Cell and molecular analysis of the developing and adult mouse subventricular zone of the cerebral hemispheres

Histological changes in the olfactory bulb and rostral migratory stream due to interruption of olfactory input

OBJECTIVE

Periglomerular and granule cells in the adult mammalian olfactory bulb modulate olfactory signal transmission. These cells originate from the subventricular zone, migrate to the olfactory bulb via the Rostral Migratory Stream (RMS), and differentiate into mature cells within the olfactory bulb throughout postnatal life. While the regulation of neuroblast development is known to be affected by external stimuli, there is a lack of information concerning changes that occur during the recovery process after injury caused by external stimuli. To address this gap in research, the present study conducted histological observations to investigate changes in the olfactory bulb and RMS occurring after the degeneration and regeneration of olfactory neurons.

METHODS

To create a model of olfactory neurodegeneration, adult mice were administered methimazole intraperitoneally. Nasal tissue and whole brains were removed 3, 7, 14 and 28 days after methimazole administration, and EdU was administered 2 and 4 h before removal of these tissues to monitor dividing cells in the RMS. Methimazole-untreated mice were used as controls. Olfactory nerve fibers entering the olfactory glomerulus were observed immunohistochemically using anti-olfactory marker protein. In the brain tissue, the entire RMS was observed and the volume and total number of cells in the RMS were measured. In addition, the number of neuroblasts and dividing neuroblasts passing through the RMS were measured using anti-doublecortin and anti-EdU antibodies, respectively. Statistical analysis was performed using the Tukey test.

RESULTS

Olfactory epithelium degenerated was observed after methimazole administration, and recovered after 28 days. In the olfactory glomeruli, degeneration of OMP fibers began after methimazole administration, and after day 14, OMP fibers were reduced or absent by day 28, and overall OMP positive fibers were less than 20%. Glomerular volume tended to decrease after methimazole administration and did not appear to recover, even 28 days after recovery of the olfactory epithelium. In the RMS, EdU-positive cells decreased on day 3 and began to increase on day 7. However, they did not recover to the same levels as the control methimazole-untreated mice even after 28 days.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the division and maturation of neuroblasts migrating from the RMS was suppressed by olfactory nerve degeneration or the disruption of olfactory input.

Hindbrain boundaries as niches of neural progenitor and stem cells regulated by the extracellular matrix proteoglycan chondroitin sulphate

The interplay between neural progenitors and stem cells (NPSCs), and their extracellular matrix (ECM) is a crucial regulatory mechanism that determines their behavior. Nonetheless, how the ECM dictates the state of NPSCs remains elusive. The hindbrain is valuable to examine this relationship, as cells in the ventricular surface of hindbrain boundaries (HBs), which arise between any two neighboring rhombomeres, express the NPSC marker Sox2, while being surrounded with the membrane-bound ECM molecule chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan (CSPG), in chick and mouse embryos. CSPG expression was used to isolate HB Sox2+ cells for RNA-sequencing, revealing their distinguished molecular properties as typical NPSCs, which express known and newly identified genes relating to stem cells, cancer, the matrisome and cell cycle. In contrast, the CSPG- non-HB cells, displayed clear neural-differentiation transcriptome. To address whether CSPG is significant for hindbrain development, its expression was manipulated in vivo and in vitro. CSPG manipulations shifted the stem versus differentiation state of HB cells, evident by their behavior and altered gene expression. These results provide further understanding of the uniqueness of hindbrain boundaries as repetitive pools of NPSCs in-between the rapidly growing rhombomeres, which rely on their microenvironment to maintain their undifferentiated state during development.

Inhibition of CSPG receptor PTPσ promotes migration of newly born neuroblasts, axonal sprouting, and recovery from stroke

In addition to neuroprotective strategies, neuroregenerative processes could provide targets for stroke recovery. However, the upregulation of inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) impedes innate regenerative efforts. Here, we examine the regulatory role of PTPσ (a major proteoglycan receptor) in dampening post-stroke recovery. Use of a receptor modulatory peptide (ISP) or Ptprs gene deletion leads to increased neurite outgrowth and enhanced NSCs migration upon inhibitory CSPG substrates. Post-stroke ISP treatment results in increased axonal sprouting as well as neuroblast migration deeply into the lesion scar with a transcriptional signature reflective of repair. Lastly, peptide treatment post-stroke (initiated acutely or more chronically at 7 days) results in improved behavioral recovery in both motor and cognitive functions. Therefore, we propose that CSPGs induced by stroke play a predominant role in the regulation of neural repair and that blocking CSPG signaling pathways will lead to enhanced neurorepair and functional recovery in stroke.

The extracellular matrix molecule tenascin-C modulates cell cycle progression and motility of adult neural stem/progenitor cells from the subependymal zone

Adult neurogenesis has been described in two canonical regions of the adult central nervous system (CNS) of rodents, the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampus and the subependymal zone (SEZ) of the lateral ventricles. The stem cell niche of the SEZ provides a privileged environment composed of a specialized extracellular matrix (ECM) that comprises the glycoproteins tenascin-C (Tnc) and laminin-1 (LN1). In the present study, we investigated the function of these ECM glycoproteins in the adult stem cell niche. Adult neural stem/progenitor cells (aNSPCs) of the SEZ were prepared from wild type (Tnc^+/+) and Tnc knockout (Tnc^−/−) mice and analyzed using molecular and cell biological approaches. A delayed maturation of aNSPCs in Tnc^−/− tissue was reflected by a reduced capacity to form neurospheres in response to epidermal growth factor (EGF). To examine a potential influence of the ECM on cell proliferation, aNSPCs of both genotypes were studied by cell tracking using digital video microscopy. aNSPCs were cultivated on three different substrates, namely, poly-d-lysine (PDL) and PDL replenished with either LN1 or Tnc for up to 6 days in vitro. On each of the three substrates aNSPCs displayed lineage trees that could be investigated with regard to cell cycle length. The latter appeared reduced in Tnc^−/− aNSPCs on PDL and LN1 substrates, less so on Tnc that seemed to compensate the absence of the ECM compound to some extent. Close inspection of the lineage trees revealed a subpopulation of late dividing aNSPCs_late that engaged into cycling after a notable delay. aNSPCs_late exhibited a clearly different morphology, with a larger cell body and conspicuous processes. aNSPCs_late reiterated the reduction in cell cycle length on all substrates tested, which was not rescued on Tnc substrates. When the migratory activity of aNSPC-derived progeny was determined, Tnc^−/− neuroblasts displayed significantly longer migration tracks. This was traced to an increased rate of migration episodes compared to the wild-type cells that rested for longer time periods. We conclude that Tnc intervenes in the proliferation of aNSPCs and modulates the motility of neuroblasts in the niche of the SEZ.

Cerebral Organoids Maintain the Expression of Neural Stem Cell-Associated Glycoepitopes and Extracellular Matrix

During development, the nervous system with its highly specialized cell types forms from a pool of relatively uniform stem cells. This orchestrated process requires tight regulation. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network rich in signaling molecules, and therefore, of interest in this context. Distinct carbohydrate structures, bound to ECM molecules like Tenascin C (TNC), are associated with neural stem/progenitor cells. We have analyzed the expression patterns of the LewisX (LeX) trisaccharide motif and of the sulfation-dependent DSD-1 chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycan epitope in human cerebral organoids, a 3D model for early central nervous system (CNS) development, immunohistochemically. In early organoids we observed distinct expression patterns of the glycoepitopes, associated with rosette-like structures that resemble the neural tube in vitro: Terminal LeX motifs, recognized by the monoclonal antibody (mAb) 487^LeX, were enriched in the lumen and at the outer border of neural rosettes. In contrast, internal LeX motif repeats detected with mAb 5750^LeX were concentrated near the lumen. The DSD-1 epitope, labeled with mAb 473HD, was detectable at rosette borders and in adjacent cells. The epitope expression was maintained in older organoids but appeared more diffuse. The differential glycoepitope expression suggests a specific function in the developing human CNS.

The expression of tenascin-C in neural stem/progenitor cells is stimulated by the growth factors EGF and FGF-2, but not by TGFβ1

Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) rely on internal and external cues determining their lineage decisions during brain development. The progenitor cells of the embryonic mammalian forebrain reside in the ventricular and subventricular zones of the lateral ventricles, where they proliferate, generate neurons and glial cells, and respond to external cues like growth factors. The extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounds NSPCs and influences the cell fate by providing mechanical scaffold, trophic support, and instructive signals. The ECM molecule tenascin-C (Tnc) is expressed in the proliferative zones of the developing forebrain and involved in the proliferation and maturation of NSPCs. Here, we analyzed the regulation of the Tnc gene expression by NSPCs cultivated under the influence of different growth factors. We observed that the epidermal growth factor (EGF) and the fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2 strongly increased the expression of Tnc, whereas the transforming growth factor (TGF)β 1 had no effect on Tnc gene expression, in contrast to previous findings in cell cultures of neural and non-neural origin. The stimulation of the Tnc gene expression induced by EGF or FGF-2 was reversible and seen in constantly treated as well as short term stimulated NSPC cultures. The activation depended on the presence of the respective receptors, which was slightly different in cortical and striatal NSPC cultures. Our results confirm the influence of extracellular stimuli regulating the expression of factors that form a niche for NSPCs during embryonic forebrain development.

Structural and Functional Modulation of Perineuronal Nets: In Search of Important Players with Highlight on Tenascins

The extracellular matrix (ECM) of the brain plays a crucial role in providing optimal conditions for neuronal function. Interactions between neurons and a specialized form of ECM, perineuronal nets (PNN), are considered a key mechanism for the regulation of brain plasticity. Such an assembly of interconnected structural and regulatory molecules has a prominent role in the control of synaptic plasticity. In this review, we discuss novel ways of studying the interplay between PNN and its regulatory components, particularly tenascins, in the processes of synaptic plasticity, mechanotransduction, and neurogenesis. Since enhanced neuronal activity promotes PNN degradation, it is possible to study PNN remodeling as a dynamical change in the expression and organization of its constituents that is reflected in its ultrastructure. The discovery of these subtle modifications is enabled by the development of super-resolution microscopy and advanced methods of image analysis.

The Extracellular Matrix Glycoprotein Tenascin C and Adult Neurogenesis

Tenascin C (TnC) is a glycoprotein highly expressed in the extracellular matrix (ECM) during development and in the adult central nervous system (CNS) in regions of active neurogenesis, where neuron development is a tightly regulated process orchestrated by extracellular matrix components. In addition, newborn cells also communicate with glial cells, astrocytes and microglia, indicating the importance of signal integration in adult neurogenesis. Although TnC has been recognized as an important molecule in the regulation of cell proliferation and migration, complete regulatory pathways still need to be elucidated. In this review we discuss the formation of new neurons in the adult hippocampus and the olfactory system with specific reference to TnC and its regulating functions in this process. Better understanding of the ECM signaling in the niche of the CNS will have significant implications for regenerative therapies.

The Role of Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycans in Nervous System Development

The orderly development of the nervous system is characterized by phases of cell proliferation and differentiation, neural migration, axonal outgrowth and synapse formation, and stabilization. Each of these processes is a result of the modulation of genetic programs by extracellular cues. In particular, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) have been found to be involved in almost every aspect of this well-orchestrated yet delicate process. The evidence of their involvement is complex, often contradictory, and lacking in mechanistic clarity; however, it remains obvious that CSPGs are key cogs in building a functional brain. This review focuses on current knowledge of the role of CSPGs in each of the major stages of neural development with emphasis on areas requiring further investigation.

Zinc in the Brain: Friend or Foe?

Zinc is a trace metal ion in the central nervous system that plays important biological roles, such as in catalysis, structure, and regulation. It contributes to antioxidant function and the proper functioning of the immune system. In view of these characteristics of zinc, it plays an important role in neurophysiology, which leads to cell growth and cell proliferation. However, after brain disease, excessively released and accumulated zinc ions cause neurotoxic damage to postsynaptic neurons. On the other hand, zinc deficiency induces degeneration and cognitive decline disorders, such as increased neuronal death and decreased learning and memory. Given the importance of balance in this context, zinc is a biological component that plays an important physiological role in the central nervous system, but a pathophysiological role in major neurological disorders. In this review, we focus on the multiple roles of zinc in the brain.

Hydrogels Derivatized With Cationic Moieties or Functional Peptides as Efficient Supports for Neural Stem Cells

The increasing incidence of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease represents a significant burden for patients and national health systems. The conditions are primarily caused by the death of neurons and other neural cell types. One important aim of current stem cell research is to find a way to replace the lost cells. In this perspective, neural stem cells (NSCs) have been considered as a promising tool in the field of regenerative medicine. The behavior of NSCs is modulated by environmental influences, for example hormones, growth factors, cytokines, and extracellular matrix molecules or biomechanics. These factors can be studied by using well-defined hydrogels, which are polymeric networks of synthetic or natural origin with the ability to swell in water. These gels can be modified with a variety of molecules and optimized with regard to their mechanical properties to mimic the natural extracellular environment. In particular modifications applying distinct units such as functional domains and peptides can modulate the development of NSCs with regard to proliferation, differentiation and migration. One well-known peptide sequence that affects the behavior of NSCs is the integrin recognition sequence RGD that has originally been derived from fibronectin. In the present review we provide an overview concerning the applications of modified hydrogels with an emphasis on synthetic hydrogels based on poly(acrylamides), as modified with either cationic moieties or the peptide sequence RGD. This knowledge might be used in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine for the therapy of spinal cord injuries, neurodegenerative diseases and traumata.

Three-plane description of astroglial populations of OVLT subdivisions in rat: Tanycyte connections to distant parts of third ventricle

This study demonstrates glial and gliovascular markers of organon vasculosum laminae terminalis (OVLT) in three planes. The distribution of glial markers displayed similarities to the subfornical organ. There was an inner part with vimentin- and nestin-immunopositive glia whereas GFAP and the water-channel aquaporin 4 were found at the periphery. This separation indicates different functions of the two regions. The presence of nestin may indicate stem cell-capabilities whereas aquaporin 4 has been reported to promote the osmoreceptor function. Glutamine synthetase immunoreactivity was sparse like in the area postrema and subfornical organ. The laminin and β-dystroglycan immunolabelings altered along the vessels such as in the subfornical organ indicating altering gliovascular relations. The different subdivisions of OVLT received glial processes of different origins. The posterior periventricular zone contained short vimentin-immunopositive processes from the ependyma of the adjacent surface of the third ventricle. The lateral periventricular zone received forceps-like process systems from the anterolateral part of the third ventricle. Most interestingly, the "dorsal cap" received a mixed group of long GFAP- and vimentin-immunopositive processes from a distant part of the third ventricle. The processes may have two functions: a guidance for newly produced cells like radial glia in immature brain and/or a connection between distant parts of the third ventricle and OVLT.

Tenascin C regulates multiple microglial functions involving TLR4 signaling and HDAC1

Tenascin C (Tnc) is an extracellular matrix glycoprotein, expressed in the CNS during development, as well as in the setting of inflammation, fibrosis and cancer, which operates as an activator of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Although TLR4 is highly expressed in microglia, the effect of Tnc on microglia has not been elucidated to date. Herein, we demonstrate that Tnc regulates microglial phagocytic activity at an early postnatal age (P4), and that this process is partially dependent on microglial TLR4 expression. We further show that Tnc regulates proinflammatory cytokine/chemokine production, chemotaxis and phagocytosis in primary microglia in a TLR4-dependent fashion. Moreover, Tnc induces histone-deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) expression in microglia, such that HDAC1 inhibition by MS-275 decreases Tnc-induced microglial IL-6 and TNF-α production. Finally, Tnc^-/- cortical microglia have reduced HDAC1 expression levels at P4. Taken together, these findings establish Tnc as a regulator of microglia function during early postnatal development.

Postnatal development of the distribution of nitric oxide-producing neurons in the rat corpus callosum

The postnatal development of nitric oxide (NO)-producing intracallosal neurons was studied in rats by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase (NADPH-d) histochemistry from postnatal day 0 (P0) to P30. NADPH-d-positive neurons (NADPH-d+_Ns) were detected already at P0, mainly in the rostral region of the corpus callosum (cc). Their location and the intensity of staining allowed them to be classified as type I NO-producing neurons. At P0, tufts of intensely labeled fibers, probably corresponding to the callosal septa described in the monkey and human cc, entered the ventral cc region and reached its dorsal portion. From P5, cell bodies and dendrites were often associated to blood vessels. The number of intracallosal NADPH-d+_Ns rose in the first postnatal days to peak at P5, it declined until P10, and then remained almost constant until P30. Their size increased from P0 to P30, dramatically so (>65%) from P0 to P15. From P10 onward their distribution was adult-like, i.e. NADPH-d+_Ns were more numerous in the lateral and intermediate portions of the cc and diminished close to the midline. In conjunction with previous data, these findings indicate that intracallosal NADPH-d+_Ns could have a role in callosal axon guidance, myelination, refinement processes, and callosal blood flow regulation.

Cell tracking in vitro reveals that the extracellular matrix glycoprotein Tenascin-C modulates cell cycle length and differentiation in neural stem/progenitor cells of the developing mouse spinal cord

Generation of astrocytes during the development of the mammalian spinal cord is poorly understood. Previously, we have shown that the glycoprotein of the extracellular matrix (ECM) tenascin-C (Tnc) modulates the expression territories of the patterning genes Nkx6.1 and Nkx2.2 in the developing ventral spinal cord, tunes the responsiveness of neural stem/progenitor cells towards the cytokines FGF2 and EGF and thereby promotes astrocyte maturation. In order to obtain further mechanistic insight into these processes, we have compared embryonic day-15 spinal cord neural progenitor cells (NPCs) from wild-type and Tnc knockout mice using continuous single-cell live imaging and cell lineage analysis in vitroTnc knockout cells displayed a significantly reduced rate of cell division both in response to FGF2 and EGF. When individual clones of dividing cells were investigated with regard to their cell lineage trees using the tTt tracking software, it appeared that the cell cycle length in response to growth factors was reduced in the knockout. Furthermore, when Tnc knockout NPCs were induced to differentiate by the removal of FGF2 and EGF glial differentiation was enhanced. We conclude that the constituent of the stem cell niche Tnc contributes to preserve stemness of NPCs.

Traumatic Brain Injury Activation of the Adult Subventricular Zone Neurogenic Niche

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common in both civilian and military life, placing a large burden on survivors and society. However, with the recognition of neural stem cells in adult mammals, including humans, came the possibility to harness these cells for repair of damaged brain, whereas previously this was thought to be impossible. In this review, we focus on the rodent adult subventricular zone (SVZ), an important neurogenic niche within the mature brain in which neural stem cells continue to reside. We review how the SVZ is perturbed following various animal TBI models with regards to cell proliferation, emigration, survival, and differentiation, and we review specific molecules involved in these processes. Together, this information suggests next steps in attempting to translate knowledge from TBI animal models into human therapies for TBI.

A new role of hindbrain boundaries as pools of neural stem/progenitor cells regulated by Sox2

Background

Compartment boundaries are an essential developmental mechanism throughout evolution, designated to act as organizing centers and to regulate and localize differently fated cells. The hindbrain serves as a fascinating example for this phenomenon as its early development is devoted to the formation of repetitive rhombomeres and their well-defined boundaries in all vertebrates. Yet, the actual role of hindbrain boundaries remains unresolved, especially in amniotes.

Results

Here, we report that hindbrain boundaries in the chick embryo consist of a subset of cells expressing the key neural stem cell (NSC) gene Sox2. These cells co-express other neural progenitor markers such as Transitin (the avian Nestin), GFAP, Pax6 and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan. The majority of the Sox2⁺ cells that reside within the boundary core are slow-dividing, whereas nearer to and within rhombomeres Sox2⁺ cells are largely proliferating. In vivo analyses and cell tracing experiments revealed the contribution of boundary Sox2⁺ cells to neurons in a ventricular-to-mantle manner within the boundaries, as well as their lateral contribution to proliferating Sox2⁺ cells in rhombomeres. The generation of boundary-derived neurospheres from hindbrain cultures confirmed the typical NSC behavior of boundary cells as a multipotent and self-renewing Sox2⁺ cell population. Inhibition of Sox2 in boundaries led to enhanced and aberrant neural differentiation together with inhibition in cell-proliferation, whereas Sox2 mis-expression attenuated neurogenesis, confirming its significant function in hindbrain neuronal organization.

Conclusions

Data obtained in this study deciphers a novel role of hindbrain boundaries as repetitive pools of neural stem/progenitor cells, which provide proliferating progenitors and differentiating neurons in a Sox2-dependent regulation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12915-016-0277-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The extracellular matrix niche microenvironment of neural and cancer stem cells in the brain

Numerous studies demonstrated that neural stem cells and cancer stem cells (NSCs/CSCs) share several overlapping characteristics such as self-renewal, multipotency and a comparable molecular repertoire. In addition to the intrinsic cellular properties, NSCs/CSCs favor a similar environment to acquire and maintain their characteristics. In the present review, we highlight the shared properties of NSCs and CSCs in regard to their extracellular microenvironment called the NSC/CSC niche. Moreover, we point out that extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules and their complementary receptors influence the behavior of NSCs/CSCs as well as brain tumor progression. Here, we focus on the expression profile and functional importance of the ECM glycoprotein tenascin-C, the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan DSD-1-PG/phosphacan but also on other important glycoprotein/proteoglycan constituents. Within this review, we specifically concentrate on glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). GBM is the most common malignant brain tumor in adults and is associated with poor prognosis despite intense and aggressive surgical and therapeutic treatment. Recent studies indicate that GBM onset is driven by a subpopulation of CSCs that display self-renewal and recapitulate tumor heterogeneity. Based on the CSC hypothesis the cancer arises just from a small subpopulation of self-sustaining cancer cells with the exclusive ability to self-renew and maintain the tumor. Besides the fundamental stem cell properties of self-renewal and multipotency, GBM stem cells share further molecular characteristics with NSCs, which we would like to review in this article.

Comparative Pharmacology of Risperidone and Paliperidone

Antipsychotics, risperidone, and risperidone’s active metabolite, paliperidone (9-hydroxyrisperidone), are related molecules used for the treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders. Differences in receptor binding, 5-HT_2A/D₂ (serotonin/dopamine) binding ratios, and mitochondrial proteomics suggest that the effects of risperidone and paliperidone on neuronal firing, regulation of mitochondrial function, and movement are different. This review seeks to explore the most significant differences at the molecular level between risperidone and paliperidone, as reported in preclinical studies. Although risperidone shows higher affinity for 5-HT receptors, paliperidone does not fit this profile. Thus, the risperidone 5-HT_2A/D₂ binding ratio is significantly lower than the paliperidone 5-HT_2A/D₂ binding ratio. Paliperidone, similar to lithium and valproate, affects expression levels and phosphorylation of complex I and V proteins in synaptoneurosomal preparations of rat prefrontal cortex, suggesting that paliperidone behaves as a mood stabilizer. It is apparent that the presence of a hydroxyl group in the paliperidone molecule confers increased hydrophilicity to this drug compared with its parent, risperidone; thus, this contributes to differential effects on mitochondrial movement, protein expression, and phosphorylation. These differences are reflected in synaptic plasticity and neuronal firing and have only recently been implicated in the mechanisms of mitochondrial function and movement.

Implications of irradiating the subventricular zone stem cell niche

Radiation therapy is a standard treatment for brain tumor patients. However, it comes with side effects, such as neurological deficits. While likely multi-factorial, the effect may in part be associated with the impact of radiation on the neurogenic niches. In the adult mammalian brain, the neurogenic niches are localized in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, where the neural stem cells (NSCs) reside. Several reports showed that radiation produces a drastic decrease in the proliferative capacity of these regions, which is related to functional decline. In particular, radiation to the SVZ led to a reduced long-term olfactory memory and a reduced capacity to respond to brain damage in animal models, as well as compromised tumor outcomes in patients. By contrast, other studies in humans suggested that increased radiation dose to the SVZ may be associated with longer progression-free survival in patients with high-grade glioma. In this review, we summarize the cellular and functional effects of irradiating the SVZ niche. In particular, we review the pros and cons of using radiation during brain tumor treatment, discussing the complex relationship between radiation dose to the SVZ and both tumor control and toxicity.

Relationship of Grafted FGF-2-Overexpressing Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells With the Vasculature in the Cerebral Cortex

Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) overexpressing fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) have the distinct tendency to associate with the vasculature and establish multiple proliferative clusters in the perivascular environment after transplantation into the cerebral cortex. Strikingly, the vascular clusters of progenitor cells give rise to immature neurons after ischemic injury, raising prospects for the formation of ectopic neurogenic niches for repair. We investigated the spatial relationship of perivascular clusters with the host vascular structures. FGF-2-GFP-transduced NPCs were transplanted into the intact somatosensory rat cortex. Confocal microscopic analysis revealed that grafted cells preferentially contacted venules at sites with aquaporin-4-positive astrocytic endfeet and avoided contacts with desmin-positive pericytes. Electron microscopic analysis confirmed that grafted cells preferentially made contact with astroglial endfeet, and only a minority of them reached the endothelial basal lamina. These results provide new insights into the fine structural and anatomical relationship between grafted FGF-2-transduced NPCs and the host vasculature.

Tenascin-C: Form versus function

Tenascin-C is a large, multimodular, extracellular matrix glycoprotein that exhibits a very restricted pattern of expression but an enormously diverse range of functions. Here, we discuss the importance of deciphering the expression pattern of, and effects mediated by, different forms of this molecule in order to fully understand tenascin-C biology. We focus on both post transcriptional and post translational events such as splicing, glycosylation, assembly into a 3D matrix and proteolytic cleavage, highlighting how these modifications are key to defining tenascin-C function.

Chondroitin Sulfate Glycosaminoglycan Hydrogels Create Endogenous Niches for Neural Stem Cells

Neural stem cells (NSCs) possess great potential for neural tissue repair after traumatic injuries to the central nervous system (CNS). However, poor survival and self-renewal of NSCs after injury severely limits its therapeutic potential. Sulfated chondroitin sulfate glycosaminoglycans (CS-GAGs) linked to CS proteoglycans (CSPGs) in the brain extracellular matrix (ECM) have the ability to bind and potentiate trophic factor efficacy, and promote NSC self-renewal in vivo. In this study, we investigated the potential of CS-GAG hydrogels composed of monosulfated CS-4 (CS-A), CS-6 (CS-C), and disulfated CS-4,6 (CS-E) CS-GAGs as NSC carriers, and their ability to create endogenous niches by enriching specific trophic factors to support NSC self-renewal. We demonstrate that CS-GAG hydrogel scaffolds showed minimal swelling and degradation over a period of 15 days in vitro, absorbing only 6.5 ± 0.019% of their initial weight, and showing no significant loss of mass during this period. Trophic factors FGF-2, BDNF, and IL10 bound with high affinity to CS-GAGs, and were significantly (p < 0.05) enriched in CS-GAG hydrogels when compared to unsulfated hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels. Dissociated rat subventricular zone (SVZ) NSCs when encapsulated in CS-GAG hydrogels demonstrated ∼88.5 ± 6.1% cell viability in vitro. Finally, rat neurospheres in CS-GAG hydrogels conditioned with the mitogen FGF-2 demonstrated significantly (p < 0.05) higher self-renewal when compared to neurospheres cultured in unconditioned hydrogels. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the ability of CS-GAG based hydrogels to regulate NSC self-renewal, and facilitate growth factor enrichment locally.

New advances on glial activation in health and disease

In addition to being the support cells of the central nervous system (CNS), astrocytes are now recognized as active players in the regulation of synaptic function, neural repair, and CNS immunity. Astrocytes are among the most structurally complex cells in the brain, and activation of these cells has been shown in a wide spectrum of CNS injuries and diseases. Over the past decade, research has begun to elucidate the role of astrocyte activation and changes in astrocyte morphology in the progression of neural pathologies, which has led to glial-specific interventions for drug development. Future therapies for CNS infection, injury, and neurodegenerative disease are now aimed at targeting astrocyte responses to such insults including astrocyte activation, astrogliosis and other morphological changes, and innate and adaptive immune responses.

Influence of the extracellular matrix on endogenous and transplanted stem cells after brain damage

The limited regeneration capacity of the adult central nervous system (CNS) requires strategies to improve recovery of patients. In this context, the interaction of endogenous as well as transplanted stem cells with their environment is crucial. An understanding of the molecular mechanisms could help to improve regeneration by targeted manipulation. In the course of reactive gliosis, astrocytes upregulate Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and start, in many cases, to proliferate. Beside GFAP, subpopulations of these astroglial cells coexpress neural progenitor markers like Nestin. Although cells express these markers, the proportion of cells that eventually give rise to neurons is limited in many cases in vivo compared to the situation in vitro. In the first section, we present the characteristics of endogenous progenitor-like cells and discuss the differences in their neurogenic potential in vitro and in vivo. As the environment plays an important role for survival, proliferation, migration, and other processes, the second section of the review describes changes in the extracellular matrix (ECM), a complex network that contains numerous signaling molecules. It appears that signals in the damaged CNS lead to an activation and de-differentiation of astrocytes, but do not effectively promote neuronal differentiation of these cells. Factors that influence stem cells during development are upregulated in the damaged brain as part of an environment resembling a stem cell niche. We give a general description of the ECM composition, with focus on stem cell-associated factors like the glycoprotein Tenascin-C (TN-C). Stem cell transplantation is considered as potential treatment strategy. Interaction of transplanted stem cells with the host environment is critical for the outcome of stem cell-based therapies. Possible mechanisms involving the ECM by which transplanted stem cells might improve recovery are discussed in the last section.

Human FGF1 promoter is active in ependymal cells and dopaminergic neurons in the brains of F1B-GFP transgenic mice

FGF1 is involved in multiple biological functions and exhibits the importance in neuroprotective effects. Our previous studies indicated that, in human brain and retina, the FGF1B promoter controlled the expression of FGF1. However, the exact function and regulation of FGF1 in brain is still unclear. Here, we generated F1B-GFP transgenic mice that expressed the GFP reporter gene under the control of human FGF1B promoter (-540 to +31). Using the fresh brain sections of F1B-GFP transgenic mice, we found that the F1B-GFP cells expressed strong fluorescent signals in the ventricular system throughout the brain. The results of immunohistochemistry further showed that two distinct populations of F1B-GFP(+) cells existed in the brains of F1B-GFP transgenic mice. We demonstrated that one population of F1B-GFP(+) cells was ependymal cells, which distributed along the entire ventricles, and the second population of F1B-GFP(+) cells was neuronal cells that projected their long processes into multiple directions in specific areas of the brain. The double labeling of F1B-GFP(+) cells and tyrosine hydroxylase indicated that a subpopulation of F1B-GFP(+) -neuronal cells was dopaminergic neurons. Importantly, these F1B-GFP(+) /TH(+) cells were distributed in the main dopaminergic neuronal groups including hypothalamus, ventral tegmental area, and raphe nuclei. These results suggested that human FGF1B promoter was active in ependymal cells, neurons, and a portion of dopaminergic neurons. Thus, the F1B-GFP transgenic mice provide an animal model not only for studying FGF1 gene expression in vivo but also for understanding the role of FGF1 contribution in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.

Contributions of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans to neurodevelopment, injury, and cancer

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are a diverse family of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules that make significant contributions to the patterning and routing of migrating neural cells and extending axons. Three distinct modes of migration mediation result from the relative abundance and positioning of expressed CSPGs, the profile of CSPG receptors expressed by the motile cell types, and the overall way in which the CSPGs integrate into and stabilize the neural ECM. Here we discuss recent findings that help to clarify the molecular mechanisms that underlie these distinct migration-regulating properties as they pertain to neural development, CNS injury, and gliomagenesis.

Postnatal development of nestin positive neurons in rat basal forebrain: different onset and topography with choline acetyltransferase and parvalbumin expression

Our previous studies identified a sub-population of cholinergic neurons which express nestin in the rostral part of the basal forebrain (BF) in normal adult rats. In the present study, the postnatal developmental patterns of nestin, choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) and parvalbumin (PV) positive neurons were explored by means of immunohistochemistry combined with immunofluorescence double label methods. Compared with early onset of ChAT expression (from P1) and delayed onset of PV expression (from P16), nestin positive activity was detected in the BF from P9 and co-expressed by parts of the ChAT positive neurons within the same region during the whole postnatal development process. However, ChAT and PV were not coexpressed by the neurons within the medial septum-diagonal band of Broca (MS-DBB) of BF. These results might imply a composite of separate development patterns displayed by different subpopulations of cholinergic neurons (nestin positive cholinergic neurons and nestin negative cholinergic neurons) within this region. Moreover, the topographic distribution of nestin, ChAT and PV positive neurons also showed different characteristics. In summary, our present study revealed a remarkable timing and topographic difference on the postnatal development of the nestin expression within the MS-DBB of BF compared with ChAT and PV expression. It is further suggested that nestin is re-expressed by cholinergic neurons in the BF after differentiation but not persisted from neuronal precursor cells.

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans potently inhibit invasion and serve as a central organizer of the brain tumor microenvironment

Glioblastoma (GBM) remains the most pervasive and lethal of all brain malignancies. One factor that contributes to this poor prognosis is the highly invasive character of the tumor. GBM is characterized by microscopic infiltration of tumor cells throughout the brain, whereas non-neural metastases, as well as select lower grade gliomas, develop as self-contained and clearly delineated lesions. Illustrated by rodent xenograft tumor models as well as pathological human patient specimens, we present evidence that one fundamental switch between these two distinct pathologies--invasion and noninvasion--is mediated through the tumor extracellular matrix. Specifically, noninvasive lesions are associated with a rich matrix containing substantial amounts of glycosylated chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), whereas glycosylated CSPGs are essentially absent from diffusely infiltrating tumors. CSPGs, acting as central organizers of the tumor microenvironment, dramatically influence resident reactive astrocytes, inducing their exodus from the tumor mass and the resultant encapsulation of noninvasive lesions. Additionally, CSPGs induce activation of tumor-associated microglia. We demonstrate that the astrogliotic capsule can directly inhibit tumor invasion, and its absence from GBM presents an environment favorable to diffuse infiltration. We also identify the leukocyte common antigen-related phosphatase receptor (PTPRF) as a putative intermediary between extracellular glycosylated CSPGs and noninvasive tumor cells. In all, we present CSPGs as critical regulators of brain tumor histopathology and help to clarify the role of the tumor microenvironment in brain tumor invasion.

Astrocytes reassessment - an evolving concept part one: embryology, biology, morphology and reactivity

The goal of this review is to integrate - in its two parts - the considerable amount of information that has accumulated during these recent years over the morphology, biology and functions of astrocytes - first part - and to illustrate the active role of these cells in pathophysiological processes implicated in various psychiatric and neurologic disorders – second part.

Reactive glia in the injured brain acquire stem cell properties in response to sonic hedgehog. [corrected]

As a result of brain injury, astrocytes become activated and start to proliferate in the vicinity of the injury site. Recently, we had demonstrated that these reactive astrocytes, or glia, can form self-renewing and multipotent neurospheres in vitro. In the present study, we demonstrate that it is only invasive injury, such as stab wounding or cerebral ischemia, and not noninvasive injury conditions, such as chronic amyloidosis or induced neuronal death, that can elicit this increase in plasticity. Furthermore, we find that Sonic hedgehog (SHH) is the signal that acts directly on the astrocytes and is necessary and sufficient to elicit the stem cell response both in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide a molecular basis for how cells with neural stem cell lineage emerge at sites of brain injury and imply that the high levels of SHH known to enter the brain from extraneural sources after invasive injury can trigger this response.

Activation of developmental nuclear fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 signaling and neurogenesis in adult brain by α7 nicotinic receptor agonist

Reactivation of endogenous neurogenesis in the adult brain or spinal cord holds the key for treatment of central nervous system injuries and neurodegenerative disorders, which are major health care issues for the world's aging population. We have previously shown that activation of developmental integrative nuclear fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) signaling (INFS), via gene transfection, reactivates neurogenesis in the adult brain by promoting neuronal differentiation of brain neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs). In the present study, we report that targeting the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7nAChRs) with a specific TC-7020 agonist led to a robust accumulation of endogenous FGFR1 in the cell nucleus. Nuclear FGFR1 accumulation was accompanied by an inhibition of proliferation of NS/PCs in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and by the generation of new neurons. Neuronal differentiation was observed in different regions of the adult mouse brain, including (a) βIII-Tubulin-expressing cortical neurons, (b) calretinin-expressing hippocampal neurons, and (c) cells in substantia nigra expressing the predopaminergic Nurr1+ phenotype. Furthermore, we showed that in vitro stimulation of neural stem/progenitor cells with α7nAChR agonist directly activated INFS and neuronal-like differentiation. TC-7020 stimulation of the βIII-Tubulin gene was accompanied by increased binding of FGFR1, CREB binding protein, and RNA polymerase II to a Nur77 targeted promoter region. TC-7020 augmented Nur77-dependent activation of nerve growth factor inducible-B protein responsive element, indicating that α7nAChR upregulation of βIII-Tubulin involves neurogenic FGFR1-Nur signaling. The reactivation of INFS and neurogenesis in adult brain by the α7nAChR agonist may offer a new strategy to treat brain injuries, neurodegenerative diseases, and neurodevelopmental diseases.

Postnatal neural precursor cell regions in the rostral subventricular zone, hippocampal subgranular zone and cerebellum of the dog (Canis lupus familiaris)

Identification of neural stem and progenitor cells (NPCs) in vitro and in vivo is essential to the use of developmental and disease models of neurogenesis. The dog is a valuable large animal model for multiple neurodegenerative diseases and is more closely matched to humans than rodents with respect to brain organization and complexity. It is therefore important to determine whether immunohistochemical markers associated with NPCs in humans and rodents are also appropriate for the dog. The NPC markers CD15, CD133, nestin, GFAP and phosphacan (DSD-1) were evaluated in situ in the canine rostral telencephalon, hippocampal dentate gyrus, and cerebellum at different postnatal time-points. Positive staining results were interpreted in the context of region and cellular morphology. Our results showed that neurospheres and cells within the rostral subventricular zone (SVZ), dentate gyrus subgranular zone (SGZ), and white matter tracts of the cerebellum were immunopositive for CD15, nestin and GFAP. Neurospheres and the cerebellum were immunonegative for CD133, whereas CD133 staining was present in the postnatal rostral SVZ. Anti-phosphacan antibody staining delineated the neurogenic niches of the rostral lateral ventricle SVZ and the hippocampal SGZ. Positive staining for phosphacan was also noted in white matter tracts of the cerebellum and within the Purkinje layer. Our results showed that in the dog these markers were associated with regions shown to be neurogenic in rodents and primates.

Intravenous administration of human umbilical tissue-derived cells improves neurological function in aged rats after embolic stroke

Intravenous administration of human umbilical tissue-derived cells (hUTC) improves neurological function in young adult rats after stroke. However, stroke is a major cause of death and disability in the aged population, with the majority of stroke patients 65 years and older. The present study investigated the effect of hUTC on aged rats after embolic stroke. Rats at the age of 18-20 months were subjected to embolic middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion. Two groups of eight animals each were compared. The investigational group was injected intravenously with 1×10(7) cells/kg in serum-free culture medium (vehicle) 24 h after stroke onset, and the control group was treated with vehicle only at the same time poststroke. Intravenous administration of hUTC significantly improved neurological functional recovery without reducing infarct volume compared to vehicle-treated aged rats. Additionally, hUTC treatment significantly enhanced synaptogenesis and vessel density in the ischemic boundary zone (IBZ). Moreover, hUTC treatment resulted in a trend toward increased progenitor cell proliferation in the subventricular zone (SVZ) compared to vehicle-treated aged rats. Intravenous administration of hUTC improved functional recovery in aged rats after stroke. The enhancement of synaptogenesis and vessel density may contribute to the beneficial effects of hUTC in the treatment of stroke in the aged animal.

Extracellular matrix and the neural stem cell niche

Basal lamina is present in many stem cell niches, but we still have a poor understanding of the role of this and other extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Here, we review current knowledge regarding ECM expression and function in the neural stem cell niche, focusing on the subependymal zone of the adult CNS. An increasing complexity of ECM molecules has been described, and a number of receptors expressed on the stem cells identified. Experiments perturbing the niche using genetics or cytotoxic ablation of the rapidly dividing precursors, or using explant culture models to examine specific growth factors, have been influential in showing how changes in these ECM receptors might regulate neural stem cell behavior. However the role of changes in the matrix itself remains to be determined. The answers will be important, as they will point to the molecules required to engineer niches ex-vivo so as to provide tools for regenerative neuroscience.

Glioma revisited: from neurogenesis and cancer stem cells to the epigenetic regulation of the niche

Gliomas are the most incident brain tumor in adults. This malignancy has very low survival rates, even when combining radio- and chemotherapy. Among the gliomas, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive type, and patients frequently relapse or become refractory to conventional therapies. The fact that such an aggressive tumor can arise in such a carefully orchestrated organ, where cellular proliferation is barely needed to maintain its function, is a question that has intrigued scientists until very recently, when the discovery of the existence of proliferative cells in the brain overcame such challenges. Even so, the precise origin of gliomas still remains elusive. Thanks to new advents in molecular biology, researchers have been able to depict the first steps of glioma formation and to accumulate knowledge about how neural stem cells and its progenitors become gliomas. Indeed, GBM are composed of a very heterogeneous population of cells, which exhibit a plethora of tumorigenic properties, supporting the presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in these tumors. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of how gliomas initiate and progress, taking into account the role of epigenetic modulation in the crosstalk of cancer cells with their environment.

Astrocytes as a source for extracellular matrix molecules and cytokines

Research of the past 25 years has shown that astrocytes do more than participating and building up the blood-brain barrier and detoxify the active synapse by reuptake of neurotransmitters and ions. Indeed, astrocytes express neurotransmitter receptors and, as a consequence, respond to stimuli. Within the tripartite synapse, the astrocytes owe more and more importance. Besides the functional aspects the differentiation of astrocytes has gained a more intensive focus. Deeper knowledge of the differentiation processes during development of the central nervous system might help explaining and even help treating neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinsons disease, and psychiatric disorders in which astrocytes have been shown to play a role. Specific differentiation of neural stem cells toward the astroglial lineage is performed as a multi-step process. Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes develop from a multipotent stem cell that prior to this has produced primarily neuronal precursor cells. This switch toward the more astroglial differentiation is regulated by a change in receptor composition on the cell surface and responsiveness to Fibroblast growth factor and Epidermal growth factor (EGF). The glial precursor cell is driven into the astroglial direction by signaling molecules like Ciliary neurotrophic factor, Bone Morphogenetic Proteins, and EGF. However, the early astrocytes influence their environment not only by releasing and responding to diverse soluble factors but also express a wide range of extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules, in particular proteoglycans of the lectican family and tenascins. Lately these ECM molecules have been shown to participate in glial development. In this regard, especially the matrix protein Tenascin C (Tnc) proved to be an important regulator of astrocyte precursor cell proliferation and migration during spinal cord development. Nevertheless, ECM molecules expressed by reactive astrocytes are also known to act mostly in an inhibitory fashion under pathophysiological conditions. Thus, we further summarize resent data concerning the role of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans and Tnc under pathological conditions.

Identification of radial glia-like cells in the adult mouse olfactory bulb

Immature neurons migrate tangentially within the rostral migratory stream (RMS) to the adult olfactory bulb (OB), then radially to their final positions as granule and periglomerular neurons; the controls over this transition are not well understood. Using adult transgenic mice with the human GFAP promoter driving expression of enhanced GFP, we identified a population of radial glia-like cells that we term adult olfactory radial glia-like cells (AORGs). AORGs have large, round somas and simple, radially oriented processes. Confocal reconstructions indicate that AORGs variably express typical radial glial markers, only rarely express mouse GFAP, and do not express astroglial, oligodendroglial, neuronal, or tanycyte markers. Electron microscopy provides further supporting evidence that AORGs are not immature neurons. Developmental analyses indicate that AORGs are present as early as P1, and are generated through adulthood. Tracing studies show that AORGs are not born in the SVZa, suggesting that they are born either in the RMS or the OB. Migrating immature neurons from the adult SVZa are closely apposed to AORGs during radial migration in vivo and in vitro. Taken together, these data indicate a newly-identified population of radial glia-like cells in the adult OB that might function uniquely in neuronal radial migration during adult OB neurogenesis.

The remyelination Philosopher's Stone: stem and progenitor cell therapies for multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease that leads to oligodendrocyte loss and subsequent demyelination of the adult central nervous system (CNS). The pathology is characterized by transient phases of recovery during which remyelination can occur as a result of resident oligodendroglial precursor and stem/progenitor cell activation. However, myelin repair efficiency remains low urging the development of new therapeutical approaches that promote remyelination activities. Current MS treatments target primarily the immune system in order to reduce the relapse rate and the formation of inflammatory lesions, whereas no therapies exist in order to regenerate damaged myelin sheaths. During the last few years, several transplantation studies have been conducted with adult neural stem/progenitor cells and glial precursor cells to evaluate their potential to generate mature oligodendrocytes that can remyelinate axons. In parallel, modulation of the endogenous progenitor niche by neural and mesenchymal stem cell transplantation with the aim of promoting CNS progenitor differentiation and myelination has been studied. Here, we summarize these findings and discuss the properties and consequences of the various molecular and cell-mediated remyelination approaches. Moreover, we address age-associated intrinsic cellular changes that might influence the regenerative outcome. We also evaluate the extent to which these experimental treatments might increase the regeneration capacity of the demyelinated human CNS and hence be turned into future therapies.

Chondroitin sulfate "wobble motifs" modulate maintenance and differentiation of neural stem cells and their progeny

Chondroitin sulfate/dermatan sulfate (CS/DS) proteoglycans, major components of the central nervous system, have the potential to interact with a wide range of growth factors and neurotrophic factors that influence neuronal migration, axon guidance pathways, and neurite outgrowth. Recent studies have also revealed the role of CS/DS chains in the orchestration of the neural stem/progenitor cell micromilieu. Individual functional proteins recognize a set of multiple overlapping oligosaccharide sequences decorated to give different sulfation patterns, which are termed here "wobble CS/DS oligosaccharide motifs," and induce signaling pathways essential for the proliferation, self-renewal, and cell lineage commitment of neural stem/progenitor cells.