1
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Asad Z, Fakheir Y, Abukhaled Y, Khalil R. Implications of altered pyramidal cell morphology on clinical symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders. Eur J Neurosci 2024. [PMID: 39054743 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
The prevalence of pyramidal cells (PCs) in the mammalian cerebral cortex underscore their value as they play a crucial role in various brain functions, ranging from cognition, sensory processing, to motor output. PC morphology significantly influences brain connectivity and plays a critical role in maintaining normal brain function. Pathological alterations to PC morphology are thought to contribute to the aetiology of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. This review explores the relationship between abnormalities in PC morphology in key cortical areas and the clinical manifestations in schizophrenia and ASD. We focus largely on human postmortem studies and provide evidence that dendritic segment length, complexity and spine density are differentially affected in these disorders. These morphological alterations can lead to disruptions in cortical connectivity, potentially contributing to the cognitive and behavioural deficits observed in these disorders. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of investigating the functional and structural characteristics of PCs in these disorders to illuminate the underlying pathogenesis and stimulate further research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zummar Asad
- School of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI), Dublin, Ireland
| | - Yara Fakheir
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Yara Abukhaled
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Reem Khalil
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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2
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Bhagwandin A, Molnár Z, Bertelsen MF, Karlsson KÆ, Alagaili AN, Bennett NC, Hof PR, Kaswera-Kyamakya C, Gilissen E, Jayakumar J, Manger PR. Where Do Core Thalamocortical Axons Terminate in Mammalian Neocortex When There Is No Cytoarchitecturally Distinct Layer 4? J Comp Neurol 2024; 532:e25652. [PMID: 38962882 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Although the mammalian cerebral cortex is most often described as a hexalaminar structure, there are cortical areas (primary motor cortex) and species (elephants, cetaceans, and hippopotami), where a cytoarchitecturally indistinct, or absent, layer 4 is noted. Thalamocortical projections from the core, or first order, thalamic system terminate primarily in layers 4/inner 3. We explored the termination sites of core thalamocortical projections in cortical areas and in species where there is no cytoarchitecturally distinct layer 4 using the immunolocalization of vesicular glutamate transporter 2, a known marker of core thalamocortical axon terminals, in 31 mammal species spanning the eutherian radiation. Several variations from the canonical cortical column outline of layer 4 and core thalamocortical inputs were noted. In shrews/microchiropterans, layer 4 was present, but many core thalamocortical projections terminated in layer 1 in addition to layers 4 and inner 3. In primate primary visual cortex, the sublaminated layer 4 was associated with a specialized core thalamocortical projection pattern. In primate primary motor cortex, no cytoarchitecturally distinct layer 4 was evident and the core thalamocortical projections terminated throughout layer 3. In the African elephant, cetaceans, and river hippopotamus, no cytoarchitecturally distinct layer 4 was observed and core thalamocortical projections terminated primarily in inner layer 3 and less densely in outer layer 3. These findings are contextualized in terms of cortical processing, perception, and the evolutionary trajectory leading to an indistinct or absent cortical layer 4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adhil Bhagwandin
- School of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa
| | - Zoltán Molnár
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Sherrington Building, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Mads F Bertelsen
- Centre for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Karl Æ Karlsson
- Biomedical Engineering, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | | | - Nigel C Bennett
- South African Research Chair of Mammal Behavioural Ecology and Physiology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Center for Discovery and Innovation, and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Emmanuel Gilissen
- Department of African Zoology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium
- Laboratory of Histology and Neuropathology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jaikishan Jayakumar
- Sudha Gopalakrishnan Brain Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
- Center for Computational Brain Research, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Paul R Manger
- School of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa
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3
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Lindhout FW, Krienen FM, Pollard KS, Lancaster MA. A molecular and cellular perspective on human brain evolution and tempo. Nature 2024; 630:596-608. [PMID: 38898293 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07521-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The evolution of the modern human brain was accompanied by distinct molecular and cellular specializations, which underpin our diverse cognitive abilities but also increase our susceptibility to neurological diseases. These features, some specific to humans and others shared with related species, manifest during different stages of brain development. In this multi-stage process, neural stem cells proliferate to produce a large and diverse progenitor pool, giving rise to excitatory or inhibitory neurons that integrate into circuits during further maturation. This process unfolds over varying time scales across species and has progressively become slower in the human lineage, with differences in tempo correlating with differences in brain size, cell number and diversity, and connectivity. Here we introduce the terms 'bradychrony' and 'tachycrony' to describe slowed and accelerated developmental tempos, respectively. We review how recent technical advances across disciplines, including advanced engineering of in vitro models, functional comparative genetics and high-throughput single-cell profiling, are leading to a deeper understanding of how specializations of the human brain arise during bradychronic neurodevelopment. Emerging insights point to a central role for genetics, gene-regulatory networks, cellular innovations and developmental tempo, which together contribute to the establishment of human specializations during various stages of neurodevelopment and at different points in evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feline W Lindhout
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Fenna M Krienen
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Katherine S Pollard
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Institute for Computational Health Sciences, and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Madeline A Lancaster
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK.
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4
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Navandar M, Vennin C, Lutz B, Gerber S. Long non-coding RNAs expression and regulation across different brain regions in primates. Sci Data 2024; 11:545. [PMID: 38806530 PMCID: PMC11133376 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-024-03380-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Human and non-human primates have strikingly similar genomes, but they strongly differ in many brain-based processes (e.g., behaviour and cognition). While the functions of protein-coding genes have been extensively studied, rather little is known about the role of non-coding RNAs such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Here, we predicted lncRNAs and analysed their expression pattern across different brain regions of human and non-human primates (chimpanzee, gorilla, and gibbon). Our analysis identified shared orthologous and non-orthologous lncRNAs, showing striking differences in the genomic features. Differential expression analysis of the shared orthologous lncRNAs from humans and chimpanzees revealed distinct expression patterns in subcortical regions (striatum, hippocampus) and neocortical areas while retaining a homogeneous expression in the cerebellum. Co-expression analysis of lncRNAs and protein-coding genes revealed massive proportions of co-expressed pairs in neocortical regions of humans compared to chimpanzees. Network analysis of co-expressed pairs revealed the distinctive role of the hub-acting orthologous lncRNAs in a region- and species-specific manner. Overall, our study provides novel insight into lncRNA driven gene regulatory landscape, neural regulation, brain evolution, and constitutes a resource for primate's brain lncRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohit Navandar
- Institute for Human Genetics, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Constance Vennin
- Leibniz Institute for Resilience Research, 55122, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Beat Lutz
- Leibniz Institute for Resilience Research, 55122, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55128, Mainz, Germany
| | - Susanne Gerber
- Institute for Human Genetics, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
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5
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Magrou L, Joyce MKP, Froudist-Walsh S, Datta D, Wang XJ, Martinez-Trujillo J, Arnsten AFT. The meso-connectomes of mouse, marmoset, and macaque: network organization and the emergence of higher cognition. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34:bhae174. [PMID: 38771244 PMCID: PMC11107384 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhae174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The recent publications of the inter-areal connectomes for mouse, marmoset, and macaque cortex have allowed deeper comparisons across rodent vs. primate cortical organization. In general, these show that the mouse has very widespread, "all-to-all" inter-areal connectivity (i.e. a "highly dense" connectome in a graph theoretical framework), while primates have a more modular organization. In this review, we highlight the relevance of these differences to function, including the example of primary visual cortex (V1) which, in the mouse, is interconnected with all other areas, therefore including other primary sensory and frontal areas. We argue that this dense inter-areal connectivity benefits multimodal associations, at the cost of reduced functional segregation. Conversely, primates have expanded cortices with a modular connectivity structure, where V1 is almost exclusively interconnected with other visual cortices, themselves organized in relatively segregated streams, and hierarchically higher cortical areas such as prefrontal cortex provide top-down regulation for specifying precise information for working memory storage and manipulation. Increased complexity in cytoarchitecture, connectivity, dendritic spine density, and receptor expression additionally reveal a sharper hierarchical organization in primate cortex. Together, we argue that these primate specializations permit separable deconstruction and selective reconstruction of representations, which is essential to higher cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Magrou
- Department of Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, United States
| | - Mary Kate P Joyce
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, United States
| | - Sean Froudist-Walsh
- School of Engineering Mathematics and Technology, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1QU, United Kingdom
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, United States
| | - Xiao-Jing Wang
- Department of Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, United States
| | - Julio Martinez-Trujillo
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology, and Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, N6A 3K7, Canada
| | - Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, United States
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6
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Brockman R. The End of Evolution. Psychodyn Psychiatry 2024; 52:46-67. [PMID: 38426760 DOI: 10.1521/pdps.2024.52.1.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution was founded on the core belief that natural history is one of slow, incremental change, a concept he called "speciation." A hundred years later Eldredge and Gould challenged Darwin's theory, arguing that the data of paleontology reveals something quite different: long periods of stasis followed by bursts of change, a concept they called "punctuated equilibria." This article will follow that progression and then describe the three punctuated equilibria that I believe led to Homo sapiens. I argue that two of the three transitions are revealed in the hard data of the fossil record. The third is in the soft tissue of the brain. This third punctuated equilibrium placed Homo sapiens outside of evolution. Its arrival, 50,000 years ago, marked the beginning of the end of evolution.
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7
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Wang ZJ, Lee HC, Chuang CH, Hsiao FC, Lee SH, Hsu AL, Wu CW. Traces of EEG-fMRI coupling reveals neurovascular dynamics on sleep inertia. Sci Rep 2024; 14:1537. [PMID: 38233587 PMCID: PMC10794702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51694-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Upon emergence from sleep, individuals experience temporary hypo-vigilance and grogginess known as sleep inertia. During the transient period of vigilance recovery from prior nocturnal sleep, the neurovascular coupling (NVC) may not be static and constant as assumed by previous neuroimaging studies. Stemming from this viewpoint of sleep inertia, this study aims to probe the NVC changes as awakening time prolongs using simultaneous EEG-fMRI. The time-lagged coupling between EEG features of vigilance and BOLD-fMRI signals, in selected regions of interest, was calculated with one pre-sleep and three consecutive post-awakening resting-state measures. We found marginal changes in EEG theta/beta ratio and spectral slope across post-awakening sessions, demonstrating alterations of vigilance during sleep inertia. Time-varying EEG-fMRI coupling as awakening prolonged was evidenced by the changing time lags of the peak correlation between EEG alpha-vigilance and fMRI-thalamus, as well as EEG spectral slope and fMRI-anterior cingulate cortex. This study provides the first evidence of potential dynamicity of NVC occurred in sleep inertia and opens new avenues for non-invasive neuroimaging investigations into the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying brain state transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhitong John Wang
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, 5 Floor, 301, Yuantong Rd., Zhonghe Dist, New Taipei, 235040, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Chien Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Research Center of Sleep Medicine, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hsiang Chuang
- Research Center for Education and Mind Sciences, College of Education, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Fan-Chi Hsiao
- Department of Counseling, Clinical and Industrial/Organizational Psychology, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Shwu-Hua Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, 259, Wenhua 1St Rd., Guishan Dist., Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Ai-Ling Hsu
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital at Linkou, 259, Wenhua 1St Rd., Guishan Dist., Taoyuan, 33302, Taiwan.
- Bachelor Program in Artificial Intelligence, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
| | - Changwei W Wu
- Graduate Institute of Mind, Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, 5 Floor, 301, Yuantong Rd., Zhonghe Dist, New Taipei, 235040, Taiwan.
- Research Center of Sleep Medicine, Taipei Medical University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
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8
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Karbowski J, Urban P. Information encoded in volumes and areas of dendritic spines is nearly maximal across mammalian brains. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22207. [PMID: 38097675 PMCID: PMC10721930 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-49321-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Many experiments suggest that long-term information associated with neuronal memory resides collectively in dendritic spines. However, spines can have a limited size due to metabolic and neuroanatomical constraints, which should effectively limit the amount of encoded information in excitatory synapses. This study investigates how much information can be stored in the population of sizes of dendritic spines, and whether it is optimal in any sense. It is shown here, using empirical data for several mammalian brains across different regions and physiological conditions, that dendritic spines nearly maximize entropy contained in their volumes and surface areas for a given mean size in cortical and hippocampal regions. Although both short- and heavy-tailed fitting distributions approach [Formula: see text] of maximal entropy in the majority of cases, the best maximization is obtained primarily for short-tailed gamma distribution. We find that most empirical ratios of standard deviation to mean for spine volumes and areas are in the range [Formula: see text], which is close to the theoretical optimal ratios coming from entropy maximization for gamma and lognormal distributions. On average, the highest entropy is contained in spine length ([Formula: see text] bits per spine), and the lowest in spine volume and area ([Formula: see text] bits), although the latter two are closer to optimality. In contrast, we find that entropy density (entropy per spine size) is always suboptimal. Our results suggest that spine sizes are almost as random as possible given the constraint on their size, and moreover the general principle of entropy maximization is applicable and potentially useful to information and memory storing in the population of cortical and hippocampal excitatory synapses, and to predicting their morphological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Karbowski
- Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Paulina Urban
- Laboratory of Functional and Structural Genomics, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- College of Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
- Laboratory of Databases and Business Analytics, National Information Processing Institute, National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
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Theriault JE, Shaffer C, Dienel GA, Sander CY, Hooker JM, Dickerson BC, Barrett LF, Quigley KS. A functional account of stimulation-based aerobic glycolysis and its role in interpreting BOLD signal intensity increases in neuroimaging experiments. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105373. [PMID: 37634556 PMCID: PMC10591873 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
In aerobic glycolysis, oxygen is abundant, and yet cells metabolize glucose without using it, decreasing their ATP per glucose yield by 15-fold. During task-based stimulation, aerobic glycolysis occurs in localized brain regions, presenting a puzzle: why produce ATP inefficiently when, all else being equal, evolution should favor the efficient use of metabolic resources? The answer is that all else is not equal. We propose that a tradeoff exists between efficient ATP production and the efficiency with which ATP is spent to transmit information. Aerobic glycolysis, despite yielding little ATP per glucose, may support neuronal signaling in thin (< 0.5 µm), information-efficient axons. We call this the efficiency tradeoff hypothesis. This tradeoff has potential implications for interpretations of task-related BOLD "activation" observed in fMRI. We hypothesize that BOLD "activation" may index local increases in aerobic glycolysis, which support signaling in thin axons carrying "bottom-up" information, or "prediction error"-i.e., the BIAPEM (BOLD increases approximate prediction error metabolism) hypothesis. Finally, we explore implications of our hypotheses for human brain evolution, social behavior, and mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan E Theriault
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA.
| | - Clare Shaffer
- Northeastern University, Department of Psychology, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Gerald A Dienel
- Department of Neurology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Christin Y Sander
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Jacob M Hooker
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Bradford C Dickerson
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Lisa Feldman Barrett
- Northeastern University, Department of Psychology, Boston, MA, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Karen S Quigley
- Northeastern University, Department of Psychology, Boston, MA, USA; VA Bedford Healthcare System, Bedford, MA, USA
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10
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Datta D. Interrogating the Etiology of Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease Using Aging Rhesus Macaques: Cellular, Molecular, and Cortical Circuitry Perspectives. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2023; 78:1523-1534. [PMID: 37279946 PMCID: PMC10460555 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glad134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is the most significant risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) associated with profound socioeconomic and personal costs. Consequently, there is an urgent need for animal models that recapitulate the age-related spatial and temporal complexity and patterns of pathology identical to human AD. Our research in aging nonhuman primate models involving rhesus macaques has revealed naturally occurring amyloid and tau pathology, including the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles comprising hyperphosphorylated tau. Moreover, rhesus macaques exhibit synaptic dysfunction in association cortices and cognitive impairments with advancing age, and thus can be used to interrogate the etiological mechanisms that generate neuropathological cascades in sporadic AD. Particularly, unique molecular mechanisms (eg, feedforward cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate [cAMP]-Protein kinase A (PKA)-calcium signaling) in the newly evolved primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex are critical for persistent firing required for subserving higher-order cognition. For example, dendritic spines in primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex contain a specialized repertoire of proteins to magnify feedforward cAMP-PKA-calcium signaling such as N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptors and calcium channels on the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (eg, ryanodine receptors). This process is constrained by phosphodiesterases (eg, PDE4) that hydrolyze cAMP and calcium-buffering proteins (eg, calbindin) in the cytosol. However, genetic predispositions and age-related insults exacerbate feedforward cAMP-Protein kinase A-calcium signaling pathways that induce a myriad of downstream effects, including the opening of K+ channels to weaken network connectivity, calcium-mediated dysregulation of mitochondria, and activation of inflammatory cascades to eliminate synapses, thereby increasing susceptibility to atrophy. Therefore, aging rhesus macaques provide an invaluable model to explore novel therapeutic strategies in sporadic AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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11
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Zhang XH, Anderson KM, Dong HM, Chopra S, Dhamala E, Emani PS, Margulies D, Holmes AJ. The Cellular Underpinnings of the Human Cortical Connectome. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.05.547828. [PMID: 37461642 PMCID: PMC10349999 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.05.547828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
The functional properties of the human brain arise, in part, from the vast assortment of cell types that pattern the cortex. The cortical sheet can be broadly divided into distinct networks, which are further embedded into processing streams, or gradients, that extend from unimodal systems through higher-order association territories. Here, using transcriptional data from the Allen Human Brain Atlas, we demonstrate that imputed cell type distributions are spatially coupled to the functional organization of cortex, as estimated through fMRI. Cortical cellular profiles follow the macro-scale organization of the functional gradients as well as the associated large-scale networks. Distinct cellular fingerprints were evident across networks, and a classifier trained on post-mortem cell-type distributions was able to predict the functional network allegiance of cortical tissue samples. These data indicate that the in vivo organization of the cortical sheet is reflected in the spatial variability of its cellular composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Han Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Hao-Ming Dong
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sidhant Chopra
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Elvisha Dhamala
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York, USA
| | - Prashant S. Emani
- Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Daniel Margulies
- CNRS, Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center (UMR 8002), Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Avram J. Holmes
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Health Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
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12
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Fesharaki Zadeh A, Arnsten AFT, Wang M. Scientific Rationale for the Treatment of Cognitive Deficits from Long COVID. Neurol Int 2023; 15:725-742. [PMID: 37368329 PMCID: PMC10303664 DOI: 10.3390/neurolint15020045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Sustained cognitive deficits are a common and debilitating feature of "long COVID", but currently there are no FDA-approved treatments. The cognitive functions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) are the most consistently afflicted by long COVID, including deficits in working memory, motivation, and executive functioning. COVID-19 infection greatly increases kynurenic acid (KYNA) and glutamate carboxypeptidase II (GCPII) in brain, both of which can be particularly deleterious to PFC function. KYNA blocks both NMDA and nicotinic-alpha-7 receptors, the two receptors required for dlPFC neurotransmission, and GCPII reduces mGluR3 regulation of cAMP-calcium-potassium channel signaling, which weakens dlPFC network connectivity and reduces dlPFC neuronal firing. Two agents approved for other indications may be helpful in restoring dlPFC physiology: the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine inhibits the production of KYNA, and the α2A-adrenoceptor agonist guanfacine regulates cAMP-calcium-potassium channel signaling in dlPFC and is also anti-inflammatory. Thus, these agents may be helpful in treating the cognitive symptoms of long COVID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Fesharaki Zadeh
- Departments of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Departments of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Amy F. T. Arnsten
- Departments of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA;
| | - Min Wang
- Departments of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA;
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13
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Hanganu-Opatz IL, Klausberger T, Sigurdsson T, Nieder A, Jacob SN, Bartos M, Sauer JF, Durstewitz D, Leibold C, Diester I. Resolving the prefrontal mechanisms of adaptive cognitive behaviors: A cross-species perspective. Neuron 2023; 111:1020-1036. [PMID: 37023708 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) enables a staggering variety of complex behaviors, such as planning actions, solving problems, and adapting to new situations according to external information and internal states. These higher-order abilities, collectively defined as adaptive cognitive behavior, require cellular ensembles that coordinate the tradeoff between the stability and flexibility of neural representations. While the mechanisms underlying the function of cellular ensembles are still unclear, recent experimental and theoretical studies suggest that temporal coordination dynamically binds prefrontal neurons into functional ensembles. A so far largely separate stream of research has investigated the prefrontal efferent and afferent connectivity. These two research streams have recently converged on the hypothesis that prefrontal connectivity patterns influence ensemble formation and the function of neurons within ensembles. Here, we propose a unitary concept that, leveraging a cross-species definition of prefrontal regions, explains how prefrontal ensembles adaptively regulate and efficiently coordinate multiple processes in distinct cognitive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ileana L Hanganu-Opatz
- Institute of Developmental Neurophysiology, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, Hamburg Center of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Thomas Klausberger
- Center for Brain Research, Division of Cognitive Neurobiology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Torfi Sigurdsson
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Andreas Nieder
- Animal Physiology Unit, Institute of Neurobiology, University of Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Simon N Jacob
- Translational Neurotechnology Laboratory, Department of Neurosurgery, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Marlene Bartos
- Institute for Physiology I, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Jonas-Frederic Sauer
- Institute for Physiology I, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Daniel Durstewitz
- Department of Theoretical Neuroscience, Central Institute of Mental Health & Faculty of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Leibold
- Faculty of Biology, Bernstein Center Freiburg, BrainLinks-BrainTools, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Ilka Diester
- Optophysiology - Optogenetics and Neurophysiology, IMBIT // BrainLinks-BrainTools, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany.
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14
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Luria V, Ma S, Shibata M, Pattabiraman K, Sestan N. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of human cortical connectivity. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2023; 80:102699. [PMID: 36921362 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2023.102699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Comparative studies of the cerebral cortex have identified various human and primate-specific changes in both local and long-range connectivity, which are thought to underlie our advanced cognitive capabilities. These changes are likely mediated by the divergence of spatiotemporal regulation of gene expression, which is particularly prominent in the prenatal and early postnatal human and non-human primate cerebral cortex. In this review, we describe recent advances in characterizing human and primate genetic and cellular innovations including identification of novel species-specific, especially human-specific, genes, gene expression patterns, and cell types. Finally, we highlight three recent studies linking these molecular changes to reorganization of cortical connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Luria
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Shaojie Ma
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Mikihito Shibata
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Kartik Pattabiraman
- Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA.
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA; Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA; Departments of Psychiatry, Genetics and Comparative Medicine, Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA.
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15
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Hublin JJ, Changeux JP. Paleoanthropology of cognition: an overview on Hominins brain evolution. C R Biol 2022; 345:57-75. [PMID: 36847465 DOI: 10.5802/crbiol.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in neurobiology, paleontology, and paleogenetics allow us to associate changes in brain size and organization with three main "moments" of increased behavioral complexity and, more speculatively, language development. First, Australopiths display a significant increase in brain size relative to the great apes and an incipient extension of postnatal brain development. However, their cortical organization remains essentially similar to that of apes. Second, over the last 2 My, with two notable exceptions, brain size increases dramatically, partly in relation to changes in body size. Differential enlargements and reorganizations of cortical areas lay the foundation for the "language-ready" brain and cumulative culture of later Homo species. Third, in Homo sapiens, brain size remains fairly stable over the last 300,000 years but an important cerebral reorganization takes place. It affects the frontal and temporal lobes, the parietal areas and the cerebellum and resulted in a more globular shape of the brain. These changes are associated, among others, with an increased development of long-distance-horizontal-connections. A few regulatory genetic events took place in the course of this hominization process with, in particular, enhanced neuronal proliferation and global brain connectivity.
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16
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Arnsten AFT, Woo E, Yang S, Wang M, Datta D. Unusual Molecular Regulation of Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Layer III Synapses Increases Vulnerability to Genetic and Environmental Insults in Schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2022; 92:480-490. [PMID: 35305820 PMCID: PMC9372235 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is associated with reduced numbers of spines and dendrites from layer III of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), the layer that houses the recurrent excitatory microcircuits that subserve working memory and abstract thought. Why are these synapses so vulnerable, while synapses in deeper or more superficial layers are little affected? This review describes the special molecular properties that govern layer III neurotransmission and neuromodulation in the primate dlPFC and how they may render these circuits particularly vulnerable to genetic and environmental insults. These properties include a reliance on NMDA receptor rather than AMPA receptor neurotransmission; cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) magnification of calcium signaling near the glutamatergic synapse of dendritic spines; and potassium channels opened by cAMP/PKA (protein kinase A) signaling that dynamically alter network strength, with built-in mechanisms to take dlPFC "offline" during stress. A variety of genetic and/or environmental insults can lead to the same phenotype of weakened layer III connectivity, in which mechanisms that normally strengthen connectivity are impaired and those that normally weaken connectivity are intensified. Inflammatory mechanisms, such as increased kynurenic acid and glutamate carboxypeptidase II expression, are especially detrimental to layer III dlPFC neurotransmission and modulation, mimicking genetic insults. The combination of genetic and inflammatory insults may cross the threshold into pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut.
| | - Elizabeth Woo
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Shengtao Yang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut
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17
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Rolls ET, Deco G, Huang CC, Feng J. The human language effective connectome. Neuroimage 2022; 258:119352. [PMID: 35659999 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
To advance understanding of brain networks involved in language, the effective connectivity between 26 cortical regions implicated in language by a community analysis and 360 cortical regions was measured in 171 humans from the Human Connectome Project, and complemented with functional connectivity and diffusion tractography, all using the HCP multimodal parcellation atlas. A (semantic) network (Group 1) involving inferior cortical regions of the superior temporal sulcus cortex (STS) with the adjacent inferior temporal visual cortex TE1a and temporal pole TG, and the connected parietal PGi region, has effective connectivity with inferior temporal visual cortex (TE) regions; with parietal PFm which also has visual connectivity; with posterior cingulate cortex memory-related regions; with the frontal pole, orbitofrontal cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex; with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; and with 44 and 45 for output regions. It is proposed that this system can build in its temporal lobe (STS and TG) and parietal parts (PGi and PGs) semantic representations of objects incorporating especially their visual and reward properties. Another (semantic) network (Group 3) involving superior regions of the superior temporal sulcus cortex and more superior temporal lobe regions including STGa, auditory A5, TPOJ1, the STV and the Peri-Sylvian Language area (PSL) has effective connectivity with auditory areas (A1, A4, A5, Pbelt); with relatively early visual areas involved in motion, e.g., MT and MST, and faces/words (FFC); with somatosensory regions (frontal opercular FOP, insula and parietal PF); with other TPOJ regions; and with the inferior frontal gyrus regions (IFJa and IFSp). It is proposed that this system builds semantic representations specialising in auditory and related facial motion information useful in theory of mind and somatosensory / body image information, with outputs directed not only to regions 44 and 45, but also to premotor 55b and midcingulate premotor cortex. Both semantic networks (Groups 1 and 3) have access to the hippocampal episodic memory system via parahippocampal TF. A third largely frontal network (Group 2) (44, 45, 47l; 55b; the Superior Frontal Language region SFL; and including temporal pole TGv) receives effective connectivity from the two semantic systems, and is implicated in syntax and speech output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK; Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK; Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200403, China.
| | - Gustavo Deco
- Department of Information and Communication Technologies, Center for Brain and Cognition, Computational Neuroscience Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Roc Boronat 138, Barcelona 08018, Spain; Brain and Cognition, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona 08018, Spain; Institució Catalana de la Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Passeig Lluís Companys 23, Barcelona 08010, Spain
| | - Chu-Chung Huang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Functional Genomics (Ministry of Education), School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200602, China
| | - Jianfeng Feng
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK; Institute of Science and Technology for Brain Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200403, China
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18
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Preuss TM, Wise SP. Evolution of prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:3-19. [PMID: 34363014 PMCID: PMC8617185 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-01076-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Subdivisions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) evolved at different times. Agranular parts of the PFC emerged in early mammals, and rodents, primates, and other modern mammals share them by inheritance. These are limbic areas and include the agranular orbital cortex and agranular medial frontal cortex (areas 24, 32, and 25). Rodent research provides valuable insights into the structure, functions, and development of these shared areas, but it contributes less to parts of the PFC that are specific to primates, namely, the granular, isocortical PFC that dominates the frontal lobe in humans. The first granular PFC areas evolved either in early primates or in the last common ancestor of primates and tree shrews. Additional granular PFC areas emerged in the primate stem lineage, as represented by modern strepsirrhines. Other granular PFC areas evolved in simians, the group that includes apes, humans, and monkeys. In general, PFC accreted new areas along a roughly posterior to anterior trajectory during primate evolution. A major expansion of the granular PFC occurred in humans in concert with other association areas, with modifications of corticocortical connectivity and gene expression, although current evidence does not support the addition of a large number of new, human-specific PFC areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M Preuss
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
| | - Steven P Wise
- Olschefskie Institute for the Neurobiology of Knowledge, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
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19
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Shibata M, Pattabiraman K, Muchnik SK, Kaur N, Morozov YM, Cheng X, Waxman SG, Sestan N. Hominini-specific regulation of CBLN2 increases prefrontal spinogenesis. Nature 2021; 598:489-494. [PMID: 34599306 PMCID: PMC9018127 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03952-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The similarities and differences between nervous systems of various species result from developmental constraints and specific adaptations1-4. Comparative analyses of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a cerebral cortex region involved in higher-order cognition and complex social behaviours, have identified true and potential human-specific structural and molecular specializations4-8, such as an exaggerated PFC-enriched anterior-posterior dendritic spine density gradient5. These changes are probably mediated by divergence in spatiotemporal gene regulation9-17, which is particularly prominent in the midfetal human cortex15,18-20. Here we analysed human and macaque transcriptomic data15,20 and identified a transient PFC-enriched and laminar-specific upregulation of cerebellin 2 (CBLN2), a neurexin (NRXN) and glutamate receptor-δ GRID/GluD-associated synaptic organizer21-27, during midfetal development that coincided with the initiation of synaptogenesis. Moreover, we found that species differences in level of expression and laminar distribution of CBLN2 are, at least in part, due to Hominini-specific deletions containing SOX5-binding sites within a retinoic acid-responsive CBLN2 enhancer. In situ genetic humanization of the mouse Cbln2 enhancer drives increased and ectopic laminar Cbln2 expression and promotes PFC dendritic spine formation. These findings suggest a genetic and molecular basis for the anterior-posterior cortical gradient and disproportionate increase in the Hominini PFC of dendritic spines and a developmental mechanism that may link dysfunction of the NRXN-GRID-CBLN2 complex to the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikihito Shibata
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kartik Pattabiraman
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sydney K Muchnik
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Navjot Kaur
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Yury M Morozov
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Xiaoyang Cheng
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Center for Neuroscience and Regeneration Research, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Rehabilitation Research Center, Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare Center, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Stephen G Waxman
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Center for Neuroscience and Regeneration Research, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Rehabilitation Research Center, Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare Center, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, New Haven, CT, USA.
- Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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20
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The genetic symphony underlying evolution of the brain's prefrontal cortex. Nature 2021; 598:417-418. [PMID: 34588642 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-021-02460-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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21
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Abstract
Although rodent research provides important insights into neural correlates of human psychology, new cortical areas, connections, and cognitive abilities emerged during primate evolution, including human evolution. Comparison of human brains with those of nonhuman primates reveals two aspects of human brain evolution particularly relevant to emotional disorders: expansion of homotypical association areas and expansion of the hippocampus. Two uniquely human cognitive capacities link these phylogenetic developments with emotion: a subjective sense of participating in and reexperiencing remembered events and a limitless capacity to imagine details of future events. These abilities provided evolving humans with selective advantages, but they also created proclivities for emotional problems. The first capacity evokes the "reliving" of past events in the "here-and-now," accompanied by emotional responses that occurred during memory encoding. It contributes to risk for stress-related syndromes, such as posttraumatic stress disorder. The second capacity, an ability to imagine future events without temporal limitations, facilitates flexible, goal-related behavior by drawing on and creating a uniquely rich array of mental representations. It promotes goal achievement and reduces errors, but the mental construction of future events also contributes to developmental aspects of anxiety and mood disorders. With maturation of homotypical association areas, the concrete concerns of childhood expand to encompass the abstract apprehensions of adolescence and adulthood. These cognitive capacities and their dysfunction are amenable to a research agenda that melds experimental therapeutic interventions, cognitive neuropsychology, and developmental psychology in both humans and nonhuman primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S. Pine
- Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, Emotion and Development Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Steven P. Wise
- Olschefskie Institute for the Neurobiology of Knowledge, Bethesda, MD 20814
| | - Elisabeth A. Murray
- Section on the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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22
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Arnsten AFT, Datta D, Wang M. The genie in the bottle-magnified calcium signaling in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:3684-3700. [PMID: 33319854 PMCID: PMC8203737 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-020-00973-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Neurons in the association cortices are particularly vulnerable in cognitive disorders such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease, while those in primary visual cortex remain relatively resilient. This review proposes that the special molecular mechanisms needed for higher cognitive operations confer vulnerability to dysfunction, atrophy, and neurodegeneration when regulation is lost due to genetic and/or environmental insults. Accumulating data suggest that higher cortical circuits rely on magnified levels of calcium (from NMDAR, calcium channels, and/or internal release from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum) near the postsynaptic density to promote the persistent firing needed to maintain, manipulate, and store information without "bottom-up" sensory stimulation. For example, dendritic spines in the primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) express the molecular machinery for feedforward, cAMP-PKA-calcium signaling. PKA can drive internal calcium release and promote calcium flow through NMDAR and calcium channels, while in turn, calcium activates adenylyl cyclases to produce more cAMP-PKA signaling. Excessive levels of cAMP-calcium signaling can have a number of detrimental effects: for example, opening nearby K+ channels to weaken synaptic efficacy and reduce neuronal firing, and over a longer timeframe, driving calcium overload of mitochondria to induce inflammation and dendritic atrophy. Thus, calcium-cAMP signaling must be tightly regulated, e.g., by agents that catabolize cAMP or inhibit its production (PDE4, mGluR3), and by proteins that bind calcium in the cytosol (calbindin). Many genetic or inflammatory insults early in life weaken the regulation of calcium-cAMP signaling and are associated with increased risk of schizophrenia (e.g., GRM3). Age-related loss of regulatory proteins which result in elevated calcium-cAMP signaling over a long lifespan can additionally drive tau phosphorylation, amyloid pathology, and neurodegeneration, especially when protective calcium binding proteins are lost from the cytosol. Thus, the "genie" we need for our remarkable cognitive abilities may make us vulnerable to cognitive disorders when we lose essential regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA.
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
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23
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van Dyck CH, Arnsten AFT, Padala PR, Brawman-Mintzer O, Lerner AJ, Porsteinsson AP, Scherer RW, Levey AI, Herrmann N, Jamil N, Mintzer JE, Lanctôt KL, Rosenberg PB. Neurobiologic Rationale for Treatment of Apathy in Alzheimer's Disease With Methylphenidate. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2021; 29:51-62. [PMID: 32461027 PMCID: PMC7641967 DOI: 10.1016/j.jagp.2020.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Revised: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The public health burden of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is related not only to cognitive symptoms, but also to neuropsychiatric symptoms, including apathy. Apathy is defined as a quantitative reduction of goal-directed activity in comparison to a previous level of functioning and affects 30%-70% of persons with AD. Previous attempts to treat apathy in AD-both nonpharmacologically and pharmacologically-have been wanting. Catecholaminergic treatment with methylphenidate has shown encouraging results in initial trials of apathy in AD. Understanding the neuronal circuits underlying motivated behavior and their reliance on catecholamine actions helps provide a rationale for methylphenidate actions in the treatment of apathy in patients with AD. Anatomical, physiological, and behavioral studies have identified parallel, cortical-basal ganglia circuits that govern action, cognition, and emotion and play key roles in motivated behavior. Understanding the distinct contributions to motivated behavior of subregions of the prefrontal cortex-dorsolateral, orbital-ventromedial, and dorsomedial-helps to explain why degeneration of these areas in AD results in apathetic behaviors. We propose that the degeneration of the prefrontal cortex in AD produces symptoms of apathy. We further propose that methylphenidate treatment may ameliorate those symptoms by boosting norepinephrine and dopamine actions in prefrontal-striatal-thalamocortical circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Prasad R Padala
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System (PRP), Little Rock, AR
| | - Olga Brawman-Mintzer
- Medical University of South Carolina and Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center (OB-M, JEM), Charleston, SC
| | - Alan J Lerner
- University Hospitals - Case Western Reserve University (AJL), Cleveland, OH
| | | | - Roberta W Scherer
- Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health (RWS), Baltimore, MD
| | | | - Nathan Herrmann
- Sunnybrook Research Institute (NH, KLL), Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nimra Jamil
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (NJ, PBR), Baltimore, MD
| | - Jacobo E Mintzer
- Medical University of South Carolina and Ralph H. Johnson Veterans Administration Medical Center (OB-M, JEM), Charleston, SC
| | | | - Paul B Rosenberg
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (NJ, PBR), Baltimore, MD
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24
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Datta D, Enwright JF, Arion D, Paspalas CD, Morozov YM, Lewis DA, Arnsten AFT. Mapping Phosphodiesterase 4D (PDE4D) in Macaque Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex: Postsynaptic Compartmentalization in Layer III Pyramidal Cell Circuits. Front Neuroanat 2020; 14:578483. [PMID: 33328902 PMCID: PMC7714912 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2020.578483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
cAMP signaling has powerful, negative effects on cognitive functions of the primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), opening potassium channels to reduce firing and impair working memory, and increasing tau phosphorylation in aging neurons. This contrasts with cAMP actions in classic circuits, where it enhances plasticity and transmitter release. PDE4 isozymes regulate cAMP actions, and thus have been a focus of research and drug discovery. Previous work has focused on the localization of PDE4A and PDE4B in dlPFC, but PDE4D is also of great interest, as it is the predominant PDE4 isoform in primate association cortex, and PDE4D expression decreases with aging in human dlPFC. Here we used laser-capture microdissection transcriptomics and found that PDE4D message is enriched in pyramidal cells compared to GABAergic PV-interneurons in layer III of the human dlPFC. A parallel study in rhesus macaques using high-spatial resolution immunoelectron microscopy revealed the ultrastructural locations of PDE4D in primate dlPFC with clarity not possible in human post-mortem tissue. PDE4D was especially prominent in dendrites associated with microtubules, mitochondria, and likely smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). There was substantial postsynaptic labeling in dendritic spines, associated with the SER spine-apparatus near glutamatergic-like axospinous synapses, but sparse labeling in axon terminals. We also observed dense PDE4D labeling perisynaptically in astroglial leaflets ensheathing glutamatergic connections. These data suggest that PDE4D is strategically positioned to regulate cAMP signaling in dlPFC glutamatergic synapses and circuits, especially in postsynaptic compartments where it is localized to influence cAMP actions on intracellular trafficking, mitochondrial physiology, and internal calcium release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - John F. Enwright
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Dominique Arion
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Constantinos D. Paspalas
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Yury M. Morozov
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - David A. Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Amy F. T. Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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25
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Liu Y, Konopka G. An integrative understanding of comparative cognition: lessons from human brain evolution. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:991-1006. [PMID: 32681799 PMCID: PMC7608741 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of animal cognition requires the integration of studies on behavior, electrophysiology, neuroanatomy, development, and genomics. Although studies of comparative cognition are receiving increasing attention from organismal biologists, most current studies focus on the comparison of behaviors and anatomical structures to understand their adaptative values. However, to understand the most potentially complex cognitive program of the human brain a greater synthesis of a multitude of disciplines is needed. In this review, we start with extensive neuroanatomic comparisons between humans and other primates. One likely specialization of the human brain is the expansion of neocortex, especially in regions for high-order cognition (e.g., prefrontal cortex). We then discuss how such an expansion can be linked to heterochrony of the brain developmental program, resulting in a greater number of neurons and enhanced computational capacity. Furthermore, alteration of gene expression in the human brain has been associated with positive selection in DNA sequences of gene regulatory regions. These results not only imply that genes associated with brain development are a major factor in the evolution of cognition, but also that high-quality whole-genome sequencing and gene manipulation techniques are needed for an integrative and functional understanding of comparative cognition in non-model organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxiang Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Genevieve Konopka
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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26
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Chen Y, Zhang ZK, He Y, Zhou C. A Large-Scale High-Density Weighted Structural Connectome of the Macaque Brain Acquired by Predicting Missing Links. Cereb Cortex 2020; 30:4771-4789. [PMID: 32313935 PMCID: PMC7391281 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
As a substrate for function, large-scale brain structural networks are crucial for fundamental and systems-level understanding of primate brains. However, it is challenging to acquire a complete primate whole-brain structural connectome using track tracing techniques. Here, we acquired a weighted brain structural network across 91 cortical regions of a whole macaque brain hemisphere with a connectivity density of 59% by predicting missing links from the CoCoMac-based binary network with a low density of 26.3%. The prediction model combines three factors, including spatial proximity, topological similarity, and cytoarchitectural similarity-to predict missing links and assign connection weights. The model was tested on a recently obtained high connectivity density yet partial-coverage experimental weighted network connecting 91 sources to 29 target regions; the model showed a prediction sensitivity of 74.1% in the predicted network. This predicted macaque hemisphere-wide weighted network has module segregation closely matching functional domains. Interestingly, the areas that act as integrators linking the segregated modules are mainly distributed in the frontoparietal network and correspond to the regions with large wiring costs in the predicted weighted network. This predicted weighted network provides a high-density structural dataset for further exploration of relationships between structure, function, and metabolism in the primate brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Department of Physics, Centre for Nonlinear Studies, and Beijing-Hong Kong-Singapore Joint Centre for Nonlinear and Complex Systems (Hong Kong), Institute of Computational and Theoretical Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong
| | - Zi-Ke Zhang
- College of Media and International Culture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Alibaba Research Center for Complex Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China
| | - Yong He
- National Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Changsong Zhou
- Department of Physics, Centre for Nonlinear Studies, and Beijing-Hong Kong-Singapore Joint Centre for Nonlinear and Complex Systems (Hong Kong), Institute of Computational and Theoretical Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong
- Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
- Research Centre, HKBU Institute of Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen 518000, China
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27
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Pattabiraman K, Muchnik SK, Sestan N. The evolution of the human brain and disease susceptibility. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2020; 65:91-97. [PMID: 32629339 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2020.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary perspective is critical for understanding human biology, human medicine, and the traits that make human beings unique. One of the crucial characteristics that sets humans apart from other extant species is our cognitive ability, which allows for complex processes including symbolic thought, theory of mind, and syntactical-grammatical language, and is thought to arise from the expansion and specialization of the human nervous system. It has been hypothesized that the same evolutionary changes that allowed us to develop these valuable skills made humans susceptible to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disease. Unfortunately, our lack of access to our extinct ancestors makes this a difficult hypothesis to test, but recent collaborations between the fields of evolution, genetics, genomics, neuroscience, neurology and psychiatry have begun to provide some clues. Here, we will outline recent work in those fields that have utilized our growing knowledge of disease risk genes and loci, identified by wide-scale genetic studies, and nervous system development and function to draw conclusions about the impact of human-specific aspects of evolution. We will discuss studies that assess evolution at a variety of scales including at the levels of whole brain regions, cell types, synapses, metabolic processes, gene expression patterns, and gene regulation. At all of these levels, there is preliminary evidence that human-specific brain features are linked to neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disease risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Pattabiraman
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Sydney Keaton Muchnik
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Departments of Psychiatry and Comparative Medicine, Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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28
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Sherwood CC, Miller SB, Karl M, Stimpson CD, Phillips KA, Jacobs B, Hof PR, Raghanti MA, Smaers JB. Invariant Synapse Density and Neuronal Connectivity Scaling in Primate Neocortical Evolution. Cereb Cortex 2020; 30:5604-5615. [PMID: 32488266 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Synapses are involved in the communication of information from one neuron to another. However, a systematic analysis of synapse density in the neocortex from a diversity of species is lacking, limiting what can be understood about the evolution of this fundamental aspect of brain structure. To address this, we quantified synapse density in supragranular layers II-III and infragranular layers V-VI from primary visual cortex and inferior temporal cortex in a sample of 25 species of primates, including humans. We found that synapse densities were relatively constant across these levels of the cortical visual processing hierarchy and did not significantly differ with brain mass, varying by only 1.9-fold across species. We also found that neuron densities decreased in relation to brain enlargement. Consequently, these data show that the number of synapses per neuron significantly rises as a function of brain expansion in these neocortical areas of primates. Humans displayed the highest number of synapses per neuron, but these values were generally within expectations based on brain size. The metabolic and biophysical constraints that regulate uniformity of synapse density, therefore, likely underlie a key principle of neuronal connectivity scaling in primate neocortical evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chet C Sherwood
- Department of Anthropology, Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Sarah B Miller
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Molly Karl
- Department of Anthropology, Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Cheryl D Stimpson
- Department of Anthropology, Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | | | - Bob Jacobs
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory of Quantitative Neuromorphology, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, CO 80946, USA
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Mary Ann Raghanti
- Department of Anthropology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Brain Health Research Institute, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242, USA
| | - Jeroen B Smaers
- Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA.,Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
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29
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Khrameeva E, Kurochkin I, Han D, Guijarro P, Kanton S, Santel M, Qian Z, Rong S, Mazin P, Sabirov M, Bulat M, Efimova O, Tkachev A, Guo S, Sherwood CC, Camp JG, Pääbo S, Treutlein B, Khaitovich P. Single-cell-resolution transcriptome map of human, chimpanzee, bonobo, and macaque brains. Genome Res 2020; 30:776-789. [PMID: 32424074 PMCID: PMC7263190 DOI: 10.1101/gr.256958.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Identification of gene expression traits unique to the human brain sheds light on the molecular mechanisms underlying human evolution. Here, we searched for uniquely human gene expression traits by analyzing 422 brain samples from humans, chimpanzees, bonobos, and macaques representing 33 anatomical regions, as well as 88,047 cell nuclei composing three of these regions. Among 33 regions, cerebral cortex areas, hypothalamus, and cerebellar gray and white matter evolved rapidly in humans. At the cellular level, astrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitors displayed more differences in the human evolutionary lineage than the neurons. Comparison of the bulk tissue and single-nuclei sequencing revealed that conventional RNA sequencing did not detect up to two-thirds of cell-type-specific evolutionary differences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ilia Kurochkin
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia
| | - Dingding Han
- Guangzhou Institute of Pediatrics, Guangzhou Women and Children's Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510623, China
| | - Patricia Guijarro
- CAS Key Laboratory of Computational Biology, CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Sabina Kanton
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Malgorzata Santel
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Zhengzong Qian
- CAS Key Laboratory of Computational Biology, CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Shen Rong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Computational Biology, CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Pavel Mazin
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia.,Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 127051, Russia
| | - Marat Sabirov
- Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Institute of Gene Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119334, Russia
| | - Matvei Bulat
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia
| | - Olga Efimova
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia
| | - Anna Tkachev
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia.,Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 127051, Russia
| | - Song Guo
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia.,CAS Key Laboratory of Computational Biology, CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Chet C Sherwood
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - J Gray Camp
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology, Basel, 4057, Switzerland
| | - Svante Pääbo
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, 04103, Germany
| | - Barbara Treutlein
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Basel, 4058, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Khaitovich
- Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Moscow, 143028, Russia.,CAS Key Laboratory of Computational Biology, CAS-MPG Partner Institute for Computational Biology, Shanghai, 200031, China.,Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, 04103, Germany.,Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, China
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30
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Galvin VC, Yang ST, Paspalas CD, Yang Y, Jin LE, Datta D, Morozov YM, Lightbourne TC, Lowet AS, Rakic P, Arnsten AFT, Wang M. Muscarinic M1 Receptors Modulate Working Memory Performance and Activity via KCNQ Potassium Channels in the Primate Prefrontal Cortex. Neuron 2020; 106:649-661.e4. [PMID: 32197063 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Working memory relies on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), where microcircuits of pyramidal neurons enable persistent firing in the absence of sensory input, maintaining information through recurrent excitation. This activity relies on acetylcholine, although the molecular mechanisms for this dependence are not thoroughly understood. This study investigated the role of muscarinic M1 receptors (M1Rs) in the dlPFC using iontophoresis coupled with single-unit recordings from aging monkeys with naturally occurring cholinergic depletion. We found that M1R stimulation produced an inverted-U dose response on cell firing and behavioral performance when given systemically to aged monkeys. Immunoelectron microscopy localized KCNQ isoforms (Kv7.2, Kv7.3, and Kv7.5) on layer III dendrites and spines, similar to M1Rs. Iontophoretic manipulation of KCNQ channels altered cell firing and reversed the effects of M1R compounds, suggesting that KCNQ channels are one mechanism for M1R actions in the dlPFC. These results indicate that M1Rs may be an appropriate target to treat cognitive disorders with cholinergic alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica C Galvin
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Sheng Tao Yang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | | | - Yang Yang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Lu E Jin
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Yury M Morozov
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Taber C Lightbourne
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Adam S Lowet
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Pasko Rakic
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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31
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Saniotis A, Grantham JP, Kumaratilake J, Henneberg M. Neuro-hormonal Regulation Is a Better Indicator of Human Cognitive Abilities Than Brain Anatomy: The Need for a New Paradigm. Front Neuroanat 2020; 13:101. [PMID: 31998082 PMCID: PMC6962128 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2019.00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Saniotis
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Knowledge University, Erbil, Iraq
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Research Unit (BACARU), Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- *Correspondence: Arthur Saniotis
| | - James P. Grantham
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Research Unit (BACARU), Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jaliya Kumaratilake
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Research Unit (BACARU), Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Maciej Henneberg
- Biological Anthropology and Comparative Anatomy Research Unit (BACARU), Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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32
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Abstract
The prefrontal cortex underlies our high order cognitive abilities and is the target of projections from many neuromodulatory nuclei. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is particularly critical for rule representation and working memory, or the ability to hold information "in mind" in the absence of sensory input. Emerging evidence supports a prominent and permissive role for acetylcholine in these excitatory circuits, through actions at cholinergic nicotinic receptors. Here we review the involvement of acetylcholine in working memory via actions at nicotinic receptors.
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33
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Parra A, Baker CA, Bolton MM. Regional Specialization of Pyramidal Neuron Morphology and Physiology in the Tree Shrew Neocortex. Cereb Cortex 2019; 29:4488-4505. [PMID: 30715235 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2018] [Revised: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian cerebral cortex is divided into different areas according to their function and pattern of connections. Studies comparing primary visual (V1) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) of primates have demonstrated striking pyramidal neuron (PN) specialization not present in comparable areas of the mouse neocortex. To better understand PFC evolution and regional PN specialization, we studied the tree shrew, a species with a close phylogenetic relationship to primates. We defined the tree shrew PFC based on cytoarchitectonic borders, thalamic connectivity and characterized the morphology and electrophysiology of layer II/III PNs in V1 and PFC. Similar to primates, the PFC PNs in the tree shrew fire with a regular spiking pattern and have larger dendritic tree and spines than those in V1. However, V1 PNs showed strikingly large basal dendritic arbors with high spine density, firing at higher rates and in a more varied pattern than PFC PNs. Yet, unlike in the mouse and unreported in the primate, medial prefrontal PN are more easily recruited than either the dorsolateral or V1 neurons. This specialization of PN morphology and physiology is likely to be a significant factor in the evolution of cortex, contributing to differences in the computational capacities of individual cortical areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Parra
- Disorders of Neural Circuit Function, Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, USA.,Functional Architecture of the Cerebral Cortex, Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, USA.,Cellular and Systems Neurobiology, Instituto de Neurociencias de Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Christopher A Baker
- Disorders of Neural Circuit Function, Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, USA
| | - M McLean Bolton
- Disorders of Neural Circuit Function, Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, USA
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34
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Courellis HS, Nummela SU, Metke M, Diehl GW, Bussell R, Cauwenberghs G, Miller CT. Spatial encoding in primate hippocampus during free navigation. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000546. [PMID: 31815940 PMCID: PMC6922474 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampus comprises two neural signals-place cells and θ oscillations-that contribute to facets of spatial navigation. Although their complementary relationship has been well established in rodents, their respective contributions in the primate brain during free navigation remains unclear. Here, we recorded neural activity in the hippocampus of freely moving marmosets as they naturally explored a spatial environment to more explicitly investigate this issue. We report place cells in marmoset hippocampus during free navigation that exhibit remarkable parallels to analogous neurons in other mammalian species. Although θ oscillations were prevalent in the marmoset hippocampus, the patterns of activity were notably different than in other taxa. This local field potential oscillation occurred in short bouts (approximately .4 s)-rather than continuously-and was neither significantly modulated by locomotion nor consistently coupled to place-cell activity. These findings suggest that the relationship between place-cell activity and θ oscillations in primate hippocampus during free navigation differs substantially from rodents and paint an intriguing comparative picture regarding the neural basis of spatial navigation across mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hristos S. Courellis
- Cortical Systems and Behavior Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Samuel U. Nummela
- Cortical Systems and Behavior Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - Michael Metke
- Cortical Systems and Behavior Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
- Neurosciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States of America
| | - Geoffrey W. Diehl
- Neurosciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States of America
| | - Robert Bussell
- Center for Functional MRI, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States of America
| | - Gert Cauwenberghs
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
- Neurosciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States of America
| | - Cory T. Miller
- Cortical Systems and Behavior Laboratory, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, United States of America
- Neurosciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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35
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Datta D, Arnsten AFT. Loss of Prefrontal Cortical Higher Cognition with Uncontrollable Stress: Molecular Mechanisms, Changes with Age, and Relevance to Treatment. Brain Sci 2019; 9:brainsci9050113. [PMID: 31108855 PMCID: PMC6562841 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9050113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The newly evolved prefrontal cortex (PFC) generates goals for "top-down" control of behavior, thought, and emotion. However, these circuits are especially vulnerable to uncontrollable stress, with powerful, intracellular mechanisms that rapidly take the PFC "off-line." High levels of norepinephrine and dopamine released during stress engage α1-AR and D1R, which activate feedforward calcium-cAMP signaling pathways that open nearby potassium channels to weaken connectivity and reduce PFC cell firing. Sustained weakening with chronic stress leads to atrophy of dendrites and spines. Understanding these signaling events helps to explain the increased susceptibility of the PFC to stress pathology during adolescence, when dopamine expression is increased in the PFC, and with advanced age, when the molecular "brakes" on stress signaling are diminished by loss of phosphodiesterases. These mechanisms have also led to pharmacological treatments for stress-related disorders, including guanfacine treatment of childhood trauma, and prazosin treatment of veterans and civilians with post-traumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyadeep Datta
- Department Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
| | - Amy F T Arnsten
- Department Neuroscience, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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36
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Petanjek Z, Sedmak D, Džaja D, Hladnik A, Rašin MR, Jovanov-Milosevic N. The Protracted Maturation of Associative Layer IIIC Pyramidal Neurons in the Human Prefrontal Cortex During Childhood: A Major Role in Cognitive Development and Selective Alteration in Autism. Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:122. [PMID: 30923504 PMCID: PMC6426783 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The human specific cognitive shift starts around the age of 2 years with the onset of self-awareness, and continues with extraordinary increase in cognitive capacities during early childhood. Diffuse changes in functional connectivity in children aged 2-6 years indicate an increase in the capacity of cortical network. Interestingly, structural network complexity does not increase during this time and, thus, it is likely to be induced by selective maturation of a specific neuronal subclass. Here, we provide an overview of a subclass of cortico-cortical neurons, the associative layer IIIC pyramids of the human prefrontal cortex. Their local axonal collaterals are in control of the prefrontal cortico-cortical output, while their long projections modulate inter-areal processing. In this way, layer IIIC pyramids are the major integrative element of cortical processing, and changes in their connectivity patterns will affect global cortical functioning. Layer IIIC neurons have a unique pattern of dendritic maturation. In contrast to other classes of principal neurons, they undergo an additional phase of extensive dendritic growth during early childhood, and show characteristic molecular changes. Taken together, circuits associated with layer IIIC neurons have the most protracted period of developmental plasticity. This unique feature is advanced but also provides a window of opportunity for pathological events to disrupt normal formation of cognitive circuits involving layer IIIC neurons. In this manuscript, we discuss how disrupted dendritic and axonal maturation of layer IIIC neurons may lead into global cortical disconnectivity, affecting development of complex communication and social abilities. We also propose a model that developmentally dictated incorporation of layer IIIC neurons into maturing cortico-cortical circuits between 2 to 6 years will reveal a previous (perinatal) lesion affecting other classes of principal neurons. This "disclosure" of pre-existing functionally silent lesions of other neuronal classes induced by development of layer IIIC associative neurons, or their direct alteration, could be found in different forms of autism spectrum disorders. Understanding the gene-environment interaction in shaping cognitive microcircuitries may be fundamental for developing rehabilitation and prevention strategies in autism spectrum and other cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zdravko Petanjek
- Department of Anatomy and Clinical Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Center of Excellence for Basic, Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Dora Sedmak
- Department of Anatomy and Clinical Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Center of Excellence for Basic, Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Domagoj Džaja
- Department of Anatomy and Clinical Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Center of Excellence for Basic, Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ana Hladnik
- Department of Anatomy and Clinical Anatomy, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Center of Excellence for Basic, Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Mladen Roko Rašin
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers University, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, United States
| | - Nataša Jovanov-Milosevic
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Center of Excellence for Basic, Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
- Department of Medical Biology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
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Datta D, Arnsten AF. Unique Molecular Regulation of Higher-Order Prefrontal Cortical Circuits: Insights into the Neurobiology of Schizophrenia. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2127-2145. [PMID: 29470055 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is associated with core deficits in cognitive abilities and impaired functioning of the newly evolved prefrontal association cortex (PFC). In particular, neuropathological studies of schizophrenia have found selective atrophy of the pyramidal cell microcircuits in deep layer III of the dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) and compensatory weakening of related GABAergic interneurons. Studies in monkeys have shown that recurrent excitation in these layer III microcircuits generates the precisely patterned, persistent firing needed for working memory and abstract thought. Importantly, excitatory synapses on layer III spines are uniquely regulated at the molecular level in ways that may render them particularly vulnerable to genetic and/or environmental insults. Glutamate actions are remarkably dependent on cholinergic stimulation, and there are inherent mechanisms to rapidly weaken connectivity, e.g. during stress. In particular, feedforward cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-calcium signaling rapidly weakens network connectivity and neuronal firing by opening nearby potassium channels. Many mechanisms that regulate this process are altered in schizophrenia and/or associated with genetic insults. Current data suggest that there are "dual hits" to layer III dlPFC circuits: initial insults to connectivity during the perinatal period due to genetic errors and/or inflammatory insults that predispose the cortex to atrophy, followed by a second wave of cortical loss during adolescence, e.g. driven by stress, at the descent into illness. The unique molecular regulation of layer III circuits may provide a nexus where inflammation disinhibits the neuronal response to stress. Understanding these mechanisms may help to illuminate dlPFC susceptibility in schizophrenia and provide insights for novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States
| | - Amy F.T. Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United States
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Galvin VC, Arnsten AFT, Wang M. Evolution in Neuromodulation-The Differential Roles of Acetylcholine in Higher Order Association vs. Primary Visual Cortices. Front Neural Circuits 2018; 12:67. [PMID: 30210306 PMCID: PMC6121028 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2018.00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This review contrasts the neuromodulatory influences of acetylcholine (ACh) on the relatively conserved primary visual cortex (V1), compared to the newly evolved dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex (dlPFC). ACh is critical both for proper circuit development and organization, and for optimal functioning of mature systems in both cortical regions. ACh acts through both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, which show very different expression profiles in V1 vs. dlPFC, and differing effects on neuronal firing. Cholinergic effects mediate attentional influences in V1, enhancing representation of incoming sensory stimuli. In dlPFC ACh plays a permissive role for network communication. ACh receptor expression and ACh actions in higher visual areas have an intermediate profile between V1 and dlPFC. This changing role of ACh modulation across association cortices may help to illuminate the particular susceptibility of PFC in cognitive disorders, and provide therapeutic targets to strengthen cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica C Galvin
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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39
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40
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Paspalas CD, Carlyle BC, Leslie S, Preuss TM, Crimins JL, Huttner AJ, van Dyck CH, Rosene DL, Nairn AC, Arnsten AFT. The aged rhesus macaque manifests Braak stage III/IV Alzheimer's-like pathology. Alzheimers Dement 2018; 14:680-691. [PMID: 29241829 PMCID: PMC6178089 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION An animal model of late-onset Alzheimer's disease is needed to research what causes degeneration in the absence of dominant genetic insults and why the association cortex is particularly vulnerable to degeneration. METHODS We studied the progression of tau and amyloid cortical pathology in the aging rhesus macaque using immunoelectron microscopy and biochemical assays. RESULTS Aging macaques exhibited the same qualitative pattern and sequence of tau and amyloid cortical pathology as humans, reaching Braak stage III/IV. Pathology began in the young-adult entorhinal cortex with protein kinase A-phosphorylation of tau, progressing to fibrillation with paired helical filaments and mature tangles in oldest animals. Tau pathology in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex paralleled but lagged behind the entorhinal cortex, not afflicting the primary visual cortex. DISCUSSION The aging rhesus macaque provides the long-sought animal model for exploring the etiology of late-onset Alzheimer's disease and for testing preventive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Becky C Carlyle
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Shannon Leslie
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Todd M Preuss
- Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Yerkes National Primate Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Johanna L Crimins
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Anita J Huttner
- Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Christopher H van Dyck
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Douglas L Rosene
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Angus C Nairn
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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41
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Dahlhaus R. Of Men and Mice: Modeling the Fragile X Syndrome. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:41. [PMID: 29599705 PMCID: PMC5862809 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is one of the most common forms of inherited intellectual disability in all human societies. Caused by the transcriptional silencing of a single gene, the fragile x mental retardation gene FMR1, FXS is characterized by a variety of symptoms, which range from mental disabilities to autism and epilepsy. More than 20 years ago, a first animal model was described, the Fmr1 knock-out mouse. Several other models have been developed since then, including conditional knock-out mice, knock-out rats, a zebrafish and a drosophila model. Using these model systems, various targets for potential pharmaceutical treatments have been identified and many treatments have been shown to be efficient in preclinical studies. However, all attempts to turn these findings into a therapy for patients have failed thus far. In this review, I will discuss underlying difficulties and address potential alternatives for our future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Dahlhaus
- Institute for Biochemistry, Emil-Fischer Centre, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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42
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Affiliation(s)
- Chet C. Sherwood
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052
| | - Aida Gómez-Robles
- Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052
- Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
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43
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Rolls ET, Mills WPC. Computations in the deep vs superficial layers of the cerebral cortex. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 145:205-221. [PMID: 29042296 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 10/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A fundamental question is how the cerebral neocortex operates functionally, computationally. The cerebral neocortex with its superficial and deep layers and highly developed recurrent collateral systems that provide a basis for memory-related processing might perform somewhat different computations in the superficial and deep layers. Here we take into account the quantitative connectivity within and between laminae. Using integrate-and-fire neuronal network simulations that incorporate this connectivity, we first show that attractor networks implemented in the deep layers that are activated by the superficial layers could be partly independent in that the deep layers might have a different time course, which might because of adaptation be more transient and useful for outputs from the neocortex. In contrast the superficial layers could implement more prolonged firing, useful for slow learning and for short-term memory. Second, we show that a different type of computation could in principle be performed in the superficial and deep layers, by showing that the superficial layers could operate as a discrete attractor network useful for categorisation and feeding information forward up a cortical hierarchy, whereas the deep layers could operate as a continuous attractor network useful for providing a spatially and temporally smooth output to output systems in the brain. A key advance is that we draw attention to the functions of the recurrent collateral connections between cortical pyramidal cells, often omitted in canonical models of the neocortex, and address principles of operation of the neocortex by which the superficial and deep layers might be specialized for different types of attractor-related memory functions implemented by the recurrent collaterals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund T Rolls
- Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, Oxford, UK; University of Warwick, Department of Computer Science, Coventry, UK.
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44
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García-Cabezas MÁ, Joyce MKP, John YJ, Zikopoulos B, Barbas H. Mirror trends of plasticity and stability indicators in primate prefrontal cortex. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 46:2392-2405. [PMID: 28921934 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Research on plasticity markers in the cerebral cortex has largely focused on their timing of expression and role in shaping circuits during critical and normal periods. By contrast, little attention has been focused on the spatial dimension of plasticity-stability across cortical areas. The rationale for this analysis is based on the systematic variation in cortical structure that parallels functional specialization and raises the possibility of varying levels of plasticity. Here, we investigated in adult rhesus monkeys the expression of markers related to synaptic plasticity or stability in prefrontal limbic and eulaminate areas that vary in laminar structure. Our findings revealed that limbic areas are impoverished in three markers of stability: intracortical myelin, the lectin Wisteria floribunda agglutinin, which labels perineuronal nets, and parvalbumin, which is expressed in a class of strong inhibitory neurons. By contrast, prefrontal limbic areas were enriched in the enzyme calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), known to enhance plasticity. Eulaminate areas have more elaborate laminar architecture than limbic areas and showed the opposite trend: they were enriched in markers of stability and had lower expression of the plasticity-related marker CaMKII. The expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a marker of activated astrocytes, was also higher in limbic areas, suggesting that cellular stress correlates with the rate of circuit reshaping. Elevated markers of plasticity may endow limbic areas with flexibility necessary for learning and memory within an affective context, but may also render them vulnerable to abnormal structural changes, as seen in neurologic and psychiatric diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Á García-Cabezas
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Mary Kate P Joyce
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Yohan J John
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - Basilis Zikopoulos
- Human Systems Neuroscience Laboratory, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Helen Barbas
- Neural Systems Laboratory, Department of Health Sciences, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
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45
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Hrvoj-Mihic B, Hanson KL, Lew CH, Stefanacci L, Jacobs B, Bellugi U, Semendeferi K. Basal Dendritic Morphology of Cortical Pyramidal Neurons in Williams Syndrome: Prefrontal Cortex and Beyond. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:419. [PMID: 28848376 PMCID: PMC5554499 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Williams syndrome (WS) is a unique neurodevelopmental disorder with a specific behavioral and cognitive profile, which includes hyperaffiliative behavior, poor social judgment, and lack of social inhibition. Here we examined the morphology of basal dendrites on pyramidal neurons in the cortex of two rare adult subjects with WS. Specifically, we examined two areas in the prefrontal cortex (PFC)-the frontal pole (Brodmann area 10) and the orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmann area 11)-and three areas in the motor, sensory, and visual cortex (BA 4, BA 3-1-2, BA 18). The findings suggest that the morphology of basal dendrites on the pyramidal neurons is altered in the cortex of WS, with differences that were layer-specific, more prominent in PFC areas, and displayed an overall pattern of dendritic organization that differentiates WS from other disorders. In particular, and unlike what was expected based on typically developing brains, basal dendrites in the two PFC areas did not display longer and more branched dendrites compared to motor, sensory and visual areas. Moreover, dendritic branching, dendritic length, and the number of dendritic spines differed little within PFC and between the central executive region (BA 10) and BA 11 that is part of the orbitofrontal region involved into emotional processing. In contrast, the relationship between the degree of neuronal branching in supra- versus infra-granular layers was spared in WS. Although this study utilized tissue held in formalin for a prolonged period of time and the number of neurons available for analysis was limited, our findings indicate that WS cortex, similar to that in other neurodevelopmental disorders such as Down syndrome, Rett syndrome, Fragile X, and idiopathic autism, has altered morphology of basal dendrites on pyramidal neurons, which appears more prominent in selected areas of the PFC. Results were examined from developmental perspectives and discussed in the context of other neurodevelopmental disorders. We have proposed hypotheses for further investigations of morphological changes on basal dendrites in WS, a syndrome of particular interest given its unique social and cognitive phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Branka Hrvoj-Mihic
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San DiegoSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Kari L Hanson
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San DiegoSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Caroline H Lew
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San DiegoSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Lisa Stefanacci
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San DiegoSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Bob Jacobs
- Neuroscience Program, Colorado CollegeColorado Springs, CO, United States
| | - Ursula Bellugi
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, The Salk Institute for Biological StudiesLa Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Katerina Semendeferi
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San DiegoSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California, San DiegoSan Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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46
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Dai P, Huang H, Zhang L, He J, Zhao X, Yang F, Zhao N, Yang J, Ge L, Lin Y, Yu H, Wang J. A pilot study on transient ischemic stroke induced with endothelin-1 in the rhesus monkeys. Sci Rep 2017; 7:45097. [PMID: 28358140 PMCID: PMC5372164 DOI: 10.1038/srep45097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelin-1 (ET-1), a vasoconstrictor, has recently been used to induce focal ischemia in rodents and marmoset monkeys. The rhesus monkey, however, has numerous advantages to the rodent and marmoset that make it a superior and irreplaceable animal model for studying stroke in the brain. In the present study, after mapping the preferred hand representation in two healthy male monkeys with intracortical micro-stimulation, ET-1 was microinjected into the contralateral motor cortex (M1) to its preferred hand. The monkeys had been trained in three manual dexterity tasks before the microinjection and were tested for these tasks following the ET-1 injection. Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging scans were performed 1, 7, 14 and 28 days post ischemia. It was found that ET-1 impaired the manual dexterity of the monkeys in the vertical slot and rotating Brinkman board tasks 3–8 days after the injection. Brain imaging found that severe edema was present 7 days after the focal ischemia. This data suggest that ET-1 can induce transient ischemic stroke in rhesus monkey and that ET-1 induced focal ischemia in non-human primates is a potential model to study the mechanism of stroke and brain repair after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- PeiMin Dai
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, First People's Hospital of Honghe State, Honghe, China
| | - Hui Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Lin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Center People's Hospital of Zhumadian State, Zhumadian, China.,Second Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Jing He
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research Institute of Primate Translational Medicine, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China
| | - XuDong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - FuHan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Ning Zhao
- Second Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - JianZhen Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - LongJiao Ge
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - Yu Lin
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
| | - HuaLin Yu
- Second Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - JianHong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences &Yunnan Province, Kunming Primates Research Center, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
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47
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Oga T, Elston GN, Fujita I. Postnatal Dendritic Growth and Spinogenesis of Layer-V Pyramidal Cells Differ between Visual, Inferotemporal, and Prefrontal Cortex of the Macaque Monkey. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:118. [PMID: 28348514 PMCID: PMC5347257 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyramidal cells in the primate cerebral cortex, particularly those in layer III, exhibit regional variation in both the time course and magnitude of postnatal growth and pruning of dendrites and spines. Less is known about the development of pyramidal cell dendrites and spines in other cortical layers. Here we studied dendritic morphology of layer-V pyramidal cells in primary visual cortex (V1, sensory), cytoarchitectonic area TE in the inferotemporal cortex (sensory association), and granular prefrontal cortex (Walker's area 12, executive) of macaque monkeys at the ages of 2 days, 3 weeks, 3.5 months, and 4.5 years. We found that changes in the basal dendritic field area of pyramidal cells were different across the three areas. In V1, field size became smaller over time (largest at 2 days, half that size at 4.5 years), in TE it did not change, and in area 12 it became larger over time (smallest at 2 days, 1.5 times greater at 4.5 years). In V1 and TE, the total number of branch points in the basal dendritic trees was similar between 2 days and 4.5 years, while in area 12 the number was greater in the adult monkeys than in the younger ones. Spine density peaked at 3 weeks and declined in all areas by adulthood, with V1 exhibiting a faster decline than area TE or area 12. Estimates of the total number of spines in the dendritic trees revealed that following the onset of visual experience, pyramidal cells in V1 lose more spines than they grow, whereas those in TE and area 12 grow more spines than they lose during the same period. These data provide further evidence that the process of synaptic refinement in cortical pyramidal cells differs not only according to time, but also location within the cortex. Furthermore, given the previous finding that layer-III pyramidal cells in all these areas exhibit the highest density and total number of spines at 3.5 months, the current results indicate that pyramidal cells in layers III and V develop spines at different rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomofumi Oga
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University Suita, Japan
| | - Guy N Elston
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Ichiro Fujita
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan; Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology and Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
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48
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Morozov YM, Datta D, Paspalas CD, Arnsten AFT. Ultrastructural evidence for impaired mitochondrial fission in the aged rhesus monkey dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Neurobiol Aging 2016; 51:9-18. [PMID: 28027494 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex mediates high-order cognitive functions that are impaired early in the aging process in monkeys and humans. Here, we report pronounced changes in mitochondrial morphology in dendrites of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex neurons from aged rhesus macaques. Electron microscopy paired with 3D reconstruction from serial sections revealed an age-related increase in mitochondria with thin segments that intermingled with enlarged ones, the 'mitochondria-on-a-string' phenotype, similar to those recently reported in patients with Alzheimer's disease. The thin mitochondrial segments were associated with endoplasmic reticulum cisterns, and the mitochondrial proteins Fis1 and Drp1, all of which initiate mitochondrial fission. These data suggest that the 'mitochondria-on-a-string' phenotype may reflect malfunction in mitochondrial dynamics, whereby fission is initiated, but the process is incomplete due to malfunction of subsequent step(s). Thus, aged rhesus monkeys may be particularly helpful in exploring the age-related changes that render higher cortical circuits so vulnerable to degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yury M Morozov
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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Arnsten AFT, Wang M. Targeting Prefrontal Cortical Systems for Drug Development: Potential Therapies for Cognitive Disorders. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2016; 56:339-60. [PMID: 26738476 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Medications to treat cognitive disorders are increasingly needed, yet researchers have had few successes in this challenging arena. Cognitive abilities in primates arise from highly evolved N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor circuits in layer III of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. These circuits have unique modulatory needs that can differ from the layer V neurons that predominate in rodents, but they offer multiple therapeutic targets. Cognitive improvement often requires low doses that enhance the pattern of information held in working memory, whereas higher doses can produce nonspecific changes that obscure information. Identifying appropriate doses for clinical trials may be helped by assessments in monkeys and by flexible, individualized dose designs. The use of guanfacine (Intuniv) for prefrontal cortical disorders was based on research in monkeys, supporting this approach. Coupling our knowledge of higher primate circuits with the powerful methods now available in drug design will help create effective treatments for cognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy F T Arnsten
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510; ,
| | - Min Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510; ,
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50
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Dicke U, Roth G. Neuronal factors determining high intelligence. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:20150180. [PMID: 26598734 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Many attempts have been made to correlate degrees of both animal and human intelligence with brain properties. With respect to mammals, a much-discussed trait concerns absolute and relative brain size, either uncorrected or corrected for body size. However, the correlation of both with degrees of intelligence yields large inconsistencies, because although they are regarded as the most intelligent mammals, monkeys and apes, including humans, have neither the absolutely nor the relatively largest brains. The best fit between brain traits and degrees of intelligence among mammals is reached by a combination of the number of cortical neurons, neuron packing density, interneuronal distance and axonal conduction velocity--factors that determine general information processing capacity (IPC), as reflected by general intelligence. The highest IPC is found in humans, followed by the great apes, Old World and New World monkeys. The IPC of cetaceans and elephants is much lower because of a thin cortex, low neuron packing density and low axonal conduction velocity. By contrast, corvid and psittacid birds have very small and densely packed pallial neurons and relatively many neurons, which, despite very small brain volumes, might explain their high intelligence. The evolution of a syntactical and grammatical language in humans most probably has served as an additional intelligence amplifier, which may have happened in songbirds and psittacids in a convergent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Dicke
- Brain Research Institute, University of Bremen, 28334 Bremen, Germany
| | - Gerhard Roth
- Brain Research Institute, University of Bremen, 28334 Bremen, Germany
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