan F W Neggers
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Kirstin Daalman
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Eduard H J F Boezeman
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, St. Antonius Hospital Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
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Transcranial direct current stimulation in the prophylactic treatment of migraine based on interictal visual cortex excitability abnormalities: A pilot randomized controlled trial. J Neurol Sci 2014; 349:33-9. [PMID: 25579414 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2014.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aims of this paper are (i) to compare the excitability of visual cortex in migraine patients with healthy volunteers; and (ii) if an abnormal excitability has been found, to modulate cortical excitability in migraine patients with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and observe their clinical and neurophysiological effects. METHODS The study was divided into two steps. A cross-sectional study (step 1) was conducted to compare the cortical excitability of 23 migraineurs (11 with and 12 without aura) on 11 healthy individuals. On step 2, a randomized, double blinded, controlled pilot trial was carried on with 19 migraineurs, randomly divided into: experimental and control group. During 12 sessions, experimental and group received active tDCS to visual cortex and control group received sham tDCS. The headache diary was applied for a total of 90days (before, during and after tDCS sessions). Phosphene threshold (PT) induced by transcranial magnetic stimulation was recorded to measure the excitability of the visual cortex before and after each session. RESULTS Step 1 showed higher level of cortical excitability between migraineurs when compared to healthy volunteers; therefore, cathodal tDCS was applied over visual cortex in step 2. After tDCS application, a significant decrease was observed in a number of migraine attacks, painkiller intake and duration of each attack just in experimental group. The analysis of PT indicated no difference in cortical excitability after tDCS. CONCLUSIONS Findings of the study suggested that inhibitory tDCS on visual cortex might be an alternative and non-pharmacological treatment for migraine prophylaxis. However the clinical improvements of patients after tDCS treatment are not correlated with changes in cortical excitability.
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345
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Schuwerk T, Langguth B, Sommer M. Modulating functional and dysfunctional mentalizing by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Front Psychol 2014; 5:1309. [PMID: 25477838 PMCID: PMC4235411 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mentalizing, the ability to attribute mental states to others and oneself, is a cognitive function with high relevance for social interactions. Recent neuroscientific research has increasingly contributed to attempts to decompose this complex social cognitive function into constituting neurocognitive building blocks. Additionally, clinical research that focuses on social cognition to find links between impaired social functioning and neurophysiological deviations has accumulated evidence that mentalizing is affected in most psychiatric disorders. Recently, both lines of research have started to employ transcranial magnetic stimulation: the first to modulate mentalizing in order to specify its neurocognitive components, the latter to treat impaired mentalizing in clinical conditions. This review integrates findings of these two different approaches to draw a more detailed picture of the neurocognitive basis of mentalizing and its deviations in psychiatric disorders. Moreover, we evaluate the effectiveness of hitherto employed stimulation techniques and protocols, paradigms and outcome measures. Based on this overview we highlight new directions for future research on the neurocognitive basis of functional and dysfunctional social cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Schuwerk
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany ; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg Regensburg, Germany
| | - Berthold Langguth
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg Regensburg, Germany
| | - Monika Sommer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg Regensburg, Germany
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346
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Elder GJ, Taylor JP. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation: treatments for cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms in the neurodegenerative dementias? ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2014; 6:74. [PMID: 25478032 PMCID: PMC4255638 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-014-0074-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Two methods of non-invasive brain stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), have demonstrable positive effects on cognition and can ameliorate neuropsychiatric symptoms such as depression. Less is known about the efficacy of these approaches in common neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we evaluate the effects of TMS and tDCS upon cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms in the major dementias, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), vascular dementia (VaD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), Parkinson’s disease with dementia (PDD), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), as well as the potential pre-dementia states of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and Parkinson’s disease (PD). Methods PubMed (until 7 February 2014) and PsycINFO (from 1967 to January Week 3 2014) databases were searched in a semi-systematic manner in order to identify relevant treatment studies. A total of 762 studies were identified and 32 studies (18 in the dementias and 14 in PD populations) were included. Results No studies were identified in patients with PDD, FTD or VaD. Of the dementias, 13 studies were conducted in patients with AD, one in DLB, and four in MCI. A total of 16 of the 18 studies showed improvements in at least one cognitive or neuropsychiatric outcome measure. Cognitive or neuropsychiatric improvements were observed in 12 of the 14 studies conducted in patients with PD. Conclusions Both TMS and tDCS may have potential as interventions for the treatment of symptoms associated with dementia and PD. These results are promising; however, available data were limited, particularly within VaD, PDD and FTD, and major challenges exist in order to maximise the efficacy and clinical utility of both techniques. In particular, stimulation parameters vary considerably between studies and are likely to subsequently impact upon treatment efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg J Elder
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle upon Tyne NE4 5PL, UK
| | - John-Paul Taylor
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Campus for Ageing and Vitality, Newcastle upon Tyne NE4 5PL, UK
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347
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Nielson DM, McKnight CA, Patel RN, Kalnin AJ, Mysiw WJ. Preliminary guidelines for safe and effective use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014; 96:S138-44. [PMID: 25281871 DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2014.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation has generated extensive interest within the traumatic brain injury (TBI) rehabilitation community, but little work has been done with repetitive protocols, which can produce prolonged changes in behavior. This is partly because of concerns about the safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in subjects with TBI, particularly the risk of seizures. These risks can be minimized by careful selection of the rTMS protocol and exclusion criteria. In this article, we identify guidelines for safe use of rTMS in subjects with TBI based on a review of the literature and illustrate their application with a case study. Our subject is a 48-year-old man who sustained a severe TBI 5 years prior to beginning rTMS for the treatment of post-TBI depression. After a 4-week baseline period, we administered daily sessions of low-frequency stimulation to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for 6 weeks. After stimulation, we performed monthly assessments for 3 months. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) was our primary outcome measure. The stimulation was well tolerated and the patient reported no side effects. After 6 weeks of stimulation, the patient's depression was slightly improved, and these improvements continued through follow-up. At the end of follow-up, the patient's HAMD score was 49% of the average baseline score.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan M Nielson
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH
| | - Curtis A McKnight
- Department of Psychiatry, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH
| | - Riddhi N Patel
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH
| | - Andrew J Kalnin
- Department of Radiology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH
| | - Walter J Mysiw
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH.
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348
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Brodie SM, Borich MR, Boyd LA. Impact of 5-Hz rTMS over the primary sensory cortex is related to white matter volume in individuals with chronic stroke. Eur J Neurosci 2014; 40:3405-12. [PMID: 25223991 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that may facilitate mechanisms of motor learning. In a recent single-blind, pseudo-randomized study, we showed that 5-Hz rTMS over ipsilesional primary somatosensory cortex followed by practice of a skilled motor task enhanced motor learning compared with sham rTMS + practice in individuals with chronic stroke. However, the beneficial effect of stimulation was inconsistent. The current study examined how differences in sensorimotor cortex morphology might predict rTMS-related improvements in motor learning in these individuals. High-resolution T1-weighted magnetic resonance images were acquired and processed in FreeSurfer using a newly developed automated, whole brain parcellation technique. Gray matter and white matter volumes of the ipsilesional primary somatosensory and motor cortices were extracted. A significant positive association was observed between the volume of white matter in the primary somatosensory cortex and motor learning-related change, exclusively in the group that received active 5-Hz rTMS. A regression model with age, gray matter and white matter volumes as predictors was significant for predicting motor learning-related change in individuals who received active TMS. White matter volume predicted the greatest amount of variance (47.6%). The same model was non-significant when volumes of the primary motor cortex were considered. We conclude that white matter volume in the cortex underlying the TMS coil may be a novel predictor for behavioral response to 5-Hz rTMS over the ipsilesional primary somatosensory followed by motor practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia M Brodie
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 212-2177 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6T 1Z3
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349
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Hess RF, Thompson B, Baker DH. Binocular vision in amblyopia: structure, suppression and plasticity. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2014; 34:146-62. [PMID: 24588532 DOI: 10.1111/opo.12123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The amblyopic visual system was once considered to be structurally monocular. However, it now evident that the capacity for binocular vision is present in many observers with amblyopia. This has led to new techniques for quantifying suppression that have provided insights into the relationship between suppression and the monocular and binocular visual deficits experienced by amblyopes. Furthermore, new treatments are emerging that directly target suppressive interactions within the visual cortex and, on the basis of initial data, appear to improve both binocular and monocular visual function, even in adults with amblyopia. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of recent studies that have investigated the structure, measurement and treatment of binocular vision in observers with strabismic, anisometropic and mixed amblyopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Hess
- Department of Ophthalmology, McGill Vision Research, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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350
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Jones KT, Gözenman F, Berryhill ME. Enhanced long-term memory encoding after parietal neurostimulation. Exp Brain Res 2014; 232:4043-54. [PMID: 25200180 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-4090-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 08/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neurostimulation, e.g., transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), shows promise as an effective cognitive intervention. In spite of low spatial resolution, limited penetration, and temporary influence, evidence highlights tDCS-linked cognitive benefits in a range of cognitive domains. The left posterior parietal cortex (PPC) is an accessible node in frontoparietal networks engaged during long-term memory (LTM). Here, we tested the hypothesis that tDCS can facilitate LTM by pairing LTM encoding and retrieval with PPC stimulation. Healthy young adults performed a verbal LTM task (California Verbal Learning Task) with four different stimulation parameters. In Experiment 1, we applied tDCS to left PPC during LTM encoding. In Experiment 2, we applied tDCS just prior to retrieval to test the temporal specificity of tDCS during a LTM task. In later experiments, we tested hemispheric specificity by replicating Experiment 1 while stimulating the right PPC. Experiment 1 showed that tDCS applied during LTM encoding improved the pace of list learning and enhanced retrieval after a short delay. Experiment 2 indicated anodal left PPC tDCS only improved LTM when applied during encoding, and not during maintenance. Experiments 3 and 4 confirmed that tDCS effects were hemisphere specific and that no effects were found after right PPC stimulation during encoding. These findings indicate that anodal tDCS to the PPC helps verbal LTM in healthy young adults under certain conditions. First, when it is applied to the left, not the right, PPC and second, when it is applied during encoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin T Jones
- Program in Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Reno, 1664 North Virginia Street, Mail Stop 296, Reno, NV, 89557, USA,
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