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Jaffe AE. Postmortem human brain genomics in neuropsychiatric disorders--how far can we go? Curr Opin Neurobiol 2015; 36:107-11. [PMID: 26685806 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Large-scale collection of postmortem human brain tissue and subsequent genomic data generation has become a useful approach for better identifying etiological factors contributing to neuropsychiatric disorders. In particular, studying genetic risk variants in non-psychiatric controls can identify biological mechanisms of risk free from confounding factors related to epiphenomena of illness. While the field has begun moving towards cell type-specific analyses, homogenate brain tissue with accompanying cellular profiles, can still identify useful hypotheses for more focused experiments, particularly when the dysregulated cell types are unknown. Technological advances, larger sample sizes, and focused research questions can continue to further leverage postmortem human brain research to better identify and understand the molecular etiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Jaffe
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Johns Hopkins Medical Campus, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States; Department of Mental Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States; Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States.
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352
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Distinctive transcriptome alterations of prefrontal pyramidal neurons in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2015; 20:1397-405. [PMID: 25560755 PMCID: PMC4492919 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Revised: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is associated with alterations in working memory that reflect dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) circuitry. Working memory depends on the activity of excitatory pyramidal cells in DLPFC layer 3 and, to a lesser extent, in layer 5. Although many studies have profiled gene expression in DLPFC gray matter in schizophrenia, little is known about cell-type-specific transcript expression in these two populations of pyramidal cells. We hypothesized that interrogating gene expression, specifically in DLPFC layer 3 or 5 pyramidal cells, would reveal new and/or more robust schizophrenia-associated differences that would provide new insights into the nature of pyramidal cell dysfunction in the illness. We also sought to determine the impact of other variables, such as a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder or medication use at the time of death, on the patterns of gene expression in pyramidal neurons. Individual pyramidal cells in DLPFC layers 3 or 5 were captured by laser microdissection from 36 subjects with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and matched normal comparison subjects. The mRNA from cell collections was subjected to transcriptome profiling by microarray followed by quantitative PCR validation. Expression of genes involved in mitochondrial (MT) or ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) functions were markedly downregulated in the patient group (P-values for MT-related and UPS-related pathways were <10(-7) and <10(-5), respectively). MT-related gene alterations were more prominent in layer 3 pyramidal cells, whereas UPS-related gene alterations were more prominent in layer 5 pyramidal cells. Many of these alterations were not present, or found to a lesser degree, in samples of DLPFC gray matter from the same subjects, suggesting that they are pyramidal cell specific. Furthermore, these findings principally reflected alterations in the schizophrenia subjects were not present or present to a lesser degree in the schizoaffective disorder subjects (diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder was the most significant covariate, P<10(-6)) and were not attributable to factors frequently comorbid with schizophrenia. In summary, our findings reveal expression deficits in MT- and UPS-related genes specific to layer 3 and/or layer 5 pyramidal cells in the DLPFC of schizophrenia subjects. These cell type-specific transcriptome signatures are not characteristic of schizoaffective disorder, providing a potential molecular-cellular basis of differences in clinical phenotypes.
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353
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Volk DW, Chitrapu A, Edelson JR, Roman KM, Moroco AE, Lewis DA. Molecular mechanisms and timing of cortical immune activation in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2015; 172:1112-21. [PMID: 26133963 PMCID: PMC5063256 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Immune-related abnormalities are commonly reported in schizophrenia, including higher mRNA levels for the viral restriction factor interferon-induced transmembrane protein (IFITM) in the prefrontal cortex. The authors sought to clarify whether higher IFITM mRNA levels and other immune-related disturbances in the prefrontal cortex are the consequence of an ongoing molecular cascade contributing to immune activation or the reflection of a long-lasting maladaptive response to an in utero immune-related insult. METHOD Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was employed to measure mRNA levels for immune-related cytokines and transcriptional regulators, including those reported to regulate IFITM expression, in the prefrontal cortex from 62 schizophrenia and 62 healthy subjects and from adult mice exposed prenatally to maternal immune activation or in adulthood to the immune stimulant poly(I:C). RESULTS Schizophrenia subjects had markedly higher mRNA levels for interleukin 6 (IL-6) (+379%) and interferon-β (+29%), which induce IFITM expression; lower mRNA levels for Schnurri-2 (-10%), a transcriptional inhibitor that lowers IFITM expression; and higher mRNA levels for nuclear factor-κB (+86%), a critical transcription factor that mediates cytokine regulation of immune-related gene expression. In adult mice that received daily poly(I:C) injections, but not in offspring with prenatal exposure to maternal immune activation, frontal cortex mRNA levels were also markedly elevated for IFITM (+304%), multiple cytokines including IL-6 (+493%), and nuclear factor-κB (+151%). CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that higher prefrontal cortex IFITM mRNA levels in schizophrenia may be attributable to adult, but not prenatal, activation of multiple immune markers and encourage further investigation into the potential role of these and other immune markers as therapeutic targets in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Volk
- From the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa
| | - Anjani Chitrapu
- From the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa
| | - Jessica R Edelson
- From the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa
| | - Kaitlyn M Roman
- From the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa
| | - Annie E Moroco
- From the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa
| | - David A Lewis
- From the Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa
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354
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Cotel MC, Lenartowicz EM, Natesan S, Modo MM, Cooper JD, Williams SCR, Kapur S, Vernon AC. Microglial activation in the rat brain following chronic antipsychotic treatment at clinically relevant doses. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 25:2098-107. [PMID: 26321204 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of Schizophrenia (SCZ). In addition, there is increasing evidence for a relationship between the dose and duration of antipsychotic drug (APD) treatment and reductions in grey matter volume. The potential contribution of microglia to these phenomena is however not yet defined. Adult rats were treated with a common vehicle, haloperidol (HAL, 2 mg/kg/day) or olanzapine (OLZ, 10 mg/kg/day) for 8 weeks via an osmotic mini-pump implanted subcutaneously. Microglial cells, identified by their Iba-1 immunoreactivity, were quantified in four regions of interest chosen based on previous neuroimaging data: the hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex, corpus striatum, and secondary somatosensory cortex. Those cells were also analysed according to their morphology, providing an index of their activation state. Chronic APD treatment resulted in increased density of total microglia in the hippocampus, striatum, and somatosensory cortex, but not in the ACC. Importantly, in all brain regions studied, both APD tested led to a dramatic shift towards an amoeboid, reactive, microglial morphology after chronic treatment compared to vehicle-treated controls. These data provide the first in vivo evidence that chronic APD treatment at clinically relevant doses leads to microglial proliferation and morphological changes indicative of activated microglia in the naïve rat brain. Although caution needs to be exerted when extrapolating results from animals to patients, these data suggest a potential contribution of antipsychotic medication to markers of brain inflammation. Further investigation of the links between antipsychotic treatment and the immune system are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Caroline Cotel
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychosis Studies, PO63, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Ewelina M Lenartowicz
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychosis Studies, PO63, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Sridhar Natesan
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychosis Studies, PO63, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Michel M Modo
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, The James Black Centre, 125 Coldharbour Lane, London SE5 9NU, UK
| | - Jonathan D Cooper
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, The James Black Centre, 125 Coldharbour Lane, London SE5 9NU, UK
| | - Steven C R Williams
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Neuroimaging, PO89, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Shitij Kapur
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychosis Studies, PO63, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Anthony C Vernon
- King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Psychosis Studies, PO63, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK; King׳s College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, The James Black Centre, 125 Coldharbour Lane, London SE5 9NU, UK.
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355
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Bergon A, Belzeaux R, Comte M, Pelletier F, Hervé M, Gardiner EJ, Beveridge NJ, Liu B, Carr V, Scott RJ, Kelly B, Cairns MJ, Kumarasinghe N, Schall U, Blin O, Boucraut J, Tooney PA, Fakra E, Ibrahim EC. CX3CR1 is dysregulated in blood and brain from schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Res 2015; 168:434-43. [PMID: 26285829 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Revised: 08/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying schizophrenia remain largely unknown. Although schizophrenia is a mental disorder, there is increasing evidence to indicate that inflammatory processes driven by diverse environmental factors play a significant role in its development. With gene expression studies having been conducted across a variety of sample types, e.g., blood and postmortem brain, it is possible to investigate convergent signatures that may reveal interactions between the immune and nervous systems in schizophrenia pathophysiology. We conducted two meta-analyses of schizophrenia microarray gene expression data (N=474) and non-psychiatric control (N=485) data from postmortem brain and blood. Then, we assessed whether significantly dysregulated genes in schizophrenia could be shared between blood and brain. To validate our findings, we selected a top gene candidate and analyzed its expression by RT-qPCR in a cohort of schizophrenia subjects stabilized by atypical antipsychotic monotherapy (N=29) and matched controls (N=31). Meta-analyses highlighted inflammation as the major biological process associated with schizophrenia and that the chemokine receptor CX3CR1 was significantly down-regulated in schizophrenia. This differential expression was also confirmed in our validation cohort. Given both the recent data demonstrating selective CX3CR1 expression in subsets of neuroimmune cells, as well as behavioral and neuropathological observations of CX3CR1 deficiency in mouse models, our results of reduced CX3CR1 expression adds further support for a role played by monocyte/microglia in the neurodevelopment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Bergon
- INSERM, TAGC UMR_S 1090, 13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France; Aix Marseille Université, TAGC UMR_S 1090, 13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France
| | - Raoul Belzeaux
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, CRN2M UMR 7286, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France; FondaMental, Fondation de Recherche et de Soins en Santé Mentale, 94000 Créteil, France; AP-HM, Hôpital Sainte Marguerite, Pôle de Psychiatrie Universitaire Solaris, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Magali Comte
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Florence Pelletier
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, CRN2M UMR 7286, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France; FondaMental, Fondation de Recherche et de Soins en Santé Mentale, 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Mylène Hervé
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, CRN2M UMR 7286, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France; FondaMental, Fondation de Recherche et de Soins en Santé Mentale, 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Erin J Gardiner
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia
| | - Natalie J Beveridge
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia
| | - Bing Liu
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Kids Cancer Alliance, Cancer Institute NSW, Sydney, Australia
| | - Vaughan Carr
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia; School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW 2301, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Rodney J Scott
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia
| | - Brian Kelly
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia
| | - Murray J Cairns
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia
| | - Nishantha Kumarasinghe
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia; University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka; National Institute of Mental Health, Angoda, Sri Lanka
| | - Ulrich Schall
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia
| | - Olivier Blin
- CIC-UPCET et Pharmacologie Clinique, Hôpital de la Timone, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - José Boucraut
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, CRN2M UMR 7286, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France; FondaMental, Fondation de Recherche et de Soins en Santé Mentale, 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Paul A Tooney
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy and School of Medicine and Public Health, Faculty of Health, The University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Centre for Translational Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia; Hunter Medical Research Institute, New Lambton Heights, NSW 2305, Australia; Schizophrenia Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010 Australia
| | - Eric Fakra
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Institut de Neurosciences de la Timone UMR 7289, 13005 Marseille, France; CHU de Saint-Etienne, Pôle de Psychiatrie, 42100 Saint-Etienne, France
| | - El Chérif Ibrahim
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, CRN2M UMR 7286, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France; FondaMental, Fondation de Recherche et de Soins en Santé Mentale, 94000 Créteil, France.
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356
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Bakhshi K, Chance S. The neuropathology of schizophrenia: A selective review of past studies and emerging themes in brain structure and cytoarchitecture. Neuroscience 2015; 303:82-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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357
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Wang C, Aleksic B, Ozaki N. Glia-related genes and their contribution to schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2015; 69:448-61. [PMID: 25759284 DOI: 10.1111/pcn.12290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia, a debilitating disease with 1% prevalence in the general population, is characterized by major neuropsychiatric symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, and deficits in emotional and social behavior. Previous studies have directed their investigations on the mechanism of schizophrenia towards neuronal dysfunction and have defined schizophrenia as a 'neuron-centric' disorder. However, along with the development of genetics and systematic biology approaches in recent years, the crucial role of glial cells in the brain has also been shown to contribute to the etiopathology of schizophrenia. Here, we summarize comprehensive data that support the involvement of glial cells (including oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglial cells) in schizophrenia and list several acknowledged glia-related genes or molecules associated with schizophrenia. Instead of purely an abnormality of neurons in schizophrenia, an additional 'glial perspective' provides us a novel and promising insight into the causal mechanisms and treatment for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyao Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Branko Aleksic
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Norio Ozaki
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
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358
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Xu H. Neuroinflammation in Schizophrenia Focused on the Pharmacological and Therapeutic Evidence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.5567/pharmacologia.2015.438.453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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359
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Altered activation of innate immunity associates with white matter volume and diffusion in first-episode psychosis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125112. [PMID: 25970596 PMCID: PMC4430522 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
First-episode psychosis (FEP) is associated with inflammatory and brain structural changes, but few studies have investigated whether systemic inflammation associates with brain structural changes in FEP. Thirty-seven FEP patients (median 27 days on antipsychotic medication), and 19 matched controls were recruited. Serum levels of 38 chemokines and cytokines, and cardiovascular risk markers were measured at baseline and 2 months later. We collected T1- and diffusion-weighted MRIs with a 3 T scanner from the patients at baseline. We analyzed the association of psychosis-related inflammatory markers with gray and white matter (WM) volume using voxel-based morphometry and WM diffusion using tract-based spatial statistics with whole-brain and region-of-interest (ROI) analyses. FEP patients had higher CCL22 and lower TGFα, CXCL1, CCL7, IFN-α2 and ApoA-I than controls. CCL22 decreased significantly between baseline and 2 months in patients but was still higher than in controls. The association between inflammatory markers and FEP remained significant after adjusting for age, sex, smoking and BMI. We did not observe a correlation of inflammatory markers with any symptoms or duration of antipsychotic treatment. Baseline CCL22 levels correlated negatively with WM volume and positively with mean diffusivity and radial diffusivity bilaterally in the frontal lobes in ROI analyses. Decreased serum level of ApoA-I was associated with smaller volume of the medial temporal WM. In whole-brain analyses, CCL22 correlated positively with mean diffusivity and radial diffusivity, and CXCL1 associated negatively with fractional anisotropy and positively with mean diffusivity and radial diffusivity in several brain regions. This is the first report to demonstrate an association between circulating chemokine levels and WM in FEP patients. Interestingly, CCL22 has been previously implicated in autoimmune diseases associated with WM pathology. The results suggest that an altered activation of innate immunity may contribute to WM damage in psychotic disorders.
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360
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Wang X, Cairns MJ. Understanding complex transcriptome dynamics in schizophrenia and other neurological diseases using RNA sequencing. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 116:127-52. [PMID: 25172474 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801105-8.00006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
How the human brain develops and adapts with its trillions of functionally integrated synapses remains one of the greatest mysteries of life. With tremendous advances in neuroscience, genetics, and molecular biology, we are beginning to appreciate the scope of this complexity and define some of the parameters of the systems that make it possible. These same tools are also leading to advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of neurocognitive and neuropsychiatric disorders. Like the substrate for these problems, the etiology is usually complex-involving an array of genetic and environmental influences. To resolve these influences and derive better interventions, we need to reveal every aspect of this complexity and model their interactions and define the systems and their regulatory structure. This is particularly important at the tissue-specific molecular interface between the underlying genetic and environmental influence defined by the transcriptome. Recent advances in transcriptome analysis facilitated by RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) can provide unprecedented insight into the functional genomics of neurological disorders. In this review, we outline the advantages of this approach and highlight some early application of this technology in the investigation of the neuropathology of schizophrenia. Recent progress of RNA-Seq studies in schizophrenia has shown that there is extraordinary transcriptome dynamics with significant levels of alternative splicing. These studies only scratch the surface of this complexity and therefore future studies with greater depth and samples size will be vital to fully explore transcriptional diversity and its underlying influences in schizophrenia and provide the basis for new biomarkers and improved treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Wang
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Murray J Cairns
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medicine, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia; The Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia.
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361
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Abstract
Genetic and environmental studies implicate immune pathologies in schizophrenia. The body's largest immune organ is the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Historical associations of GI conditions with mental illnesses predate the introduction of antipsychotics. Current studies of antipsychotic-naïve patients support that gut dysfunction may be inherent to the schizophrenia disease process. Risk factors for schizophrenia (inflammation, food intolerances, Toxoplasma gondii exposure, cellular barrier defects) are part of biological pathways that intersect those operant in the gut. Central to GI function is a homeostatic microbial community, and early reports show that it is disrupted in schizophrenia. Bioactive and toxic products derived from digestion and microbial dysbiosis activate adaptive and innate immunity. Complement C1q, a brain-active systemic immune component, interacts with gut-related schizophrenia risk factors in clinical and experimental animal models. With accumulating evidence supporting newly discovered gut-brain physiological pathways, treatments to ameliorate brain symptoms of schizophrenia should be supplemented with therapies to correct GI dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily G Severance
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD, 21287-4933, USA,
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362
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Gomes FV, Llorente R, Del Bel EA, Viveros MP, López-Gallardo M, Guimarães FS. Decreased glial reactivity could be involved in the antipsychotic-like effect of cannabidiol. Schizophr Res 2015; 164:155-63. [PMID: 25680767 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
NMDA receptor hypofunction could be involved, in addition to the positive, also to the negative symptoms and cognitive deficits found in schizophrenia patients. An increasing number of data has linked schizophrenia with neuroinflammatory conditions and glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, have been related to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Cannabidiol (CBD), a major non-psychotomimetic constituent of Cannabis sativa with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties induces antipsychotic-like effects. The present study evaluated if repeated treatment with CBD (30 and 60 mg/kg) would attenuate the behavioral and glial changes observed in an animal model of schizophrenia based on the NMDA receptor hypofunction (chronic administration of MK-801, an NMDA receptor antagonist, for 28 days). The behavioral alterations were evaluated in the social interaction and novel object recognition (NOR) tests. These tests have been widely used to study changes related to negative symptoms and cognitive deficits of schizophrenia, respectively. We also evaluated changes in NeuN (a neuronal marker), Iba-1 (a microglia marker) and GFAP (an astrocyte marker) expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens core and shell, and dorsal hippocampus by immunohistochemistry. CBD effects were compared to those induced by the atypical antipsychotic clozapine. Repeated MK-801 administration impaired performance in the social interaction and NOR tests. It also increased the number of GFAP-positive astrocytes in the mPFC and the percentage of Iba-1-positive microglia cells with a reactive phenotype in the mPFC and dorsal hippocampus without changing the number of Iba-1-positive cells. No change in the number of NeuN-positive cells was observed. Both the behavioral disruptions and the changes in expression of glial markers induced by MK-801 treatment were attenuated by repeated treatment with CBD or clozapine. These data reinforces the proposal that CBD may induce antipsychotic-like effects. Although the possible mechanism of action of these effects is still unknown, it may involve CBD anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Furthermore, our data support the view that inhibition of microglial activation may improve schizophrenia symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe V Gomes
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil; Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Applied Neurosciences (NAPNA), University of São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Ricardo Llorente
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | - Elaine A Del Bel
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Applied Neurosciences (NAPNA), University of São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Physiology, Faculty of Odontology of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria-Paz Viveros
- Department of Physiology (Animal Physiology II), Faculty of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Francisco S Guimarães
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Brazil; Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Applied Neurosciences (NAPNA), University of São Paulo, Brazil.
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363
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Zhang F, Xu Y, Shugart YY, Yue W, Qi G, Yuan G, Cheng Z, Yao J, Wang J, Wang G, Cao H, Guo W, Zhou Z, Wang Z, Tian L, Jin C, Yuan J, Liu C, Zhang D. Converging evidence implicates the abnormal microRNA system in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2015; 41:728-35. [PMID: 25429046 PMCID: PMC4393688 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbu148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous findings are inconsistent; yet, converging evidence suggests an association between schizophrenia (SZ) and the impairment of posttranscriptional regulation of brain development through microRNA (miRNA) systems. METHODS This study aims to (1) compare the overall frequency of 121 rare variants (RVs) in 59 genes associated with the miRNA system in genome-wide association studies (GWAS)-derived data including 768 SZ cases and 1348 healthy controls and validated in an independent GWAS data including 1802 SZ cases and 1447 controls; (2) profile genome-wide miRNA expression in blood collected from 15 early-onset SZ (EOS) cases and 15 healthy controls; and (3) construct a miRNA-messenger RNA (mRNA) regulatory network using our previous genome-wide mRNA expression data generated from a separate sample of 18 EOS cases and 12 healthy controls. RESULTS Our findings indicate that: (1) In genes associated with the control of miRNAs, there are approximately 50% more RVs in SZ cases than in controls (P ≤ 2.62E-10); (2) The observed lower miRNA activity in EOS patients compared with the healthy controls suggests that miRNAs are abnormally downregulated; (3) There exists a predicted regulatory network among some downregulated miRNAs and some upregulated mRNAs. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, results from all 3 lines of evidence, suggest that the genetically based dysregulation of miRNA systems undermines miRNAs' inhibitory effects, resulting in the abnormal upregulation of genome transcription in the development of SZ.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yong Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Hospital of Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China;,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Yin Yao Shugart
- Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD;,Department of Gastroenterology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD;,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Weihua Yue
- Department of Psychiatry, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital and Institute for Mental Health of Peking University/Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China;,These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Guoyang Qi
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Guozhen Yuan
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zaohuo Cheng
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Jianjun Yao
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Jidong Wang
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Guoqiang Wang
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Hongbao Cao
- Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Wei Guo
- Division of Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Zhenhe Zhou
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Zhiqiang Wang
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Lin Tian
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Chunhui Jin
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Jianmin Yuan
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Wuxi Mental Health Center of Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Chenxing Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital and Institute for Mental Health of Peking University/Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China
| | - Dai Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital and Institute for Mental Health of Peking University/Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Beijing, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences/PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Since decades immunological aberrancies have been reported in schizophrenia patients. As schizophrenia represents a heterogenous disorder with a variety of clinical manifestations, complex interactions between the immune system in the brain might have important etiological implications. RECENT FINDINGS Recent findings of altered expression of immune-related genes, changes of peripheral and central cytokines, antibodies and immune cells point toward dysbalanced immune response processes in schizophrenia. SUMMARY Based on immunogenetic factors, immune dysfunctions caused by infections, increased autoimmune reactivity and low-grade inflammatory processes in the periphery as well as in central nervous system may affect neurobiological circuits including changed neurotransmitter metabolisms contributing to pathophysiological alterations in schizophrenia. These immunological abnormalities might provide tools for better diagnostic characterization of this heterogenous disease and on the other side, they may also support the development of immune-related therapeutic strategies.
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365
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Scarr E, Millan MJ, Bahn S, Bertolino A, Turck CW, Kapur S, Möller HJ, Dean B. Biomarkers for Psychiatry: The Journey from Fantasy to Fact, a Report of the 2013 CINP Think Tank. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 18:pyv042. [PMID: 25899066 PMCID: PMC4648162 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyv042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A think tank sponsored by the Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologium (CINP) debated the status and prospects of biological markers for psychiatric disorders, focusing on schizophrenia and major depressive disorder. METHODS Discussions covered markers defining and predicting specific disorders or domains of dysfunction, as well as predicting and monitoring medication efficacy. Deliberations included clinically useful and viable biomarkers, why suitable markers are not available, and the need for tightly-controlled sample collection. RESULTS Different types of biomarkers, appropriate sensitivity, specificity, and broad-based exploitability were discussed. Whilst a number of candidates are in the discovery phases, all will require replication in larger, real-life cohorts. Clinical cost-effectiveness also needs to be established. CONCLUSIONS Since a single measure is unlikely to suffice, multi-modal strategies look more promising, although they bring greater technical and implementation complexities. Identifying reproducible, robust biomarkers will probably require pre-competitive consortia to provide the resources needed to identify, validate, and develop the relevant clinical tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Scarr
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (Drs Scarr and Dean); The Molecular Psychiatry Laboratory, Florey Institute for Neuroscience and Mental Health, Victoria, Australia (Drs Scarr and Dean); Pole d'Innovation Thérapeutique en Neuropsychiatrie, Institut de Recherches Servier, Paris, France (Dr Millan); Cambridge Centre for Neuropsychiatric Research, University of Cambridge, UK (Dr Bahn); Pharma Research & Early Development, NORD, DTA, Hoffman - La Roche, Ltd., Basel, Switzerland (Dr Bertolino); School of Medicine, Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs (DMBNOS), University of Bari, Italy (Dr Bertolino); Department of Translational Research in Psychiatry, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany (Dr Turck); Institute of Psychiatry, Kings College London, London, UK (Dr Kapur); Department of Psychiatry, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany (Dr Möller)
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366
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Janelidze S, Suchankova P, Ekman A, Erhardt S, Sellgren C, Samuelsson M, Westrin A, Minthon L, Hansson O, Träskman-Bendz L, Brundin L. Low IL-8 is associated with anxiety in suicidal patients: genetic variation and decreased protein levels. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2015; 131:269-78. [PMID: 25251027 DOI: 10.1111/acps.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent studies indicate that inflammation may play a role in the pathophysiology of suicidality. Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is a chemokine that in addition to its function in the immune system also exert neuroprotective properties. The involvement of this chemokine in neuropsychiatric conditions is incompletely known. METHOD We measured plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) IL-8, as well as the genotype frequency of a single nucleotide polymorphism (-251A/T, rs4073) in the promoter region of the IL8 gene, in suicide attempters (n=206) and healthy controls (n=578). RESULTS Plasma and CSF levels of IL-8 were significantly lower in suicide attempters with anxiety than in healthy controls. IL-8 in both plasma and CSF correlated negatively with symptoms of anxiety. Compared with the population-based cohort, the IL-8-251T allele was more prevalent among female suicide attempters. Furthermore, suicide attempters carrying this allele showed more severe anxiety. This correlative study warrants further mechanistic studies on the effects of IL-8 in the central nervous system. CONCLUSION We suggest that IL-8 might be involved in the biological mechanisms mediating resilience to anxiety. Thus, our findings highlight the chemokine IL-8 as a potential target for future development of anti-anxiety treatments and suicide prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Janelidze
- Section for Psychiatry, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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367
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Michell-Robinson MA, Touil H, Healy LM, Owen DR, Durafourt BA, Bar-Or A, Antel JP, Moore CS. Roles of microglia in brain development, tissue maintenance and repair. Brain 2015; 138:1138-59. [PMID: 25823474 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awv066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The emerging roles of microglia are currently being investigated in the healthy and diseased brain with a growing interest in their diverse functions. In recent years, it has been demonstrated that microglia are not only immunocentric, but also neurobiological and can impact neural development and the maintenance of neuronal cell function in both healthy and pathological contexts. In the disease context, there is widespread consensus that microglia are dynamic cells with a potential to contribute to both central nervous system damage and repair. Indeed, a number of studies have found that microenvironmental conditions can selectively modify unique microglia phenotypes and functions. One novel mechanism that has garnered interest involves the regulation of microglial function by microRNAs, which has therapeutic implications such as enhancing microglia-mediated suppression of brain injury and promoting repair following inflammatory injury. Furthermore, recently published articles have identified molecular signatures of myeloid cells, suggesting that microglia are a distinct cell population compared to other cells of myeloid lineage that access the central nervous system under pathological conditions. Thus, new opportunities exist to help distinguish microglia in the brain and permit the study of their unique functions in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie A Michell-Robinson
- 1 Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Hanane Touil
- 1 Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Luke M Healy
- 1 Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - David R Owen
- 2 Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Bryce A Durafourt
- 1 Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Amit Bar-Or
- 1 Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jack P Antel
- 1 Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Craig S Moore
- 3 Division of BioMedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
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368
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Schwieler L, Larsson MK, Skogh E, Kegel ME, Orhan F, Abdelmoaty S, Finn A, Bhat M, Samuelsson M, Lundberg K, Dahl ML, Sellgren C, Schuppe-Koistinen I, Svensson CI, Erhardt S, Engberg G. Increased levels of IL-6 in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with chronic schizophrenia--significance for activation of the kynurenine pathway. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2015; 40:126-33. [PMID: 25455350 PMCID: PMC4354818 DOI: 10.1503/jpn.140126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accumulating evidence indicates that schizophrenia is associated with brain immune activation. While a number of reports suggest increased cytokine levels in patients with schizophrenia, many of these studies have been limited by their focus on peripheral cytokines or confounded by various antipsychotic treatments. Here, well-characterized patients with schizophrenia, all receiving olanzapine treatment, and healthy volunteers were analyzed with regard to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of cytokines. We correlated the CSF cytokine levels to previously analyzed metabolites of the kynurenine (KYN) pathway. METHODS We analyzed the CSF from patients and controls using electrochemiluminescence detection with regard to cytokines. Cell culture media from human cortical astrocytes were analyzed for KYN and kynurenic acid (KYNA) using high-pressure liquid chromatography or liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. RESULTS We included 23 patients and 37 controls in our study. Patients with schizophrenia had increased CSF levels of interleukin (IL)-6 compared with healthy volunteers. In patients, we also observed a positive correlation between IL-6 and the tryptophan:KYNA ratio, indicating that IL-6 activates the KYN pathway. In line with this, application of IL-6 to cultured human astrocytes increased cell medium concentration of KYNA. LIMITATIONS The CSF samples had been frozen and thawed twice before analysis of cytokines. Median age differed between patients and controls. When appropriate, all present analyses were adjusted for age. CONCLUSION We have shown that IL-6, KYN and KYNA are elevated in patients with chronic schizophrenia, strengthening the idea of brain immune activation in patients with this disease. Our concurrent cell culture and clinical findings suggest that IL-6 induces the KYN pathway, leading to increased production of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist KYNA in patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Göran Engberg
- Correspondence to: G. Engberg, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden;
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369
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Translational potential of olfactory mucosa for the study of neuropsychiatric illness. Transl Psychiatry 2015; 5:e527. [PMID: 25781226 PMCID: PMC4354342 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2014.141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The olfactory mucosa (OM) is a unique source of regenerative neural tissue that is readily obtainable from living human subjects and thus affords opportunities for the study of psychiatric illnesses. OM tissues can be used, either as ex vivo OM tissue or in vitro OM-derived neural cells, to explore parameters that have been difficult to assess in the brain of living individuals with psychiatric illness. As OM tissues are distinct from brain tissues, an understanding of the neurobiology of the OM is needed to relate findings in these tissues to those of the brain as well as to design and interpret ex vivo or in vitro OM studies. To that end, we discuss the molecular, cellular and functional characteristics of cell types within the olfactory mucosa, describe the organization of the OM and highlight its role in the olfactory neurocircuitry. In addition, we discuss various approaches to in vitro culture of OM-derived cells and their characterization, focusing on the extent to which they reflect the in vivo neurobiology of the OM. Finally, we review studies of ex vivo OM tissues and in vitro OM-derived cells from individuals with psychiatric, neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. In particular, we discuss the concordance of this work with postmortem brain studies and highlight possible future approaches, which may offer distinct strengths in comparison to in vitro paradigms based on genomic reprogramming.
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370
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Abnormal immune system development and function in schizophrenia helps reconcile diverse findings and suggests new treatment and prevention strategies. Brain Res 2015; 1617:93-112. [PMID: 25736181 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Extensive research implicates disturbed immune function and development in the etiology and pathology of schizophrenia. In addition to reviewing evidence for immunological factors in schizophrenia, this paper discusses how an emerging model of atypical immune function and development helps explain a wide variety of well-established - but puzzling - findings about schizophrenia. A number of theorists have presented hypotheses that early immune system programming, disrupted by pre- and perinatal adversity, often combines with abnormal brain development to produce schizophrenia. The present paper focuses on the hypothesis that disruption of early immune system development produces a latent immune vulnerability that manifests more fully after puberty, when changes in immune function and the thymus leave individuals more susceptible to infections and immune dysfunctions that contribute to schizophrenia. Complementing neurodevelopmental models, this hypothesis integrates findings on many contributing factors to schizophrenia, including prenatal adversity, genes, climate, migration, infections, and stress, among others. It helps explain, for example, why (a) schizophrenia onset is typically delayed until years after prenatal adversity, (b) individual risk factors alone often do not lead to schizophrenia, and (c) schizophrenia prevalence rates actually tend to be higher in economically advantaged countries. Here we discuss how the hypothesis explains 10 key findings, and suggests new, potentially highly cost-effective, strategies for treatment and prevention of schizophrenia. Moreover, while most human research linking immune factors to schizophrenia has been correlational, these strategies provide ethical ways to experimentally test in humans theories about immune function and schizophrenia. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Neuroimmunology in Health And Disease.
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371
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Dieset I, Haukvik UK, Melle I, Røssberg JI, Ueland T, Hope S, Dale AM, Djurovic S, Aukrust P, Agartz I, Andreassen OA. Association between altered brain morphology and elevated peripheral endothelial markers--implications for psychotic disorders. Schizophr Res 2015; 161:222-8. [PMID: 25433965 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and structural brain abnormalities have been reported in both schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, but the relationships between these factors are unknown. We aimed to identify associations between markers of inflammatory and endothelial activation and structural brain variation in psychotic disorders. METHODS We measured von Willebrand factor (vWf) as a marker of endothelial cell activation and six inflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor-receptor 1, osteoprotegerin, interleukin-1-receptor antagonist, interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, CD40 ligand) in plasma and 16 brain structures obtained from MRI scans of 356 individuals (schizophrenia spectrum; n=121, affective spectrum; n=95, healthy control subjects; n=140). The relationship between the inflammatory and endothelial markers and brain measurements were investigated across groups. RESULTS There was a positive association (p=2.5×10(-4)) between plasma levels of vWf and total volume of the basal ganglia which remained significant after correction for multiple testing. Treatment with first generation antipsychotics was associated with basal ganglia volume only (p=0.009). After adjusting for diagnosis and antipsychotic medication, vWf remained significantly associated with increased basal ganglia volume (p=0.008), in particular the right globus pallidus (p=3.7×10(-4)). The relationship between vWf and basal ganglia volume was linear in all groups, but the intercept was significantly higher in the schizophrenia group (df=2, F=8.2, p=3.4×10(-4)). CONCLUSION Our results show a strong positive correlation between vWf levels and basal ganglia volume, in particular globus pallidus, independent of diagnosis. vWf levels were significantly higher in schizophrenia, which could indicate a link between endothelial cell activation and basal ganglia morphology in schizophrenia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Dieset
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Unn Kristin Haukvik
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingrid Melle
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Ivar Røssberg
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Thor Ueland
- Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sigrun Hope
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anders M Dale
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Srdjan Djurovic
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pål Aukrust
- Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Section of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Norway
| | - Ingrid Agartz
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Prenatal administration of lipopolysaccharide induces sex-dependent changes in glutamic acid decarboxylase and parvalbumin in the adult rat brain. Neuroscience 2015; 287:78-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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373
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Severance EG, Gressitt KL, Alaedini A, Rohleder C, Enning F, Bumb JM, Müller JK, Schwarz E, Yolken RH, Leweke FM. IgG dynamics of dietary antigens point to cerebrospinal fluid barrier or flow dysfunction in first-episode schizophrenia. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 44:148-58. [PMID: 25241021 PMCID: PMC4275312 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a complex brain disorder that may be accompanied by idiopathic inflammation. Classic central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory disorders such as viral encephalitis or multiple sclerosis can be characterized by incongruent serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) IgG due in part to localized intrathecal synthesis of antibodies. The dietary antigens, wheat gluten and bovine milk casein, can induce a humoral immune response in susceptible individuals with schizophrenia, but the correlation between the food-derived serological and intrathecal IgG response is not known. Here, we measured IgG to wheat gluten and bovine milk casein in matched serum and CSF samples from 105 individuals with first-episode schizophrenia (n=75 antipsychotic-naïve), and 61 controls. We found striking correlations in the levels of IgG response to dietary proteins between serum and CSF of schizophrenia patients, but not controls (schizophrenia, R(2)=0.34-0.55, p⩽0.0001; controls R(2)=0.05-0.06, p>0.33). A gauge of blood-CSF barrier permeability and CSF flow rate, the CSF-to-serum albumin ratio, was significantly elevated in cases compared to controls (p⩽0.001-0.003). Indicators of intrathecal IgG production, the CSF IgG index and the specific Antibody Index, were not significantly altered in schizophrenia compared to controls. Thus, the selective diffusion of bovine milk casein and wheat gluten antibodies between serum and CSF in schizophrenia may be the function of a low-level anatomical barrier dysfunction or altered CSF flow rate, which may be transient in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily G. Severance
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933 U.S.A,Correspondence: Emily G. Severance, , tel: +1 410-614-3918, fax: +1 410-955-3723
| | - Kristin L. Gressitt
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933 U.S.A
| | - Armin Alaedini
- Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, 1130 Saint Nicholas Ave., ICRC 901B, New York, NY, 10032 U.S.A
| | - Cathrin Rohleder
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Frank Enning
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany,Department of Psychosomatics and Psychotherapeutic Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - J. Malte Bumb
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Juliane K. Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Emanuel Schwarz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Robert H. Yolken
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933 U.S.A
| | - F. Markus Leweke
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
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374
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Kahn RS, Sommer IE. The neurobiology and treatment of first-episode schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2015; 20:84-97. [PMID: 25048005 PMCID: PMC4320288 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2014] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
It is evident that once psychosis is present in patients with schizophrenia, the underlying biological process of the illness has already been ongoing for many years. At the time of diagnosis, patients with schizophrenia show decreased mean intracranial volume (ICV) as compared with healthy subjects. Since ICV is driven by brain growth, which reaches its maximum size at approximately 13 years of age, this finding suggests that brain development in patients with schizophrenia is stunted before that age. The smaller brain volume is expressed as decrements in both grey and white matter. After diagnosis, it is mainly the grey matter loss that progresses over time whereas white matter deficits are stable or may even improve over the course of the illness. To understand the possible causes of the brain changes in the first phase of schizophrenia, evidence from treatment studies, postmortem and neuroimaging investigations together with animal experiments needs to be incorporated. These data suggest that the pathophysiology of schizophrenia is multifactorial. Increased striatal dopamine synthesis is already evident before the time of diagnosis, starting during the at-risk mental state, and increases during the onset of frank psychosis. Cognitive impairment and negative symptoms may, in turn, result from other abnormalities, such as NMDA receptor hypofunction and low-grade inflammation of the brain. The latter two dysfunctions probably antedate increased dopamine synthesis by many years, reflecting the much earlier presence of cognitive and social dysfunction. Although correction of the hyperdopaminergic state with antipsychotic agents is generally effective in patients with a first-episode psychosis, the effects of treatments to correct NMDA receptor hypofunction or low-grade inflammation are (so far) rather modest at best. Improved efficacy of these interventions can be expected when they are applied at the onset of cognitive and social dysfunction, rather than at the onset of psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Kahn
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - I E Sommer
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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375
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Parrott JM, O'Connor JC. Kynurenine 3-Monooxygenase: An Influential Mediator of Neuropathology. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:116. [PMID: 26347662 PMCID: PMC4542134 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mounting evidence demonstrates that kynurenine metabolism may play an important pathogenic role in the development of multiple neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. The kynurenine pathway consists of two functionally distinct branches that generate both neuroactive and oxidatively reactive metabolites. In the brain, the rate-limiting enzyme for one of these branches, kynurenine 3-monooxygenase (KMO), is predominantly expressed in microglia and has emerged as a pivotal point of metabolic regulation. KMO substrate and expression levels are upregulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines and altered by functional genetic mutations. Increased KMO metabolism results in the formation of metabolites that activate glutamate receptors and elevate oxidative stress, while recent evidence has revealed neurodevelopmental consequences of reduced KMO activity. Together, the evidence suggests that KMO is positioned at a critical metabolic junction to influence the development or trajectory of a myriad of neurological diseases. Understanding the mechanism(s) by which alterations in KMO activity are able to impair neuronal function, and viability will enhance our knowledge of related disease pathology and provide insight into novel therapeutic opportunities. This review will discuss the influence of KMO on brain kynurenine metabolism and the current understanding of molecular mechanisms by which altered KMO activity may contribute to neurodevelopment, neurodegenerative, and neuropsychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Parrott
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA
| | - Jason C O'Connor
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Center for Biomedical Neuroscience, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Mood Disorders Translational Research Core, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio , San Antonio, TX , USA ; Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital, South Texas Veterans Health System , San Antonio, TX , USA
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376
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Najjar S, Pearlman DM. Neuroinflammation and white matter pathology in schizophrenia: systematic review. Schizophr Res 2015; 161:102-12. [PMID: 24948485 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neuroinflammation and white matter pathology have each been independently associated with schizophrenia, and experimental studies have revealed mechanisms by which the two can interact in vitro, but whether these abnormalities simultaneously co-occur in people with schizophrenia remains unclear. METHOD We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Web of Science from inception through 12 January 2014 for studies reporting human data on the relationship between microglial or astroglial activation, or cytokines and white matter pathology in schizophrenia. RESULTS Fifteen studies totaling 792 subjects (350 with schizophrenia, 346 controls, 49 with bipolar disorder, 37 with major depressive disorder and 10 with Alzheimer's disease) met all eligibility criteria. Five neuropathological and two neuroimaging studies collectively yielded consistent evidence of an association between schizophrenia and microglial activation, particularly in white rather than gray matter regions. Ultrastructural analysis revealed activated microglia near dystrophic and apoptotic oligodendroglia, demyelinating and dysmyelinating axons and swollen and vacuolated astroglia in subjects with schizophrenia but not controls. Two neuroimaging studies found an association between carrier status for a functional single nucleotide polymorphism in the interleukin-1β gene and abnormal white as well as gray matter volumes in schizophrenia but not controls. A neuropathological study found that orbitofrontal white matter neuronal density was increased in schizophrenia cases exhibiting high transcription levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines relative to those exhibiting low transcription levels and to controls. Schizophrenia was associated with decreased astroglial density specifically in subgenual cingulate white matter and anterior corpus callosum, but not other gray or white matter areas. Astrogliosis was consistently absent. Data on astroglial gene expression, mRNA expression and protein concentration were inconsistent. CONCLUSION Neuroinflammation is associated with white matter pathology in people with schizophrenia, and may contribute to structural and functional disconnectivity, even at the first episode of psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Souhel Najjar
- Neuroinflammation Research Group, Epilepsy Center Division, Department of Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States.
| | - Daniel M Pearlman
- Neuroinflammation Research Group, Epilepsy Center Division, Department of Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, New York, United States; The Dartmouth Institute of Health Policy and Clinical Practice, Audrey and Theodor Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, New Hampshire, United States
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377
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Glial cells as key players in schizophrenia pathology: recent insights and concepts of therapy. Schizophr Res 2015; 161:4-18. [PMID: 24948484 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The past decade has witnessed an explosion of knowledge on the impact of glia for the neurobiological foundation of schizophrenia. A plethora of studies have shown structural and functional abnormalities in all three types of glial cells. There is convincing evidence of reduced numbers of oligodendrocytes, impaired cell maturation and altered gene expression of myelin/oligodendrocyte-related genes that may in part explain white matter abnormalities and disturbed inter- and intra-hemispheric connectivity, which are characteristic signs of schizophrenia. Earlier reports of astrogliosis could not be confirmed by later studies, although the expression of a variety of astrocyte-related genes is abnormal in psychosis. Since astrocytes play a key role in the synaptic metabolism of glutamate, GABA, monoamines and purines, astrocyte dysfunction may contribute to certain aspects of disturbed neurotransmission in schizophrenia. Finally, increased densities of microglial cells and aberrant expression of microglia-related surface markers in schizophrenia suggest that immunological/inflammatory factors are of considerable relevance for the pathophysiology of psychosis. This review describes current evidence for the multifaceted role of glial cells in schizophrenia and discusses efforts to develop glia-directed therapies for the treatment of the disease.
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378
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Prasad KM, Upton CH, Nimgaonkar VL, Keshavan MS. Differential susceptibility of white matter tracts to inflammatory mediators in schizophrenia: an integrated DTI study. Schizophr Res 2015; 161:119-25. [PMID: 25449712 PMCID: PMC4277723 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.09.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2014] [Revised: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The pathophysiological underpinnings of impaired anatomical and functional connectivity are not precisely known. Emerging data suggest that immune mediators may underlie such dysconnectivity. We examined anatomical brain connections using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data in relation to interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels among early-course clinically stable schizophrenia subjects compared to healthy controls (HC). METHODS DTI data were acquired in 30 directions with 2 averages. Fractional anisotropy (FA) and radial diffusivity (RD) maps were separately processed using FSL4.1.9 and Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS). Threshold free cluster enhancements (TFCE) were examined employing familywise error (FWE) corrections for multiple testing within linear regression models including age, sex and socioeconomic status as covariates. IL-6 and CRP were assayed using highly sensitive and specific sandwich immunosorbent assays. RESULTS The groups did not differ in age and sex as well as in the IL-6 and CRP levels. IL-6 levels were negatively correlated with the FA and positively correlated with RD among schizophrenia subjects but not HC. The voxel clusters that showed significant correlations were localized to the forceps major, the inferior longitudinal fasciculus and the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus. CRP levels showed similar pattern except for lack of correlation with RD on any cluster that corresponded to the forceps major. DISCUSSION Our results suggest that the IL-6 and CRP contribute to impaired anisotropy of water diffusion in selected pathways that have been previously associated with schizophrenia suggesting differential susceptibility of selected neural pathways to immune mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konasale M Prasad
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Catherine H Upton
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Vishwajit L Nimgaonkar
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
| | - Matcheri S Keshavan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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379
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Li X, Teng S. RNA Sequencing in Schizophrenia. Bioinform Biol Insights 2015; 9:53-60. [PMID: 27053919 PMCID: PMC4818022 DOI: 10.4137/bbi.s28992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a serious psychiatric disorder that affects 1% of general population and places a heavy burden worldwide. The underlying genetic mechanism of SCZ remains unknown, but studies indicate that the disease is associated with a global gene expression disturbance across many genes. Next-generation sequencing, particularly of RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq), provides a powerful genome-scale technology to investigate the pathological processes of SCZ. RNA-Seq has been used to analyze the gene expressions and identify the novel splice isoforms and rare transcripts associated with SCZ. This paper provides an overview on the genetics of SCZ, the advantages of RNA-Seq for transcriptome analysis, the accomplishments of RNA-Seq in SCZ cohorts, and the applications of induced pluripotent stem cells and RNA-Seq in SCZ research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Department of Biology, Howard University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Shaolei Teng
- Department of Biology, Howard University, Washington, DC, USA
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380
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Pasternak O, Westin CF, Dahlben B, Bouix S, Kubicki M. The extent of diffusion MRI markers of neuroinflammation and white matter deterioration in chronic schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2015; 161:113-8. [PMID: 25126717 PMCID: PMC4277709 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
In a previous study we have demonstrated, using a novel diffusion MRI analysis called free-water imaging, that the early stages of schizophrenia are more likely associated with a neuroinflammatory response and less so with a white matter deterioration or a demyelination process. What is not known is how neuroinflammation and white matter deterioration change along the progression of the disorder. In this study we apply the free-water measures on a population of 29 chronic schizophrenia subjects and compare them with 25 matching controls. Our aim was to compare the extent of free-water imaging abnormalities in chronic subjects with the ones previously obtained for subjects at their first psychotic episode. We find that chronic subjects showed a limited extent of abnormal increase in the volume of the extracellular space, suggesting a less extensive neuroinflammatory response relative to patients at the onset of schizophrenia. At the same time, the chronic schizophrenia subjects had greater extent of reduced fractional anisotropy compared to the previous study, suggesting increased white matter deterioration along the progression of the disease. Our findings substantiate the role of neuroinflammation in the earlier stages of the disorder, and the effect of neurodegeneration that is worsening in the chronic phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofer Pasternak
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA; Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA.
| | - Carl-Fredrik Westin
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA
| | - Brian Dahlben
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA
| | - Sylvain Bouix
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA
| | - Marek Kubicki
- Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA; Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston 02215, MA, USA
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381
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Cytokine Serum Levels as Potential Biological Markers for the Psychopathology in Schizophrenia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1155/2014/493505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We discuss the role of immune system disturbance in schizophrenia and especially changes of serum levels of cytokines in patients with schizophrenia. The cytokines are essential to wide range of functions related to the defense of the organisms from infectious and environmental dangers. However it is not known whether cytokines influence the presentation of psychotic symptoms. Identification of changes in the serum level of certain cytokines and their correlation with distinct psychopathological symptoms may facilitate the identification of subgroups of patients who are likely to benefit from immunotherapy or anti-inflammatory therapy. Such patients may benefit from tailored immunotherapy designed for modulation of abnormal cytokine levels related to specific positive or negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
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382
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Luo X, Huang L, Han L, Luo Z, Hu F, Tieu R, Gan L. Systematic prioritization and integrative analysis of copy number variations in schizophrenia reveal key schizophrenia susceptibility genes. Schizophr Bull 2014; 40:1285-99. [PMID: 24664977 PMCID: PMC4193716 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbu045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a common mental disorder with high heritability and strong genetic heterogeneity. Common disease-common variants hypothesis predicts that schizophrenia is attributable in part to common genetic variants. However, recent studies have clearly demonstrated that copy number variations (CNVs) also play pivotal roles in schizophrenia susceptibility and explain a proportion of missing heritability. Though numerous CNVs have been identified, many of the regions affected by CNVs show poor overlapping among different studies, and it is not known whether the genes disrupted by CNVs contribute to the risk of schizophrenia. By using cumulative scoring, we systematically prioritized the genes affected by CNVs in schizophrenia. We identified 8 top genes that are frequently disrupted by CNVs, including NRXN1, CHRNA7, BCL9, CYFIP1, GJA8, NDE1, SNAP29, and GJA5. Integration of genes affected by CNVs with known schizophrenia susceptibility genes (from previous genetic linkage and association studies) reveals that many genes disrupted by CNVs are also associated with schizophrenia. Further protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis indicates that protein products of genes affected by CNVs frequently interact with known schizophrenia-associated proteins. Finally, systematic integration of CNVs prioritization data with genetic association and PPI data identifies key schizophrenia candidate genes. Our results provide a global overview of genes impacted by CNVs in schizophrenia and reveal a densely interconnected molecular network of de novo CNVs in schizophrenia. Though the prioritized top genes represent promising schizophrenia risk genes, further work with different prioritization methods and independent samples is needed to confirm these findings. Nevertheless, the identified key candidate genes may have important roles in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, and further functional characterization of these genes may provide pivotal targets for future therapeutics and diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiongjian Luo
- Flaum Eye Institute and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY; College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China;
| | - Liang Huang
- First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China;,Affiliated Eye Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China;,These authors contributed equally to the article
| | - Leng Han
- Department of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX;,These authors contributed equally to the article
| | - Zhenwu Luo
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, WuChang, Wuhan, China
| | - Fang Hu
- First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, Jiangxi, China;,Affiliated Eye Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Roger Tieu
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Lin Gan
- Flaum Eye Institute and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY;,College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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383
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Debnath M, Berk M. Th17 pathway-mediated immunopathogenesis of schizophrenia: mechanisms and implications. Schizophr Bull 2014; 40:1412-21. [PMID: 24711545 PMCID: PMC4193719 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbu049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a highly complex and severe neuropsychiatric disorder with an unknown etiopathology. Evidence for a dysregulated immune system in both the risk for and progression of schizophrenia has recently been overwhelming. Importantly, chronic low-grade inflammation both in the periphery and central nervous system has been shown to contribute predominantly to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia in a subset of individuals. Inflammation in the central nervous system is mediated by a range of proinflammatory cytokines, resident immune cells such as microglia, and brain infiltrating peripheral immunocompetent cells, such as T lymphocytes. Recently, Th17 cells, a subset of T helper cells have emerged as crucial players in mucosal defense against infections. It is linked to atopic, inflammatory, and autoimmune disorders. The risk factors/mechanisms leading to low-grade inflammation in schizophrenia are diverse and include infectious agents, stress, trauma, environmental toxins, genetic vulnerability, physical inactivity, obesity, poor diet, and sleep disruption. Herein, we propose that fetal programming of cellular immune components driven by intrauterine adversity can lead to the generation of long-lasting effector/memory Th17 cells. Th17 cells can disrupt the blood-brain barrier, infiltrate the central nervous system, and, along with other cytokines and microglia, lead to neuroprogression through neuroinflammation in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monojit Debnath
- Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India;
| | - Michael Berk
- IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia;,Department of Psychiatry, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Orygen Youth Health Research Centre, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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384
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Hercher C, Chopra V, Beasley CL. Evidence for morphological alterations in prefrontal white matter glia in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2014; 39:376-85. [PMID: 24936776 PMCID: PMC4214872 DOI: 10.1503/jpn.130277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Brain imaging studies suggest that volume reductions and compromised white matter integrity occur in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (BD). However, the cellular correlates have not yet been identified. To address this issue we assessed oligodendrocyte, astrocyte and microglial populations in postmortem white matter from schizophrenia, BD and nonpsychiatric control samples. METHODS The density, areal fraction and spatial distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-expressing astrocytes and ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule-1 (IBA-1)-expressing microglia as well as the density, nuclear size and spatial distribution of Nissl-stained oligodendrocytes were quantified in postmortem white matter adjacent to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 9) in schizophrenia, BD and control samples (n = 20). In addition, the oligodendrocyte-associated proteins myelin basic protein and 2,3-cyclic-nucleotide 3-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) were quantified in the same samples by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting. RESULTS Oligodendrocyte density (p = 0.012) and CNPase protein levels (p = 0.038) differed between groups, being increased in BD compared with control samples. The GFAP area fraction (p = 0.05) and astrocyte spatial distribution (p = 0.040) also differed between groups, reflecting decreased area fraction and increased cell clustering in both schizophrenia and BD samples. LIMITATIONS Oligodendrocytes were identified using morphological criteria. CONCLUSION This study provides evidence for glial pathology in prefrontal white matter in schizophrenia and BD. Changes in oligodendrocyte and astrocyte populations in white matter in the major psychiatric disorders may reflect disruptions in structural or metabolic support of axons.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Clare L. Beasley
- Correspondence to: C.L. Beasley, BC Mental Health and Addictions Research Institute, A3 115-938 West 28 Ave., Vancouver BC V5Z 4H4;
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385
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Applications of blood-based protein biomarker strategies in the study of psychiatric disorders. Prog Neurobiol 2014; 122:45-72. [PMID: 25173695 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Major psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, major depressive and bipolar disorders are severe, chronic and debilitating, and are associated with high disease burden and healthcare costs. Currently, diagnoses of these disorders rely on interview-based assessments of subjective self-reported symptoms. Early diagnosis is difficult, misdiagnosis is a frequent occurrence and there are no objective tests that aid in the prediction of individual responses to treatment. Consequently, validated biomarkers are urgently needed to help address these unmet clinical needs. Historically, psychiatric disorders are viewed as brain disorders and consequently only a few researchers have as yet evaluated systemic changes in psychiatric patients. However, promising research has begun to challenge this concept and there is an increasing awareness that disease-related changes can be traced in the peripheral system which may even be involved in the precipitation of disease onset and course. Converging evidence from molecular profiling analysis of blood serum/plasma have revealed robust molecular changes in psychiatric patients, suggesting that these disorders may be detectable in other systems of the body such as the circulating blood. In this review, we discuss the current clinical needs in psychiatry, highlight the importance of biomarkers in the field, and review a representative selection of biomarker studies to highlight opportunities for the implementation of personalized medicine approaches in the field of psychiatry. It is anticipated that the implementation of validated biomarker tests will not only improve the diagnosis and more effective treatment of psychiatric patients, but also improve prognosis and disease outcome.
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386
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Schmitt A, Malchow B, Keeser D, Falkai P, Hasan A. Neurobiologie der Schizophrenie. DER NERVENARZT 2014; 86:324-6, 328-31. [DOI: 10.1007/s00115-014-4115-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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387
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Catts VS, Wong J, Fillman SG, Fung SJ, Shannon Weickert C. Increased expression of astrocyte markers in schizophrenia: Association with neuroinflammation. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2014; 48:722-34. [PMID: 24744400 DOI: 10.1177/0004867414531078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE While schizophrenia may have a progressive component, the evidence for neurodegenerative processes as indicated by reactive astrocytes is inconclusive. We recently identified a subgroup of individuals with schizophrenia with increased expression of inflammatory markers in prefrontal cortex, and hypothesized that this subgroup would also have reactive astrocytes. METHOD We measured glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) mRNA by quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and protein levels by immunoblotting in grey matter homogenate from 37 individuals with schizophrenia and 37 unaffected controls. We examined the morphology of GFAP-positive astrocytes in immunostained sections of middle frontal gyrus. We tested if GFAP expression or astrocyte morphology were altered in people with schizophrenia with increased expression of inflammatory markers. We used RNA-Seq data on a subset of patients and controls (n=20/group) to ascertain whether mRNA transcripts associated with astrogliosis were elevated in the individuals with active neuroinflammation. RESULTS GFAP (mRNA and protein) levels and astrocyte morphology were not significantly different between people with schizophrenia and controls overall. However, individuals with schizophrenia with neuroinflammation had increased expression of GFAP mRNA (t(33)=2.978, p=0.005), hypertrophic astrocyte morphology (χ(2)(2)=6.281, p=0.043), and statistically significant elevated expression of three mRNA transcripts previously associated with astrogliosis. CONCLUSIONS We found clear evidence of astrogliosis in a subset of people with schizophrenia. We suggest that the lack of astrogliosis reported in previous studies may be due to cohort differences in aetiopathology, illness stage, treatment exposure, or a failure to examine subsets of people with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibeke Sørensen Catts
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Jenny Wong
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Stu Gregory Fillman
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Samantha Jane Fung
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, Australia Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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388
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Bipolar and panic disorders may be associated with hereditary defects in the innate immune system. J Affect Disord 2014; 164:148-54. [PMID: 24856568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Revised: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mannan-binding lectin (MBL) and mannan-binding lectin-associated serine protease-2 (MASP-2) represent important arms of the innate immune system, and different deficiencies may result in infections or autoimmune diseases. Both bipolar and panic disorders are associated with increased inflammatory response, infections and mutual comorbidity. However, associations with MBL, MASP-2 or the gene, MBL2, coding for MBL, have not been investigated thoroughly. METHODS One hundred patients with bipolar disorder, 100 with panic disorder and 349 controls were included. Serum concentrations of MBL and MASP-2 were measured and seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) influencing these concentrations were genotyped. Disease association with genetic markers and serum levels were investigated. RESULTS In panic disorder, we observed a large proportion (30%) of MBL deficient (<100ng/ml) individuals and significantly lower levels of MBL and MASP-2 plus association with the MBL2 YA two-marker haplotype. Bipolar disorder was associated with the MBL2 LXPA haplotype and lower MASP-2 levels. LIMITATIONS No information on course or severity of disorders was included, and only MBL and MASP-2 were measured, excluding other components from the complement pathway. Restrictions defined by ethnical committees preclude information of control׳s ethnic origin. CONCLUSIONS Significant differences in MBL and MASP-2 concentrations were observed between cohorts, especially an intriguing finding associating panic disorder with MBL deficiency. These differences could not be fully explained by allele or haplotype frequency variations. Since MBL deficiency is highly heterogeneous and associated with both infectious and autoimmune states, more research is needed to identify which complement pathway components could be associated with bipolar respectively panic disorder.
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389
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Siegel BI, Sengupta EJ, Edelson JR, Lewis DA, Volk DW. Elevated viral restriction factor levels in cortical blood vessels in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 76:160-7. [PMID: 24209773 PMCID: PMC3969896 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Revised: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Higher tissue transcript levels of immune-related markers-including the recently discovered viral restriction factor interferon-induced transmembrane protein (IFITM), which inhibits viral entry and replication-have been reported in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Interestingly, mouse models of neuroinflammation have higher IFITM levels and deficits in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-related markers that are similar to findings in schizophrenia, suggesting that a shared pathogenetic process might underlie diverse cortical pathology in the disorder. However, the cell types that overexpress IFITM messenger RNA (mRNA) in schizophrenia are unknown, and it is unclear whether higher IFITM mRNA levels are associated with lower GABA-related marker levels in the same schizophrenia subjects. METHODS We used quantitative polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization with film and grain counting analyses to quantify IFITM mRNA levels in prefrontal cortex area 9 of 57 schizophrenia and 57 healthy comparison subjects and in antipsychotic-exposed monkeys. RESULTS Quantitative polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization film analysis revealed markedly elevated IFITM mRNA levels (+114% and +117%, respectively) in prefrontal gray matter in schizophrenia. Interestingly, emulsion-dipped, Nissl-stained sections from schizophrenia and comparison subjects revealed IFITM mRNA expression in pia mater and blood vessels. The IFITM grain density over blood vessels was 71% higher in schizophrenia. The IFITM mRNA levels were negatively correlated with GABA-related mRNAs in the same schizophrenia subjects. CONCLUSIONS The finding that schizophrenia subjects with higher IFITM mRNA levels in cortical blood vessels have greater disturbances in cortical GABA neurons suggests that these cell-type distinct pathological disturbances might be influenced by a shared upstream insult that involves immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin I Siegel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Jessica R Edelson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - David A Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - David W Volk
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
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390
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Filiou MD, Arefin AS, Moscato P, Graeber MB. 'Neuroinflammation' differs categorically from inflammation: transcriptomes of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and inflammatory diseases compared. Neurogenetics 2014; 15:201-12. [PMID: 24928144 DOI: 10.1007/s10048-014-0409-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
'Neuroinflammation' has become a widely applied term in the basic and clinical neurosciences but there is no generally accepted neuropathological tissue correlate. Inflammation, which is characterized by the presence of perivascular infiltrates of cells of the adaptive immune system, is indeed seen in the central nervous system (CNS) under certain conditions. Authors who refer to microglial activation as neuroinflammation confuse this issue because autoimmune neuroinflammation serves as a synonym for multiple sclerosis, the prototypical inflammatory disease of the CNS. We have asked the question whether a data-driven, unbiased in silico approach may help to clarify the nomenclatorial confusion. Specifically, we have examined whether unsupervised analysis of microarray data obtained from human cerebral cortex of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and schizophrenia patients would reveal a degree of relatedness between these diseases and recognized inflammatory conditions including multiple sclerosis. Our results using two different data analysis methods provide strong evidence against this hypothesis demonstrating that very different sets of genes are involved. Consequently, the designations inflammation and neuroinflammation are not interchangeable. They represent different categories not only at the histophenotypic but also at the transcriptomic level. Therefore, non-autoimmune neuroinflammation remains a term in need of definition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela D Filiou
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstraße 2, 80804, Munich, Germany
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391
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Lewis DA. Inhibitory neurons in human cortical circuits: substrate for cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2014; 26:22-6. [PMID: 24650500 PMCID: PMC4024332 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 11/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a disorder of cognitive neurodevelopment. At least some of the core cognitive deficits of the illness appear to be the product of impaired gamma frequency oscillations which depend, in part, on the inhibitory actions of a subpopulation of cortical GABA neurons that express the calcium binding protein parvalbumin (PV). Recent studies have revealed new facets of the development of PV neurons in primate neocortex and of the nature of their molecular alterations in individuals with schizophrenia. Other recent studies in model systems provide insight into how these alterations may arise in the course of cortical circuitry development.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Lewis
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, United States.
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392
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O'Connell KE, Thakore J, Dev KK. Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels are raised in female schizophrenia patients treated with clozapine. Schizophr Res 2014; 156:1-8. [PMID: 24742875 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2014.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2013] [Revised: 02/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We have previously shown that the neurotrophic factor, S100B, is raised in serum samples of female patients with schizophrenia, but not male patients, compared to controls, and this may be associated with raised BMI. Here we analysed the levels of additional proinflammatory cytokines in patients with schizophrenia to further investigate these gender differences. METHODS The levels of six cytokines (IL1β, IL6, IL8, IL17, IL23, TNFα) were measured in serum samples obtained from patients with schizophrenia, treated with clozapine (n=91) and compared with healthy controls (n=50). Individual cytokine levels were measured using dot-immunoblotting methods and a 'cytokine signature' was also generated by summing all 6 cytokines. Treatment time, patient age, gender, illness severity and metabolic parameters were also measured. RESULTS The levels of proinflammatory cytokines and BMI were significantly raised in female, but not male, patients treated with clozapine compared to healthy controls. Compared to individual cytokines, the 'cytokine signature' analysis showed less scatter of data although this 'cytokine signature' method did not improve separation of individual patients and controls. CONCLUSIONS This study supports previous findings that raised BMI, which is likely associated with increased number of adipocytes, may contribute to increased cytokine serum concentrations in females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara E O'Connell
- Drug Development, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland; Neuroscience Center, St. Vincent's Hospital Fairview, Fairview, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jogin Thakore
- Neuroscience Center, St. Vincent's Hospital Fairview, Fairview, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Kumlesh K Dev
- Drug Development, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland.
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393
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Hagihara H, Ohira K, Takao K, Miyakawa T. Transcriptomic evidence for immaturity of the prefrontal cortex in patients with schizophrenia. Mol Brain 2014; 7:41. [PMID: 24886351 PMCID: PMC4066280 DOI: 10.1186/1756-6606-7-41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia, a severe psychiatric disorder, has a lifetime prevalence of 1%. The exact mechanisms underlying this disorder remain unknown, though theories abound. Recent studies suggest that particular cell types and biological processes in the schizophrenic cortex have a pseudo-immature status in which the molecular properties partially resemble those in the normal immature brain. However, genome-wide gene expression patterns in the brains of patients with schizophrenia and those of normal infants have not been directly compared. Here, we show that the gene expression patterns in the schizophrenic prefrontal cortex (PFC) resemble those in the juvenile PFC. RESULTS We conducted a gene expression meta-analysis in which, using microarray data derived from different studies, altered expression patterns in the dorsolateral PFC (DLFC) of patients with schizophrenia were compared with those in the DLFC of developing normal human brains, revealing a striking similarity. The results were replicated in a second DLFC data set and a medial PFC (MFC) data set. We also found that about half of the genes representing the transcriptomic immaturity of the schizophrenic PFC were developmentally regulated in fast-spiking interneurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Furthermore, to test whether medications, which often confound the results of postmortem analyses, affect on the juvenile-like gene expressions in the schizophrenic PFC, we compared the gene expression patterns showing transcriptomic immaturity in the schizophrenic PFC with those in the PFC of rodents treated with antipsychotic drugs. The results showed no apparent similarities between the two conditions, suggesting that the juvenile-like gene expression patterns observed in the schizophrenic PFC could not be accounted for by medication effects. Moreover, the developing human PFC showed a gene expression pattern similar to that of the PFC of naive Schnurri-2 knockout mice, an animal model of schizophrenia with good face and construct validity. This result also supports the idea that the transcriptomic immaturity of the schizophrenic PFC is not due to medication effects. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our results provide evidence that pseudo-immaturity of the PFC resembling juvenile PFC may be an endophenotype of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Hagihara
- Division of Systems Medical Science, Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
- CREST, JST, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Koji Ohira
- Division of Systems Medical Science, Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
- CREST, JST, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Keizo Takao
- CREST, JST, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
- Section of Behavior Patterns, Center for Genetic Analysis of Behavior, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, 38 Aza-Nishigo-naka, Myodaiji-cho, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Miyakawa
- Division of Systems Medical Science, Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
- CREST, JST, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
- Section of Behavior Patterns, Center for Genetic Analysis of Behavior, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, 38 Aza-Nishigo-naka, Myodaiji-cho, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
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394
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Driver DI, Anvari AA, Peroutka CM, Kataria R, Overman J, Lang D, Tietcheu M, Parker R, Baptiste K, Rapoport JL, Gogtay N. Management of clozapine-induced fever in a child. Am J Psychiatry 2014; 171:398-402. [PMID: 24687195 PMCID: PMC6594396 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13070866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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395
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES The purpose of this review is to analyse, sum up and discuss the available literature on the role of inflammation and inflammatory cytokines in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. METHODS An electronic literature search of peer-reviewed English language articles using Pubmed was undertaken. These articles together with those published by us provided the background for the present review. RESULTS An overview of the available literature on this issue clearly demonstrated the alterations in mRNA and protein expression levels of several proinflammatory and chemotactic cytokines in patients with schizophrenia. Importantly, some of these changes are genetically determined. It was noteworthy that, depending on the study population, some variations of the data obtained are detected. CONCLUSIONS Altered inflammatory cytokine production, both genetically and environmentally determined, is implicated in schizophrenia and contributes to disease-associated low-grade systemic inflammation. Proinflammatory and chemotactic cytokines and their receptors may represent additional therapeutic targets for treatment of schizophrenia.
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396
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Kohen R, Dobra A, Tracy JH, Haugen E. Transcriptome profiling of human hippocampus dentate gyrus granule cells in mental illness. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4:e366. [PMID: 24594777 PMCID: PMC3966046 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2014.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study is, to the best of our knowledge, the first application of whole transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) to cells isolated from postmortem human brain by laser capture microdissection. We investigated the transcriptome of dentate gyrus (DG) granule cells in postmortem human hippocampus in 79 subjects with mental illness (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression) and nonpsychiatric controls. We show that the choice of normalization approach for analysis of RNA-seq data had a strong effect on results; under our experimental conditions a nonstandard normalization method gave superior results. We found evidence of disrupted signaling by miR-182 in mental illness. This was confirmed using a novel method of leveraging microRNA genetic variant information to indicate active targeting. In healthy subjects and those with bipolar disorder, carriers of a high- vs those with a low-expressing genotype of miR-182 had different levels of miR-182 target gene expression, indicating an active role of miR-182 in shaping the DG transcriptome for those subject groups. By contrast, comparing the transcriptome between carriers of different genotypes among subjects with major depression and schizophrenia suggested a loss of DG miR-182 signaling in these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Kohen
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, 1959 Pacific Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98195-6560, USA. E-mail:
| | - A Dobra
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,Department of Biobehavioral Nursing and Health Systems, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,Center for Statistics and The Social Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - J H Tracy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - E Haugen
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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397
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Onaivi ES, Schanz N, Lin ZC. Psychiatric disturbances regulate the innate immune system in CSF of conscious mice. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4:e367. [PMID: 24594778 PMCID: PMC3966044 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2014.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Environment may affect brain activity through cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) only if there are regulatory molecules or cascades in CSF that are sensitive to external stimuli. This study was designed to identify regulatory activity present in CSF, better elucidating environmental regulation of brain function. By using cannulation-based sequential CSF sampling coupled with mass spectrometry-based identification and quantification of proteins, we show that the naive mouse CSF harbors, among 22 other pathways, the innate immune system as a main pathway, which was downregulated and upregulated, respectively, by acute stressor (AS) and acute cocaine (AC) administrations. Among novel processes and molecular functions, AS also regulated schizophrenia-associated proteins. Furthermore, AC upregulated exosome-related proteins with a false discovery rate of 1.0 × 10(-)(16). These results suggest that psychiatric disturbances regulate the neuroimmune system and brain disorder-related proteins, presenting a sensitive approach to investigating extracellular mechanisms in conscious and various mouse models of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- E S Onaivi
- Department of Biology, William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ, USA
| | - N Schanz
- Department of Biology, William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ, USA
| | - Z C Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA,NeuroDiscovery Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA,Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurogenomics, Division of Alcohol and Drug Abuse, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, USA,Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurogenomics, Division of Alcohol and Drug Abuse, McLean Hospital Mailstop 318, 115 Mill Street, Belmont 02478, MA, USA. E-mail:
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398
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Yu H, Bi W, Liu C, Zhao Y, Zhang JF, Zhang D, Yue W. Protein-interaction-network-based analysis for genome-wide association analysis of schizophrenia in Han Chinese population. J Psychiatr Res 2014; 50:73-8. [PMID: 24365204 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 11/10/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder with a strong and complex genetic background. Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have successfully identified several susceptibility loci of schizophrenia. In order to interpret the functional role of the genetic variants and detect the combined effects of some of these genes on schizophrenia, protein-interaction-network-based analysis (PINBA) has emerged as an effective approach. In the current study, we conducted a PINBA of our previous GWAS data taken from the Han Chinese population. In order to do so, we used dense module search (DMS), a method that locates densely connected modules for complex diseases by integrating the association signal from GWAS datasets into the human protein-protein interaction (PPI) network. As a result, we identified one gene set with a joint effect significantly associated with schizophrenia and gene expression profiling analysis suggested that they were mainly neuro- and immune-related genes, such as glutamatergic gene (GRM5), GABAergic genes (GABRB1, GABARAP) and genes located in the MHC region (HLA-C, TAP2, HIST1H1B). Further pathway enrichment analysis suggested that these genes are involved in processes related to neuronal and immune systems, such as the Adherens junction pathway, the Neurotrophin signaling pathway and the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway. In our study, we identified a set of susceptibility genes that had been missed in single-marker GWAS, and our findings could promote the study of the genetic mechanisms in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Yu
- Institute of Mental Health, Peking University, 51 Hua Yuan Bei Road, Beijing 100191, China; Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Institute of Mental Health, The Sixth Hospital, Peking University, China
| | - Wenjian Bi
- Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chenxing Liu
- Institute of Mental Health, Peking University, 51 Hua Yuan Bei Road, Beijing 100191, China; Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Institute of Mental Health, The Sixth Hospital, Peking University, China
| | - Yanlong Zhao
- Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ji-Feng Zhang
- Academy of Mathematics and Systems Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dai Zhang
- Institute of Mental Health, Peking University, 51 Hua Yuan Bei Road, Beijing 100191, China; Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Institute of Mental Health, The Sixth Hospital, Peking University, China; Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, PR China; PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Weihua Yue
- Institute of Mental Health, Peking University, 51 Hua Yuan Bei Road, Beijing 100191, China; Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Ministry of Health, Institute of Mental Health, The Sixth Hospital, Peking University, China.
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399
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Fillman SG, Sinclair D, Fung SJ, Webster MJ, Shannon Weickert C. Markers of inflammation and stress distinguish subsets of individuals with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4:e365. [PMID: 24569695 PMCID: PMC3944638 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2014.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder share a number of common features, both symptomatically and biologically. Abnormalities in the neuroimmune and the stress-signaling pathways have been previously identified in brains of individuals with both diseases. However, the possible relationship between abnormalities in stress and neuroimmune signaling within the cortex of people with psychotic illness has not been defined. To test the hypothesis that combined alterations in brain stress responsiveness and neuroimmune/inflammatory status are characteristic of some individuals suffering from major mental illness, we examined gene expression in the Stanley Array Cohort of 35 controls, 35 individuals with schizophrenia and 34 individuals with bipolar disorder. We used levels of 8 inflammatory-related transcripts, of which SERPINA3 was significantly elevated in individuals with schizophrenia (F(2,88)=4.137, P<0.05), and 12 glucocorticoid receptor signaling (stress) pathway transcripts previously examined, to identify two clusters of individuals: a high inflammation/stress group (n=32) and a low (n=68) inflammation/stress group. The high inflammation/stress group has a significantly greater number of individuals with schizophrenia (n=15), and a trend toward having more bipolar disorder individuals (n=11), when compared with controls (n=6). Using these subgroups, we tested which microarray-assessed transcriptional changes may be associated with high inflammatory/stress groups using ingenuity analysis and found that an extended network of gene expression changes involving immune, growth factors, inhibitory signaling and cell death factors also distinguished these groups. Our work demonstrates that some of the heterogeneity in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder may be partially explained by inflammation/stress interactions, and that this biological subtype cuts across Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-defined categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G Fillman
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - D Sinclair
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatric Signaling Program, Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - S J Fung
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - M J Webster
- Laboratory of Brain Research, Stanley Medical Research Institute, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - C Shannon Weickert
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Schizophrenia Research Laboratory, Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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400
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Fung SJ, Joshi D, Fillman SG, Weickert CS. High white matter neuron density with elevated cortical cytokine expression in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 75:e5-7. [PMID: 23830667 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Fung
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia.
| | - Dipesh Joshi
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia
| | - Stu G Fillman
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia
| | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- Schizophrenia Research Institute, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia; School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Randwick, Australia
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