Interleukin-10 is a growth factor for human melanoma cells and down-regulates HLA class-I, HLA class-II and ICAM-1 molecules

Interleukin-10 induces TNF-driven apoptosis and ROS production in salivary gland cancer cells

Treatment resistance after chemo-/immunotherapy occurs in patients with head and neck squamous cell cancers (HNSCs), including salivary gland cancers (SGCs). Interleukin-10 (IL-10), a cytokine with pro- and anti-cancer effects, has an unclear impact on HNSC/SGC cells. We show that HNSC patients exhibiting high expression of IL-10 and its receptor IL-10Rα experience have prolonged overall survival. Immunoreactive IL-10 was low in ductal cells of human SGC biopsies. Human (A253) and murine WR21-SGC cells expressed IL-10Rβ, but only A253 cells expressed IL-10 and IL-10Rα. The addition of recombinant IL-10 impaired SGC cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in vitro. N-acetylcysteine restored IL-10-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production but did not prevent IL-10-mediated viability loss. Mechanistically, recIL-10 delayed cell cycle progression from G0/G1 to the S phase with cyclin D downregulation and upregulation of NF-kB. IL-10 increased tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in A253 and WR21 and FasL in WR21 cells. Neutralizing antibodies against TNF-α and NF-kB inhibition restored SGC proliferation after IL-10 treatment, emphasizing the critical role of TNF-α and NF-kB in IL-10-mediated anti-tumor effects. These findings underscore the potential of IL-10 to impede SGC cell growth through apoptosis induction, unraveling potential therapeutic targets for intervention in salivary gland carcinomas.

A peptide derived from interleukin-10 exhibits potential anticancer activity and can facilitate cell targeting of gold nanoparticles loaded with anticancer therapeutics

Human interleukin-10 (IL-10) is an immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory cytokine, and its expression is upregulated in tumor tissues and serum samples of patients with various cancers. Because of its immunosuppressive nature, IL-10 has also been suggested to be a factor leading to tumor cells' evasion of immune surveillance and clearance by the host immune system. In this study, we refined a peptide with 20 amino acids, named NK20a, derived from the binding region of IL-10 on the basis of in silico analysis of the complex structure of IL-10 with IL-10Ra, the ligand binding subunit of the IL-10 receptor. The binding ability of the peptide was confirmed through in vitro biophysical biolayer interferometry and cellular experiments. The IL-10 inhibitory peptide exerted anticancer effects on lymphoma B cells and could abolish the suppression effect of IL-10 on macrophages. NK20a was also conjugated with gold nanoparticles to target the chemotherapeutic 5-fluorouracil (5-FU)-loaded nanoparticles to enhance the anticancer efficacy of 5-FU against the breast cancer cell line BT-474. Our study demonstrated that NK20a designed in silico with improved binding affinity to the IL-10 receptor can be used as a tool in developing anticancer strategies.

Ocular immune privilege and retinal pigment epithelial cells

The ocular tissue microenvironment is immune-privileged and uses multiple immunosuppressive mechanisms to prevent the induction of inflammation. The retinal pigment epithelium plays an essential role in ocular immune privilege. In addition to serving as a blood barrier separating the fenestrated choriocapillaris from the retina, the retinal pigment epithelium is a source of immunosuppressive cytokines and membrane-bound negative regulators that modulate the activity of immune cells within the retina. This article reviews the current understanding of how retinal pigment epithelium cells mediate immune regulation, focusing on the changes under pathologic conditions.

Heterogeneity and Functions of Tumor-Infiltrating Antibody Secreting Cells: Lessons from Breast, Ovarian, and Other Solid Cancers

Simple Summary

B cells are gaining increasing recognition as important contributors to the tumor microenvironment, influencing, positively or negatively, tumor growth, patient survival, and response to therapies. Antibody secreting cells (ASCs) constitute a variable fraction of tumor-infiltrating B cells in most solid tumors, and they produce tumor-specific antibodies that can drive distinct immune responses depending on their isotypes and specificities. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of the heterogeneity of ASCs infiltrating solid tumors and how both their canonical and noncanonical functions shape antitumor immunity, with a special emphasis on breast and ovarian cancers.

Abstract

Neglected for a long time in cancer, B cells and ASCs have recently emerged as critical actors in the tumor microenvironment, with important roles in shaping the antitumor immune response. ASCs indeed exert a major influence on tumor growth, patient survival, and response to therapies. The mechanisms underlying their pro- vs. anti-tumor roles are beginning to be elucidated, revealing the contributions of their secreted antibodies as well as of their emerging noncanonical functions. Here, concentrating mostly on ovarian and breast cancers, we summarize the current knowledge on the heterogeneity of tumor-infiltrating ASCs, we discuss their possible local or systemic origin in relation to their immunoglobulin repertoire, and we review the different mechanisms by which antibody (Ab) subclasses and isoforms differentially impact tumor cells and anti-tumor immunity. We also discuss the emerging roles of cytokines and other immune modulators produced by ASCs in cancer. Finally, we propose strategies to manipulate the tumor ASC compartment to improve cancer therapies.

IL-10 in cancer: an essential thermostatic regulator between homeostatic immunity and inflammation - a comprehensive review

Cytokines are soluble proteins that mediate intercellular signaling regulating immune and inflammatory responses. Cytokine modulation represents a promising cancer immunotherapy approach for immune-mediated tumor regression. However, redundancy in cytokine signaling and cytokines' pleiotropy, narrow therapeutic window, systemic toxicity, short half-life and limited efficacy represent outstanding challenges for cytokine-based cancer immunotherapies. Recently, there has been interest in the paradoxical role of IL-10 in cancer, its controversial prognostic utility and novel strategies to enhance its therapeutic profile. Here, the authors review the literature surrounding the role of IL-10 within the tumor microenvironment, its prognostic correlates to cancer patient outcomes and its pro- and antitumor effects, and they assess the legitimacy of potential therapeutic strategies harnessing IL-10 by outlining the notable preclinical and clinical evidence to date.

Tumor Secretome to Adoptive Cellular Immunotherapy: Reduce Me Before I Make You My Partner

Adoptive cellular immunotherapy using chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells and Natural Killer (NK) cells are common immune cell sources administered to treat cancer patients. In detail, whereas CAR-T cells induce outstanding responses in a subset of hematological malignancies, responses are much more deficient in solid tumors. Moreover, NK cells have not shown remarkable results up to date. In general, immune cells present high plasticity to change their activity and phenotype depending on the stimuli they receive from molecules secreted in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Consequently, immune cells will also secrete molecules that will shape the activities of other neighboring immune and tumor cells. Specifically, NK cells can polarize to activities as diverse as angiogenic ones instead of their killer activity. In addition, tumor cell phagocytosis by macrophages, which is required to remove dying tumor cells after the attack of NK cells or CAR-T cells, can be avoided in the TME. In addition, chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatments can induce senescence in tumor cells modifying their secretome to a known as “senescence-associated secretory phenotype” (SASP) that will also impact the immune response. Whereas the SASP initially attracts immune cells to eliminate senescent tumor cells, at high numbers of senescent cells, the SASP becomes detrimental, impacting negatively in the immune response. Last, CAR-T cells are an attractive option to overcome these events. Here, we review how molecules secreted in the TME by either tumor cells or even by immune cells impact the anti-tumor activity of surrounding immune cells.

Deregulation of HLA-I in cancer and its central importance for immunotherapy

It is now well accepted that many tumors undergo a process of clonal selection which means that tumor antigens arising at various stages of tumor progression are likely to be represented in just a subset of tumor cells. This process is thought to be driven by constant immunosurveillance which applies selective pressure by eliminating tumor cells expressing antigens that are recognized by T cells. It is becoming increasingly clear that the same selective pressure may also select for tumor cells that evade immune detection by acquiring deficiencies in their human leucocyte antigen (HLA) presentation pathways, allowing important tumor antigens to persist within cells undetected by the immune system. Deficiencies in antigen presentation pathway can arise by a variety of mechanisms, including genetic and epigenetic changes, and functional antigen presentation is a hard phenomenon to assess using our standard analytical techniques. Nevertheless, it is likely to have profound clinical significance and could well define whether an individual patient will respond to a particular type of therapy or not. In this review we consider the mechanisms by which HLA function may be lost in clinical disease, we assess the implications for current immunotherapy approaches using checkpoint inhibitors and examine the prognostic impact of HLA loss demonstrated in clinical trials so far. Finally, we propose strategies that might be explored for possible patient stratification.

Identification of bacteria-derived HLA-bound peptides in melanoma

A variety of species of bacteria are known to colonize human tumours1-11, proliferate within them and modulate immune function, which ultimately affects the survival of patients with cancer and their responses to treatment12-14. However, it is not known whether antigens derived from intracellular bacteria are presented by the human leukocyte antigen class I and II (HLA-I and HLA-II, respectively) molecules of tumour cells, or whether such antigens elicit a tumour-infiltrating T cell immune response. Here we used 16S rRNA gene sequencing and HLA peptidomics to identify a peptide repertoire derived from intracellular bacteria that was presented on HLA-I and HLA-II molecules in melanoma tumours. Our analysis of 17 melanoma metastases (derived from 9 patients) revealed 248 and 35 unique HLA-I and HLA-II peptides, respectively, that were derived from 41 species of bacteria. We identified recurrent bacterial peptides in tumours from different patients, as well as in different tumours from the same patient. Our study reveals that peptides derived from intracellular bacteria can be presented by tumour cells and elicit immune reactivity, and thus provides insight into a mechanism by which bacteria influence activation of the immune system and responses to therapy.

miRNA and mRNA expression profiling reveals potential biomarkers for metastatic cutaneous melanoma

Purpose: This study aims to uncover potential biomarkers associated with cutaneous melanoma (CM) metastasis.Methods: The mRNA and microRNA (miRNA) expression data from the metastatic CM and non-metastatic CM population were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. Functional analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI), and survival analysis were performed for differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) and miRNAs (DEmiRNAs). The interaction between DEmRNAs and DEmiRNAs was analyzed. The expression of several key DEmRNAs and DEmiRNAs was validated by Gene Expression Omnibus datasets.Results: Overall, 1172 DEmRNAs and 26 DEmiRNAs were identified from metastatic and non-metastatic CM. Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and chemokine signaling pathway were key pathways. CXCR1, CXCR2, CXCR4, CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 were hub genes in the PPI network. Among these, miR-29 c-3p, miR-100-5p, miR-150-5p, and miR-150-3p were not only diagnostic biomarkers but also related to survival time. miR-203a-3p interacted with CCR5 and LIFR, while miR-224-5p was strongly associated with CXCR4. LIFR, CXCR1, CXCR2, CXCR4, CCR1, CCR2, and CCR5 were enriched in the cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway. The levels of seven DEmRNAs (CXCR1, CXCR2, CXCR4, CCR1, CCR2, CCR5, and LIFR) and two DEmiRNAs (miR-203a-3p and miR-224-5p) were validated using the GSE65568 and GSE109244 datasets, respectively.Conclusion: Our findings may provide novel biomarkers for CM metastasis.[Formula: see text].

Hepatitis C Virus RNA Transcript Associates with Prognosis in Non-human Papillomavirus Associated Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) was reported to associate with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) in many studies. However, its correlation with prognosis of non-human papillomavirus (HPV) associated HNSCC remains unknown. Here, we sought to investigate clinical significance of HCV RNA transcript in non-HPV associated HNSCC by analyzing corresponding RNA-seq data.

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study.

METHODS

Four hundred and forty-eight non-HPV associated HNSCC patients with aligned RNA-seq and clinical follow-up data were included and divided into two groups: low-HCV and high-HCV. Means of continuous variables and proportions of categorical variables were compared using independent sample t-test and chi-square test, respectively. Survival data were compared using Cox regression analysis, Kaplan-Meier curves, and log-rank test. Expression of genome-wide mRNAs and abundance of immune cells were compared using volcano plot and cell signature estimated score analysis.

RESULTS

HCV RNA transcript negatively correlates with pathologic (P = .028) and clinical-stage (P = .023), clinical N stage (P = .025), and nodal extracapsular spread (P = .042) and is an independent prognosis factor in non-HPV associated HNSCC (HR = 1.488; 95% CI: 1.004-2.206; P = .048). Elevated expression of HCV improved 5-year overall survival (43.6% vs. 53.2%; P = .035) in all non-HPV associated HNSCC patients, the same as in male (46.6% vs. 58.7%; P = .049), clinical M0 stage (42.8% vs. 52.9%; P = .036), white (42.9% vs. 55.9%; P = .010), and histologic grade 1 to 2 subgroups (42.1% vs. 57.2%; P = .043). The expression of several immune-related genes and abundance of some immune cells significantly changed with the increase of HCV RNA transcript, while HCV-related oncogenes and tumor suppressor gene did not.

CONCLUSIONS

HCV RNA transcript is an independent favorable factor for prognosis of non-HPV associated HNSCC.

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 131:1774-1781, 2021.

OX40 costimulation by a chimeric antigen receptor abrogates CD28 and IL-2 induced IL-10 secretion by redirected CD4(+) T cells

Adoptive therapy with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) redirected T cells recently showed remarkable anti-tumor efficacy in early phase clinical trials; self-repression of the immune response by T-cell secreted cytokines, however, is still an issue raising interest to abrogate the secretion of repressive cytokines while preserving the panel of CAR induced pro-inflammatory cytokines. We here revealed that T-cell activation by a CD28-ζ signaling CAR induced IL-10 secretion, which compromises T cell based immunity, along with the release of pro-inflammatory IFN-γ and IL-2. T cells stimulated by a ζ CAR without costimulation did not secrete IL-2 or IL-10; the latter, however, could be induced by supplementation with IL-2. Abrogation of CD28-ζ CAR induced IL-2 release by CD28 mutation did not reduce IL-10 secretion indicating that IL-10 can be induced by both a CD28 and an IL-2 mediated pathway. In contrast to the CD28-ζ CAR, a CAR with OX40 (CD134) costimulation did not induce IL-10. OX40 cosignaling by a 3rd generation CD28-ζ-OX40 CAR repressed CD28 induced IL-10 secretion but did not affect the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, T-cell amplification or T-cell mediated cytolysis. IL-2 induced IL-10 was also repressed by OX40 co-signaling. OX40 moreover repressed IL-10 secretion by regulatory T cells which are strong IL-10 producers upon activation. Taken together OX40 cosignaling in CAR redirected T cell activation effectively represses IL-10 secretion which contributes to counteract self-repression and provides a rationale to explore OX40 co-signaling CARs in order to prolong a redirected T cell response.

Melanoma Cell Resistance to Vemurafenib Modifies Inter-Cellular Communication Signals

The therapeutic success of BRAF inhibitors (BRAFi) and MEK inhibitors (MEKi) in BRAF-mutant melanoma is limited by the emergence of drug resistance, and several lines of evidence suggest that changes in the tumor microenvironment can play a pivotal role in acquired resistance. The present study focused on secretome profiling of melanoma cells sensitive or resistant to the BRAFi vemurafenib. Proteomic and cytokine/chemokine secretion analyses were performed in order to better understand the interplay between vemurafenib-resistant melanoma cells and the tumor microenvironment. We found that vemurafenib-resistant melanoma cells can influence dendritic cell (DC) maturation by modulating their activation and cytokine production. In particular, human DCs exposed to conditioned medium (CM) from vemurafenib-resistant melanoma cells produced higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines—that potentially facilitate melanoma growth—than DCs exposed to CM derived from parental drug-sensitive cells. Bioinformatic analysis performed on proteins identified by mass spectrometry in the culture medium from vemurafenib-sensitive and vemurafenib-resistant melanoma cells suggests a possible involvement of the proteasome pathway. Moreover, our data confirm that BRAFi-resistant cells display a more aggressive phenotype compared to parental ones, with a significantly increased production of interferon-γ, interleukin-8, vascular-endothelial growth factor, CD147/basigin, and metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2). Plasma levels of CD147/basigin and MMP-2 were also measured before the start of therapy and at disease progression in a small group of melanoma patients treated with vemurafenib or vemurafenib plus cobimetinib. A significant increment in CD147/basigin and MMP-2 was observed in all patients at the time of treatment failure, strengthening the hypothesis that CD147/basigin might play a role in BRAFi resistance.

Engineered IL-10 variants elicit potent immunomodulatory effects at low ligand doses

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a dimeric cytokine with both immunosuppressive and immunostimulatory activities; however, IL-10-based therapies have shown only marginal clinical benefits. Here, we explored whether the stability of the IL-10 receptor complex contributes to the immunomodulatory potency of IL-10. We generated an IL-10 mutant with enhanced affinity for its IL-10Rβ receptor using yeast surface display. Compared to the wild-type cytokine, the affinity-enhanced IL-10 variants recruited IL-10Rβ more efficiently into active cell surface signaling complexes and triggered greater STAT1 and STAT3 activation in human monocytes and CD8⁺ T cells. These effects, in turn, led to more robust induction of IL-10-mediated gene expression programs at low ligand concentrations in both human cell subsets. IL-10-regulated genes are involved in monocyte energy homeostasis, migration, and trafficking and in CD8⁺ T cell exhaustion. At nonsaturating doses, IL-10 did not induce key components of its gene expression program, which may explain its lack of efficacy in clinical settings. Our engineered IL-10 variant showed a more robust bioactivity profile than that of wild-type IL-10 at low doses in monocytes and CD8⁺ T cells. Moreover, CAR-modified T cells expanded with the engineered IL-10 variant displayed superior cytolytic activity than those expanded with wild-type IL-10. Our study provides insights into how IL-10 receptor complex stability fine-tunes IL-10 biology and opens new opportunities to revitalize failed IL-10 therapies.

Interleukin-10 Induces Expression of Neuroendocrine Markers and PDL1 in Prostate Cancer Cells

Interleukin-10 (IL10) is best studied for its inhibitory action on immune cells and ability to suppress an antitumour immune response. But IL10 also exerts direct effects on nonimmune cells such as prostate cancer epithelial cells. Elevated serum levels of IL10 observed in prostate and other cancer patients are associated with poor prognosis. After first-line androgen-deprivation therapy, prostate cancer patients are treated with androgen receptor antagonists such as enzalutamide to inhibit androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell growth. However, development of resistance inevitably occurs and this is associated with tumour differentiation to more aggressive forms such as a neuroendocrine phenotype characterized by expression of neuron specific enolase and synaptophysin. We found that treatment of prostate cancer cell lines in vitro with IL10 or enzalutamide induced markers of neuroendocrine differentiation and inhibited androgen receptor reporter activity. Both also upregulated the levels of PDL1, which could promote tumour survival in vivo through its interaction with the immune cell inhibitory receptor PD1 to suppress antitumour immunity. These findings suggest that IL10's direct action on prostate cancer cells could contribute to prostate cancer progression independent of IL10's suppression of host immune cells.

IL-7/αIL-7 mAb M25 immunocomplexes expand CD8+ T cells but paradoxically abrogate the antitumor activity of CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockage

Supraphysiological levels of IL-7 induce increase counts of pre-B cells, naive T cells and memory phenotype CD8⁺ T cells. Immunocomplexes of IL-7 and αIL-7 mAb M25 (IL-7/M25) were described as IL-7 superagonist in vivo. Thus, treatment of mice with IL-7/M25 remarkably increases the size of the T cell pool. We decided to use IL-7/M25 in order to expand the T cell population prior to the administration of αCTLA-4 and αPD-1 mAbs in tumor-bearing mice and in turn boost the immunotherapy based on a combination of CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockage. We found that just four doses of IL-7/M25 increased the absolute numbers of splenocytes approximately fivefold and significantly shifted the CD4⁺:CD8⁺ T cell ratio in favor of CD8⁺ T cells. There was also a substantive increase in relative counts of memory phenotype CD8⁺ T cells (approximately threefold) within CD8⁺ T cells but a significant decrease (approximately 30%) in relative counts of Treg cells within CD4⁺ T cells. All these data suggest that IL-7/M25 offer a suitable approach to potentiate tumor immunotherapy through CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockage. Unexpectedly, IL-7/M25 significantly abrogated the antitumor activity of αCTLA-4 plus αPD-1 mAbs in the following mouse tumor models: MC-38 and CT26 colon carcinoma and B16F10 melanoma. This paradoxical effect of IL-7/M25 on the antitumor activity of CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockage was not mediated via either increased levels of IL-10 or TGF-β in the sera or increased counts of IL-10-producing B or T cells in the spleen of mice injected with IL-7/M25. Thus, our work shows that caution should be exercised when combining two immunotherapy approaches together.

Age, sex, and specific gene mutations affect the effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors in colorectal cancer

The effect of age and sex on the predictive value of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has been controversial, and the effect of specific gene mutations on the predictive value of CRC patients treated with ICIs remains to be explored. Our study analyzed the influence of the above factors on the overall survival (OS) of CRC patients receiving ICIs and explored the influencing mechanism of various predictive biomakers. We performed survival prognostic correlation analysis and bioinformatics analysis on the clinical CRC cohort receiving ICIs in from the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) and the clinical and genetic data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-CRC dataset, including immunogenicity analysis, tumor immune microenvironment analysis, and gene set enrichment analysis and so on. We found that mutation count >11 mutation/Mb (tumor mutation burden, TMB-high) (HR = 0.22, 95 %CI: 0.09-0.53; P < 0.001), male (HR = 0.51, 95 %CI: 0.28-0.93; P = 0.029), RNF43-mutant (MT) (HR = 0.12, 95 %CI: 0.03-0.49; P = 0.003), CREBBP-MT (HR = 0.23, 95 %CI: 0.07-0.76; P = 0.016), NOTCH3-MT (HR = 0.17, 95 %CI: 0.04-0.74; P = 0018), PTCH1-MT (HR = 0.27, 95 %CI: 0.08-0.9; P = 0.033), CIC-MT (HR = 0.23, 95 %CI: 0.05-0.93; P = 0.040), DNMT1-MT (HR = 0.12, 95 %CI: 0.02-0.93; P = 0.043) and SPEN-MT (HR = 0.31, 95 %CI: 0.09-0.99; P < 0.049) are all related to longer OS, but age≤65 years (HR = 3.01, 95 %CI: 1.18-7.65; P = 0.021), APC-MT (HR = 2.51, 95 %CI: 1.12-5.63; P = 0.026) and TP53-MT (HR = 1.94, 95 %CI: 1.03-3.65; P = 0.041) are associated with shorter OS. The reason why positive predictive markers provide survival benefits to CRC may be related to higher immunogenicity such as TMB, highly expression of mRNA related to immune response, highly infiltrating immune-active cells such as CD8 + T cells, active immune-active pathways, and DNA damage repair pathways with an increased number of mutations.

Regression of solid breast tumours in mice by Newcastle disease virus is associated with production of apoptosis related-cytokines

BACKGROUND

Different strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) worldwide proved to have tumouricidal activity in several types of cancer cells. However, the possible anti-cancer activity of Malaysian NDV AF2240 strain and its mechanism of action remains unknown. The ability of cytokine-related apoptosis-inducing NDV AF2240 to treat breast cancer was investigated in the current study.

METHODS

A total of 90 mice were used and divided into 15 groups, each group comprising of 6 mice. Tumour, body weight and mortality of the mice were determined throughout the experiment, to observe the effect of NDV and NDV + tamoxifen treatments on the mice. In addition, the toxic effect of the treatments was determined through liver function test. In order to elucidate the involvement of cytokine production induced by NDV, a total of six cytokines, i.e. IL-6, IFN-γ, MCP-1, IL-10, IL12p70 and TNF-α were measured using cytometric bead array assay (plasma) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (isolated splenocytes).

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that 4 T1 breast cancer cells in allotransplanted mice treated with AF2240 showed a noticeable inhibition of tumour growth and induce apoptotic-related cytokines.

CONCLUSIONS

NDV AF2240 suppression of breast tumour growth is associated with induction of apoptotic-related cytokines. It would be important to further investigate the molecular mechanism underlaying cytokines production by Newcastle disease virus.

Associations Between IL-10 Polymorphisms and Susceptibility to Melanoma, Basal Cell Carcinoma, and Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

According to relevant reports, interleukin-10 (IL-10), as a multifunctional anti-inflammatory cytokine, has a critical influence in cancer development. A meta-analysis was carried out regarding the relationships among the -592 A/C, -1082 G/A, and -819 T/C polymorphisms as well as the susceptibility to skin squamous cell carcinoma (sSCC), melanoma, and basal cell carcinoma (BCC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A meta-analysis was carried out on the inter-relationships among the -592 A/C, IL-10-1082 G/A, and -819 T/C polymorphisms as well as the susceptibility to sSCC, melanoma, and BCC.

RESULTS

In this analysis, a total of 11 researches, involving 2149 controls and 2128 cases, were included. No association was found between skin cancer risk and the -592A/C or IL-10-1082G/A polymorphisms in any of the analyses. However, a moderately decreased skin cancer risk was found in the -819 TC versus CC model (odds ratio [OR] = 0.81 and 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.67-0.99, p = 0.04). From the subgroup analysis, a decreased risk was found between the studies of nonmelanoma skin cancers and IL-10-819T/C in the dominant model (OR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.43-0.85, p = 0.004 for TT+TC vs. CC). Egger's and Begg's tests demonstrated that there was no significant publication bias.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis showed that the -592A/C and 1082G/A IL-10 polymorphisms might not be risk factors for melanoma or for BCC and sSCC patients, but we obtained a correlation between skin cancer risk and the IL-10 -819T/C polymorphism.

Suppression of STAT3 by S31-201 to reduce the production of immunoinhibitory cytokines in a HIF1-α-dependent manner: a study on the MCF-7 cell line

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) interacts with many gene promoters and transcription factors such as hypoxia-induced factor 1α (HIF-1α). Recent evidences proposed that STAT3 and HIF-1α together are responsible for angiogenesis and immune response suppression. The main aim of this study was to inhibit STAT3 and HIF-1α and assess their effects on the expression of immunosuppressive cytokines. S31-201 and PX-478 were used to inhibit STAT3 and HIF-1α, respectively. In both hypoxic and normoxic conditions, intracellular levels of HIF-1α were evaluated by western blotting and flow cytometry. Supernatant levels were also measured for VEGF, IL-10, and TGF-β concentration. S31-201 suppressed proliferation of MCF-7 cells and led to reduced HIF-1α expression in both hypoxic and normoxic conditions. It also decreased production of the immunosuppressive cytokines. STAT3 inhibition suppressed tumor cell growth and cytokine production in a HIF-1α-dependent manner, and can be used as a promising target in cancer therapies.

Anti-IL-10-mediated Enhancement of Antitumor Efficacy of a Dendritic Cell-targeting MIP3α-gp100 Vaccine in the B16F10 Mouse Melanoma Model Is Dependent on Type I Interferons

The chemokine MIP3α (CCL20) binds to CCR6 on immature dendritic cells. Vaccines fusing MIP3α to gp100 have been shown to be effective in therapeutically reducing melanoma tumor burden and prolonging survival in a mouse model. Other studies have provided evidence that interleukin-10 (IL-10) neutralizing antibodies (αIL-10) enhance immunologic melanoma therapies by modulating the tolerogenic tumor microenvironment. In the current study, we have utilized the B16F10 syngeneic mouse melanoma model to demonstrate for the first time that a therapy neutralizing IL-10 enhances the antitumor efficacy of a MIP3α-gp100 DNA vaccine, leading to significantly smaller tumors, slower growing tumors, and overall increases in mouse survival. The additive effects of αIL-10 were not shown to be correlated to vaccine-specific tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), total TILs, or regulatory T cells. However, we discovered an upregulation of IFNα-4 transcripts in tumors and a correlation of increased plasmacytoid dendritic cell numbers with reduced tumor burden in αIL-10-treated mice. Interferon α receptor knockout (IFNαR1) mice received no benefit from αIL-10 treatment, demonstrating that the additional therapeutic value of αIL-10 is primarily mediated by type I IFNs. Efficient targeting of antigen to immature dendritic cells with a chemokine-fusion vaccine provides an effective anticancer therapeutic. Combining this approach with an IL-10 neutralizing antibody therapy enhances the antitumor efficacy of the therapy in a manner dependent upon the activity of type I IFNs. This combination of a vaccine and immunomodulatory agent provides direction for future optimization of a novel cancer vaccine therapy.

[Infiltration of tumor associated macrophages in multiple myeloma and its clinical significance]

Objective: To investigate the clinical significance of tumor associated macrophages (TAM) in multiple myeloma (MM) and the relationship with angiogenesis and immunosuppression. Methods: Seventy cases of MM patients diagnosed from August 2015 to June 2017 were enrolled in the study as experimental group, 20 cases of benign hematological diseases (13 with iron deficiency anemia and 7 with megaloblastic anemia) patients as control group. Immunohistochemical method was used to detect the expression of CD163, CD34 and VEGF in bone marrow samples, and flow cytometry was used to detect the proportion of regulatory T cell (Treg cells), ELISA was used to detect the level of IL-10, and the clinical features were analyzed. Results: ①Among the 70 patients, there were 31 males and 39 females with a median age of 65 (50~78) years old. TAM infiltration density, microvascular density (MVD), VEGF expression level, Treg ratio and IL-10 level in bone marrow samples of 70 MM patients were significantly higher than those of benign hematological diseases (P<0.05). ②In the MM group, the above indexes of the patients with disease stabilized (15 cases) were lower than those of the newly diagnosed group (35 cases) and the relapse refractory group (20 cases) (P<0.05), those of relapse refractory group were higher than those of newly diagnosed group (P>0.05). ③Of the 35 newly diagnosed MM patients, 27 completed 4 courses of treatment. In the effective group (15 cases), the TAM infiltration density after treatment was significantly lower than that before treatment, the difference was statistically significant[(20.20±7.66) vs (28.87±11.97), t=2.362, P=0.025]; while in the ineffective group of 12 cases, the difference of the TAM infiltration density before and after treatment was not statistically significant[(42.00±13.76) vs (48.25±13.59), t=1.119, P=0.275]. ④TAM infiltration density in the effective group after bortezomib treatment (21 cases) were lower than those in the non-bortezomib treatment group (18 cases)[(16.52 ±4.26) vs (19.27 ±5.82), t=1.662, P=0.170]. ⑤The TAM infiltration density in MM patients was positively correlated with MVD, VEGF expression level, Treg cell ratio and IL-10 level (P<0.001). Conclusion: The infiltration of TAM in the microenvironment of MM, which may promoting angiogenesis and inhibiting immune response, is related to the occurrence, development, therapeutic effect and drug resistance of MM.

Synthetic analysis of associations between IL-10 polymorphisms and skin cancer risk

The current study was designed to quantitatively summarize the evidence for the strength of the associations between common IL-10 functional polymorphisms and skin cancer risk. Relevant publications concerning the associations between common IL-10 functional polymorphisms(−1082G>A, −819C>T and −592C>A) and skin cancer were retrieved by a comprehensive electronic literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Embase, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, Chinese Biomedical Database (CBM). The odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were utilized to assess the strength of the relationship. A total of 26 studies including 4090 cases and 4133 controls (−1082G>A, 10 studies with 1809 cases and 1830 controls; −819C>T, 7 studies with 862 cases and 957 controls; −592C>A, 9 studies with 1419 cases and 1346 controls) were enrolled in the meta-analysis. Overall, the results revealed a borderline decreased risk of skin cancer in heterozygote model (OR = 0.82, 95CI = 0.67–1.00, p = 0.05). The subgroup analysis also presented similar association for non-melanoma skin cancer in heterozygote model (OR = 0.67, 95CI = 0.50–0.91, p = 0.01). Moreover, the further analysis based on the histological type of non-melanoma skin cancer indicated a significantly decreased risk of BCC in allele model (OR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.50–0.91, p = 0.02) and dominant model (OR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.48–0.98, p = 0.04). However, neither overall analysis nor subgroup analysis based on cancer subtype revealed a significant association of −1082G>A or −592C>A polymorphisms with skin cancer. The present study suggested a potential association between IL-10 −819C>T polymorphism and decreased risk of skin cancer, but a lack of association for −1082G>A and −592C>A polymorphisms. Further invalidation is urgently needed.

Resistance to anticancer immunity in cancer patients: potential strategies to reverse resistance

In the 1990s, the application of immunotherapy approaches to target cancer cells resulted in significant clinical responses in patients with advanced malignancies who were refractory to conventional therapies. While early immunotherapeutics were focused on T cell-mediated cytotoxic activity, subsequent efforts were centered on targeted antibody-mediated anticancer therapy. The initial success with antibody therapy encouraged further studies and, consequently, there are now more than 25 FDA-approved antibodies directed against a range of targets. Although both T cell and antibody therapies continue to result in significant clinical responses with minimal toxicity, a significant subset of patients does not respond to immunotherapy and another subset develops resistance following an initial response. This review is focused on describing examples showing that cancer resistance to immunotherapies indeed occurs. In addition, it reviews the mechanisms being used to overcome the resistance to immunotherapies by targeting the tumor cell directly and/or the tumor microenvironment.

Evolution of the magic bullet: Single chain antibody fragments for the targeted delivery of immunomodulatory proteins

Immunocytokines are fusion proteins that combine the specific antigen binding capacities of an antibody or derivative thereof and the potent bioactivity of a cytokine partner. These novel biopharmaceuticals have been directed to various targets of oncological as well as non-oncological origin and a handful of promising constructs are currently advancing in the clinical trial pipeline. Several factors such as the choice of a disease specific antigen, the antibody format and the modulatory nature of the payload are crucial, not only for therapeutic efficacy and safety but also for the commercial success of such a product. In this review, we provide an overview of the basic principles and obstacles in immunocytokine design with a specific focus on single chain antibody fragment-based constructs that employ interleukins as the immunoactive component. Impact statement Selective activation of the immune system in a variety of malignancies represents an attractive approach when existing strategies have failed to provide adequate treatment options. Immunocytokines as a novel class of bifunctional protein therapeutics have emerged recently and generated promising results in preclinical and clinical studies. In order to harness their full potential, multiple different aspects have to be taken into consideration. Several key points of these fusion constructs are discussed here and should provide an outline for the development of novel products based on an overview of selected formats.

The mechanisms tumor cells utilize to evade the host's immune system

The immune system plays an essential role in the tumor progression; not only can it inhibit tumor growth but it can also promote tumor growth by establishing a favorable environment. Tumor cells utilize several strategies to evade the host's immune system, including expression of immunosuppressive molecules such as PD-L1, IDO and siglec-9. In addition, tumor cells not only regulate the recruitment and development of immunosuppressive forces to influence the tumor microenvironment but also shift the phenotype and function of normal immune cells from a possibly anti-tumor state to a pro-tumor state. As a result, tumor cells evade the host's immune system, leading to metastasis and/or recurrent disease.

HGF/Met Signaling in Head and Neck Cancer: Impact on the Tumor Microenvironment

Studies to date have revealed several major molecular alterations that contribute to head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) initiation, progression, metastatic spread, and therapeutic failure. The EGFR is the only FDA-approved therapeutic target, yet responses to cetuximab have been limited. Activation and cross-talk of cellular receptors and consequent activation of different signaling pathways contribute to limited activity of blockade of a single pathway. The hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) receptor, Met, has been implicated in HNSCC tumorigenesis and EGFR inhibitor resistance. HGF, the sole ligand of Met, is overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment. The role of HGF/Met signaling in proliferation, metastasis, and angiogenesis has been investigated in HNSCC, leading to clinical trials with various Met inhibitors and HGF antibodies. However, the role of the HGF/Met signaling axis in mediating the tumor microenvironment has been relatively understudied in HNSCC. In this review, we discuss the functional roles of Met and HGF in HNSCC with a focus on the tumor microenvironment and the immune system. Clin Cancer Res; 22(16); 4005-13. ©2016 AACR.

Current state in the development of candidate therapeutic HPV vaccines

The identification of human papillomavirus (HPV) as an etiological factor for HPV-associated malignancies creates the opportunity to control these cancers through vaccination. Currently, available preventive HPV vaccines have not yet demonstrated strong evidences for therapeutic effects against established HPV infections and lesions. Furthermore, HPV infections remain extremely common. Thus, there is urgent need for therapeutic vaccines to treat existing HPV infections and HPV-associated diseases. Therapeutic vaccines differ from preventive vaccines in that they are aimed at generating cell-mediated immunity rather than neutralizing antibodies. The HPV-encoded early proteins, especially oncoproteins E6 and E7, form ideal targets for therapeutic HPV vaccines since they are consistently expressed in HPV-associated malignancies and precancerous lesions, playing crucial roles in the generation and maintenance of HPV-associated disease. Our review will cover various therapeutic vaccines in development for the treatment of HPV-associated lesions and cancers. Furthermore, we review strategies to enhance vaccine efficacy and the latest clinical trials on therapeutic HPV vaccines.

Current therapeutic vaccination and immunotherapy strategies for HPV-related diseases

Carcinomas of the anogenital tract, in particular cervical cancer, remains one of the most common cancers in women, and represent the most frequent gynecological malignancies and the fourth leading cause of cancer death in women worldwide. Human papillomavirus (HPV)-induced lesions are immunologically distinct in that they express viral antigens, which are necessary to maintain the cancerous phenotype. The causal relationship between HPV infection and anogenital cancer has prompted substantial interest in the development of therapeutic vaccines against high-risk HPV types targeting the viral oncoproteins E6 and E7. This review will focus on the most recent clinical trials for immunotherapies for mucosal HPV-induced lesions as well as emerging therapeutic strategies that have been tested in pre-clinical models for HPV-induced diseases. Progress in peptide- and protein-based vaccines, DNA-based vaccines, viral/bacterial vector-based vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibition, immune response modifiers, and adoptive cell therapy for HPV will be discussed.

IL-10Rα expression is post-transcriptionally regulated by miR-15a, miR-185, and miR-211 in melanoma

Background

IL-10 is an immunoregulatory cytokine that increases during malignant diseases. The purpose of this study was to: i) determine the mRNA amounts of IL-10, IL-10Rα, and IL-10Rβ in cutaneous and uveal melanoma cells and specimens; ii) evaluate their post-transcriptional regulation by miRNAs; iii) ascertain whether miRNA dysregulation may affect IL-10-induced proliferation.

Methods

Genome-wide miRNA expression profiling was performed using a human microarray platform. The reference gene mRNA was measured through qPCR. miRNAs/mRNAs interactions were predicted by TargetScan, microRNA, and PITA. Transfections of specific miRNA mimics/inhibitors were carried out. Cell proliferation was assessed by MTT assay in the presence of IL-10 after transfection with miRNA mimics/inhibitors.

Results

There were no differences in IL-10 mRNA levels between any of the 3 melanoma cell lines tested and normal melanocytes. However, lower IL-10Rα expression was found in G361 and OCM-1 cells, and higher levels of IL-10Rβ were observed in G361 cells compared with normal melanocytes. GR-M cells did not exhibit any modifications in IL-10Rα and IL-10Rβ expression. miR-15a, miR-185, miR-211, and miR-30d were upregulated in G361 and OCM-1 cells, remaining at similar levels in GR-M cells. miR-409-3p and miR-605were down-regulated exclusively in G361 cells. Prediction tools revealed that miR-15a, miR-185, and miR-211 targeted IL-10Rα whereas none of the miRNAs exclusively downregulated in G361 cells targeted IL-10Rβ. Luciferase reporter and western blot assays showed that IL-10Rα expression is directly regulated by miR-15a, miR-185, and miR-211, either alone or in combination. An inverse expression pattern between IL-10Rα, on one side, and miR-15a, miR-185, and miR-211 on the other one was also shown in melanoma samples. Ectopic expression of individual miR-15a, miR-185, and miR-211, and even more their co-expression, caused a marked decrease in the proliferation rate of all the cell lines. Likewise, inhibition of any specific miRNA promoted cell growth, an effect that further increased when inhibition concerned all three miRNA. Moreover, specific knockdown of IL-10Rα prevented the proliferative effect of miRNA inhibitors.

Conclusions

Our results support a key role of IL-10Rα in the development and progression of melanoma and suggest that the IL-10/IL-10 receptor system may become a new therapeutic target for melanoma treatment.

miRNAs in melanoma: a defined role in tumor progression and metastasis

The crosstalk of melanoma cells with components of the microenvironment promotes malignant cell proliferation and spread to distant tissues. Although the major pathogenetic events have already been elucidated, the mechanisms that drive the metastatic behavior of tumor cells are still undefined. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that control post-transcriptional gene expression through interconnected kinases upstream of functional genes involved in tumor progression. Here, we review the biological relevance of melanoma-related miRNAs and focus on their potential role in propagating signals that may cause tumor microenvironment rearrangements, as well as disablement of the immune system and melanoma cell proliferation.

Is sentinel node susceptibility to metastases related to nodal immune modulation?

Sentinel lymph nodes (SLNs), the initial site of regional metastases, directly receive lymph containing immune-modulatory cytokines and tumor cells from primary melanomas. Immune-suppressed SLNs are ideal for studies of tissue susceptibility to metastases. They show reduced antigen-presenting dendritic cells, activated T cells, high endothelial venules, and transvenular immigration of T cells. Tumor-induced immune suppression contributes to establishment of nodal metastases. SLNs may serve as an effective model to study reversal of tumor-induced immune suppression. We reviewed this topic in Nature Reviews of Immunology in 2006. We here summarize the Nature paper and provide additional results from ongoing studies and the recent literature.

Immunosuppressive Mechanisms of Malignant Gliomas: Parallels at Non-CNS Sites

The central nervous system (CNS) possesses powerful local and global immunosuppressive capabilities that modulate unwanted inflammatory reactions in nervous tissue. These same immune-modulatory mechanisms are also co-opted by malignant brain tumors and pose a formidable challenge to brain tumor immunotherapy. Routes by which malignant gliomas coordinate immunosuppression include the mechanical and functional barriers of the CNS; immunosuppressive cytokines and catabolites; immune checkpoint molecules; tumor-infiltrating immune cells; and suppressor immune cells. The challenges to overcoming tumor-induced immunosuppression, however, are not unique to the brain, and several analogous immunosuppressive mechanisms also exist for primary tumors outside of the CNS. Ultimately, the immune responses in the CNS are linked and complementary to immune processes in the periphery, and advances in tumor immunotherapy in peripheral sites may therefore illuminate novel approaches to brain tumor immunotherapy, and vice versa.

Lister strain vaccinia virus with thymidine kinase gene deletion is a tractable platform for development of a new generation of oncolytic virus

Vaccinia virus (VV) has many attractive characteristics as a potential cancer therapeutic. There are several strains of VV. The nonvaccine strain Western Reserve VV with deletion of both the thymidine kinase and the viral growth factor genes (known as WRDD) has been reported as the most potent tumor-targeted oncolytic VV. Other strains, such as the European vaccine Lister strain, are largely untested. This study evaluated the antitumor potency and biodistribution of different VV strains using in vitro and in vivo models of cancer. Lister strain virus with thymidine kinase gene deletion (VVΔTK) demonstrated superior antitumor potency and cancer-selective replication in vitro and in vivo, compared with WRDD, especially in human cancer cell lines and immune-competent hosts. Further investigation of functional mechanisms revealed that Lister VVΔTK presented favorable viral biodistribution within the tumors, with lower levels of proinflammatory cytokines compared with WRDD, suggesting that Lister strain may induce a diminished host inflammatory response. This study indicates that the Lister strain VVΔTK may be a particularly promising VV strain for the development of the next generation of tumor-targeted oncolytic therapeutics.

Reprogramming the tumor microenvironment: tumor-induced immunosuppressive factors paralyze T cells

It has become evident that tumor-induced immuno-suppressive factors in the tumor microenvironment play a major role in suppressing normal functions of effector T cells. These factors serve as hurdles that limit the therapeutic potential of cancer immunotherapies. This review focuses on illustrating the molecular mechanisms of immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment, including evasion of T-cell recognition, interference with T-cell trafficking, metabolism, and functions, induction of resistance to T-cell killing, and apoptosis of T cells. A better understanding of these mechanisms may help in the development of strategies to enhance the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapies.

Pathologic patterns of interleukin 10 expression--a review

Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is important pleiotropic immunoregulatory cytokine which gene is located on chromosome 1 at 1q31-32. There are many genetic variants of IL-10 gene. However, the most studied are two dinucleotide repeats (microsatellites), IL10.G and IL10.R, located 1.2 kb and 4 kb upstream of the transcription start site and three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) -1082(G/A), -819(C/T) and -592(C/A). A large number of studies have shown that IL-10 gene polymorphisms are associated with different diseases and play an important role in pathophysiology and clinical course of these diseases. This review summarizes published literature knowledge about the association of IL-10 polymorphisms and expression patterns with asthma, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, rheumatoid arthritis, tuberculosis and some neoplasms.

Immune biomarkers of anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody therapy

The tumor antigen (TA)-targeted monoclonal antibodies (mAb) cetuximab and panitumumab target the human epidermal growth factor receptor and have been integrated into treatment regimens for advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN). The therapeutic efficacy of these mAbs has been found to be enhanced when combined with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, clinical trials indicate that these findings are limited to fewer than 20% of treated patients. Therefore, identifying patients who are likely to benefit from these agents is crucial to improving therapeutic strategies. Interestingly, it has been noted that TA-targeted mAbs mediate their effects by contributing to cell-mediated cytotoxicity in addition to inhibition of downstream signaling pathways. Here, we describe the potential immunogenic mechanisms underlying these clinical findings, their role in the varied clinical response and identify the putative biomarkers of antitumor activity. We review potential immunological biomarkers that affect mAb therapy in SCCHN patients, the implications of these findings and how they translate to the clinical scenario, which are critical to improving patient selection and ultimately outcomes for patients undergoing therapy.

Genetic Variants of Interleukin-10 Gene Promoter are Associated with Schizophrenia in Saudi Patients: A Case-Control Study

BACKGROUND

Interleukin-10 (IL-10) gene is considered as a potential candidate gene in schizophrenia association studies. The polymorphisms on IL-10 gene have been reported to be linked with susceptibility to the development of schizophrenia within consistent results.

AIMS

The aim of this case-control study was to examine whether the -1082A/G, -819T/C, and -592A/C polymorphisms in IL-10 gene are implicated in schizophrenia development in the Saudi population.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Molecular genotyping of IL-10 gene polymorphisms was performed to analyze the genotypes and alleles distribution of three single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in patients (n = 181) and healthy individuals as control group (n = 211).

RESULTS

The frequencies of GA genotype at -1082, and CC genotype at positions -592 and -819 were significantly higher in schizophrenia patients compared to healthy subjects suggesting that GA, CC, and CC genotypes are susceptible to schizophrenia. The ACC haplotype known to be associated with intermediate production of IL-10 are more prevalent in our schizophrenia patients. On the other hand, genotypes -1082 GG, -819 CT, and -592 CA of IL-10 were more prevalent in healthy controls suggesting protective effects of GA, CT, and CA genotypes against schizophrenia. There was no significant association of IL-10 polymorphisms with sex or positive or negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that the IL-10 gene polymorphisms play a significant role in the etiology of schizophrenia in Saudi Arabians patients.

Impact of IL-10 (-1082) promoter-single nucleotide polymorphism on the outcome of hepatitis C virus genotype 4 infection

Immunoregulatory cytokines may influence the hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection outcome. This study aimed to determine the genotypic and allelic frequencies of the interleukin (IL)-10 (-1082) G/A polymorphism, and its association with chronicity or resolution of HCV genotype 4 infection in Egypt. The frequencies of different dimorphic polymorphisms based on single nucleotide substitution in chronic HCV patients (50) and resolved HCV patients (50) were: IL-10 (-1082) G/G 22 (44%) and 18 (36%), G/A 19 (38%) and 24 (48%), and A/A 9 (18%), and 8 (16%), respectively. In the sustained virologic response (SVR) (36) and spontaneously resolved subjects (14) groups, the frequencies were: IL-10 (-1082) G/G 11 (30.6%) and 7 (50%) G/A 18 (50%) and 6 (42.9%), A/A 7 (19.4%) and 1 (7.1%), respectively. An association between male gender and chronic hepatitis C outcome (P value 0.041) was found. However, no significant gender difference was found when we compared females versus males with elevated alanine transaminase (ALT) levels in the chronic HCV patient group (P value = 1).

CONCLUSION

No significant difference in the frequency of IL-10 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) at position 1082 was found between chronic and resolved HCV subjects.

Inter-relation of Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg cytokines in oral cancer patients and their clinical significance

BACKGROUND

Altered cytokine production can lead to immune dysfunction in cancer patients. Hence, we investigated the cytokine balance in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) patients and their significance in providing new therapeutic insights.

METHODS

We quantified Th17 (IL17A), Treg (TGFβ1), Th1 (IL2, IFNγ) and Th2 (IL4, IL10) like cytokines in the sera of 78 cases and 39 controls by ELISA. The intracellular expression of these cytokines was analyzed in 10 subjects from each group by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Serum levels of IL17A, TGFβ1, IL4 and IL10 were significantly higher while IL2 and IFNγ were relatively lower in patients as compared to controls. TGFβ1 (r=0.55), IL4 (r=0.75) and IL10 (r=0.80) significantly (P<0.0001) correlated with disease progression and their elevated levels showed increased odd ratios of approximately 18, 14 and 37, respectively. IL17A appeared as a risk factor (OR=2.21, 95% CI=0.89-5.42) although statistically insignificant. The levels neither correlated with disease progression nor with TGFβ1, IL4 and IL10 but showed positive association with IL2 (r=0.51, P<0.0001) and IFNγ (r=0.24). Flow cytometry data also showed similar trend.

CONCLUSIONS

We reported a distinct TGFβ1 and Th2 (IL4, IL10) polarization with a borderline elevation of IL17A while, a suppression of Th1 (IL2, IFNγ) cytokines in OSCC patients.

Effects of reticuloendotheliosis virus infection on cytokine production in SPF chickens

Infection with reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV), a gammaretrovirus in the Retroviridae family, can result in immunosuppression and subsequent increased susceptibility to secondary infections. The effects of REV infection on expression of mRNA for cytokine genes in chickens have not been completely elucidated. In this study, using multiplex branched DNA (bDNA) technology, we identified molecular mediators that participated in the regulation of the immune response during REV infection in chickens. Cytokine and chemokine mRNA expression levels were evaluated in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Expression levels of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-13 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were significantly up-regulated while interferon (IFN)-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-3, IL-15, IL-17F, IL-18 and colony-stimulating factor (CSF)-1 were markedly decreased in PBMCs at all stages of infection. Compared with controls, REV infected chickens showed greater expression levels of IL-8 in PBMCs 21 and 28 days post infection. In addition, REV regulates host immunity as a suppressor of T cell proliferative responses. The results in this study will help us to understand the host immune response to virus pathogens.

Strategies to reverse melanoma-induced T-cell dysfunction

Patients with advanced melanoma can develop spontaneous cellular and humoral responses to tumor antigens. Understanding the failure of spontaneous or vaccine-induced tumor antigen-specific T-cell responses to promote the immunologic clearance of melanomas is critical. Multiple mechanisms of melanoma-induced immune escape, which are likely to cause the failure of the spontaneous or vaccine-induced immune responses to promote tumor regression in humans, have been elucidated. In addition, a number of negative factors in the tumor microenvironment dampen antitumor immune responses, including cytokines (like transforming growth factor-β or interleukin-10), suppressive cells (regulatory T cells and myelosuppressive dendritic cells), defective antigen presentation by tumor cells (human leukocyte antigen or T antigen expression loss, antigen processing machinery defects), amino acid catabolizing enzymes (indoleamine-2-3 dioxygenase, arginase), and immune inhibitory pathways (like cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4/cluster of differentiation 28, programmed death 1/programmed death 1 ligand 1). This information has been used to develop a number of therapies to specifically target these negative regulators of antimelanoma immune responses to enhance tumor antigen-specific immune responses and to increase the likelihood of clinical benefits in patients with advanced melanoma.

In vitro evidence of the presence of mesenchymal stromal cells in cervical cancer and their role in protecting cancer cells from cytotoxic T cell activity

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been isolated from different tumors and it has been suggested that they support tumor growth through immunosuppression processes that favor tumor cell evasion from the immune system. To date, however, the presence of MSCs in cervical cancer (CeCa) and their possible role in tumor growth remains unknown. Herein we report on the presence of MSCs in cervical tissue, both in normal conditions (NCx-MSCs) and in CeCa (CeCa-MSCs), and described several biological properties of such cells. Our study showed similar patterns of cell surface antigen expression, but distinct differentiation potentials, when we compared both cervical MSC populations to MSCs from normal bone marrow (BM-MSCs, the gold standard). Interestingly, CeCa-MSCs were negative for the presence of human papilloma virus, indicating that these cells are not infected by such a viral agent. Also, interestingly, and in contrast to NCx-MSCs, CeCa-MSCs induced significant downregulation of surface HLA class I molecules (HLA-A*0201) on CaSki cells and other CeCa cell lines. We further observed that CeCa-MSCs inhibited antigen-specific T cell recognition of CaSki cells by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). HLA class I downregulation on CeCa cells correlated with the production of IL-10 in cell cocultures. Importantly, this cytokine strongly suppressed recognition of CeCa cells by CTLs. In summary, this study demonstrates the presence of MSCs in CeCa and suggests that tumor-derived MSCs may provide immune protection to tumor cells by inducing downregulation of HLA class I molecules. This mechanism may have important implications in tumor growth.

Immune response evaluation through determination of type 1, type 2, and type 17 patterns in patients with epithelial ovarian cancer

Innate and adaptive immune cells secrete different cytokines, which participate through distinct mechanisms in cell-mediated immunity and humoral immune responses. The aim of this study was to evaluate the immune response through analysis of type 1 (Th1), Th2, and Th17 cells in patients with epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC). Our study included 44 patients with EOC (study group) and 32 gynecological patients with no ovarian disease (control group). Fragments of ovarian tissue and blood samples were collected in both groups and aliquots of intracystic fluid and peritoneal fluid were recovered from the EOC patient group. Interleukin (IL)-2/IL-4/IL-6/IL-10/IL-17/tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ levels were measured by cytometric bead array. Statistical analysis included chi-squared, Student t, Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis tests, and Cox regression model. Patients with EOC were associated with higher levels of TNF-α/IL-4/IL-6/IL-10 compared to the control group. Both IL-10 and TNF-α concentrations were higher in patients with stage III/IV EOC and also associated with higher levels of cancer antigen 125. Higher Th1-mediated immune response was observed when the cytoreduction was considered optimal. However, patients with EOC with unsatisfactory cytoreductive surgery and undifferentiated tumors were associated with higher concentrations of Th2 cytokines in the 4 sites studied. Higher IL-6/IL-10 and lower IFN-γ concentrations were also associated with a lower overall survival rate in patients with EOC. The EOC group presented a predominantly Th2 response and an immunosuppressant standard and had association between IL-6/IL-10/IFN-γ and prognosis.

The SNP at -592 of human IL-10 gene is associated with serum IL-10 levels and increased risk for human papillomavirus cervical lesion development

BACKGROUND

Women with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) persistence are characterized by high levels of IL-10 at cervix. We have determined whether polymorphisms of IL-10 gene promoter might be associated with increased risk of squamous intraepithelial cervical lesions (SICL) and whether exist significative differences of IL-10 mRNA expression at cervix and systemic and serum IL-10 protein between SICL cases and non-Cervical Lesions (NCL).

METHODS

Peripheral blood samples from SICL (n = 204) and NCL (n = 166) were used to detect IL-10 promoter polymorphisms at loci -592A/C (rs1800872), -819C/T (rs1800871), -1082A/G (rs1800896), -1352A/G (rs1800893), by allelic discrimination and to evaluate serum IL-10 protein. Cervical epithelial scrapings from NCL and biopsies from SICLs were used for HPV-typing and to evaluate IL-10 mRNA expression level. The systemic and local IL-10 mRNA expression levels were measured by real time-PCR. Genotypic and allelic frequencies of the selected polymorphisms were analyzed by logistic regression, adjusting by age and HPV-genotype, to determine the association with SICL.

RESULTS

No significant differences were found between genotype frequencies at loci -819, -1082, and -1352. Individuals carrying at least one copy of risk allele A of polymorphism -592 had a two-fold increased risk of developing SICL [adjusted odds ratio (OR), 2.02 (95% CI, 1.26-3.25), p = 0.003], compared to NCL. The IL-10 mRNA expression and serum IL-10 protein, were significantly higher in SICL cases (p < 0.01), being higher in patients carrying the risk allele A.

CONCLUSIONS

The -592 polymorphism is associated with increased risk of SICL and can serve as a marker of genetic susceptibility to SICL among Mexican women. According to IL-10 levels found in SICL, IL-10 can be relevant factor for viral persistence and progression disease.