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Gonçalves J, Rosado T, Barroso M, Restolho J, Fernández N, Luís Â, Gallardo E, Duarte AP. Comparative study of sample preparation procedures to determine the main compounds in ayahuasca beverages by QuEChERS and high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2024; 35:1371-1382. [PMID: 38699824 DOI: 10.1002/pca.3370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ayahuasca is a psychoactive drink originally consumed by indigenous people of the Amazon. The lack of regulation of this drink leads to uncontrolled consumption, and it is often consumed in religious contexts. OBJECTIVE The aim of this work is to compare three miniaturised extraction techniques for extracting the main ayahuasca compounds from beverages. METHODOLOGY Three sample pretreatment techniques were evaluated (dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction [DLLME], microextraction by packed sorbent [MEPS] and QuEChERS [Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe]) for the simultaneous extraction of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), tetrahydroharmine (THH), harmine, harmaline, harmol and harmalol from ayahuasca beverage samples. Then, the most promising technique (QuEChERS) was chosen to pre-concentrate the analytes, subsequently detected by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). RESULTS The procedure was optimised, with the final conditions being 500 μL of extractor solvent, 85 mg of primary secondary amine (PSA) and 4 s of vortexing. The analytical method was validated, showing to be linear between 0.16 and 10 μg/mL for β-carbolines and between 0.016 and 1 μg/mL for DMT, with coefficients of determination (R2) between 0.9968 and 0.9993. The limit of detection (LOD) and lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) were 0.16 μg/mL for all compounds, except for DMT (0.016 μg/mL) and extraction efficiencies varied between 60.2% and 88.0%. CONCLUSION The analytical methodology proved to be accurate and precise, with good linearity, LODs and LLOQs. This method has been fully validated and successfully applied to ayahuasca beverage samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Gonçalves
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Tiago Rosado
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Mário Barroso
- Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Delegação do Sul, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Nicolás Fernández
- Cátedra de Toxicología y Química Legal, Laboratorio de Asesoramiento Toxicológico Analítico (CENATOXA), Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ângelo Luís
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Eugenia Gallardo
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Duarte
- Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde (CICS-UBI), Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Laboratório de Fármaco-Toxicologia, UBIMedical, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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Thomas K. Toxicology and Pharmacological Interactions of Classic Psychedelics. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2024. [PMID: 39042251 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2024_508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
As psychedelics are being investigated for more medical indications, it has become important to characterize the adverse effects and pharmacological interactions with these medications. This chapter will summarize what is known about the toxicology and drug-drug interactions for classic psychedelics, such as LSD, psilocybin, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, mescaline, 2C-B, Bromo-DragonFLY, and 25X-NBOMe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelan Thomas
- Clinical Sciences, Touro University California College of Pharmacy, Vallejo, CA, USA.
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Shinozuka K, Tabaac BJ, Arenas A, Beutler BD, Cherian K, Evans VD, Fasano C, Muir OS. Psychedelic Therapy: A Primer for Primary Care Clinicians-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and Ayahuasca. Am J Ther 2024; 31:e112-e120. [PMID: 38518268 DOI: 10.1097/mjt.0000000000001725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a naturally occurring serotonergic psychedelic found in natural plants around the globe. As the main psychoactive component in ayahuasca, which also contains monoamine oxidase inhibitors, DMT has been consumed as plant-based brew by indigenous peoples for centuries. Further research is required to delineate the therapeutic utility of DMT. AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY Although previous research has shown that DMT is synthesized endogenously, it may not be produced at physiologically relevant concentrations. Additionally, the phenomenological similarities between the DMT-induced state and near-death experiences led to the popular hypothesis that endogenous DMT is released during the dying process. However, this hypothesis continues to be debated. Generally, DMT and ayahuasca seem to be physiologically and psychiatrically safe, although ayahuasca is known to cause transient vomiting. THERAPEUTIC ADVANCES A double-blind, randomized controlled trial showed that, within 1 week, ayahuasca causes remission in 36% of patients with treatment-resistant depression. According to top-line results from a recent phase IIa trial, 57% of patients with major depressive disorder experienced remission 12 weeks after receiving a single intravenous dose of DMT. LIMITATIONS There has only been a single published double-blind randomized controlled trial on ayahuasca and 2 on DMT. All clinical trials have had small sample sizes (≤34 participants). DMT requires further research to understand its therapeutic and clinical potential as a psychedelic. CONCLUSIONS Preliminary evidence indicates that ayahuasca and DMT may be more effective than existing antidepressants for treating major depressive disorder and treatment-resistant depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Shinozuka
- Centre for Eudaimonia and Human Flourishing, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Burton J Tabaac
- University of Nevada, Reno School of Medicine, Reno, NV
- Department of Neurology, Carson Tahoe Health, Carson City, NV
| | - Alejandro Arenas
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA
| | - Bryce D Beutler
- University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Kirsten Cherian
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA
| | - Viviana D Evans
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY
| | | | - Owen S Muir
- Fermata Health, Brooklyn, New York, NY; and
- Acacia Clinics, Sunnyvale, CA
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Madrid-Gambin F, Fabregat-Safont D, Gomez-Gomez A, Olesti E, Mason NL, Ramaekers JG, Pozo OJ. Present and future of metabolic and metabolomics studies focused on classical psychedelics in humans. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 169:115775. [PMID: 37944438 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychedelics are classical hallucinogen drugs that induce a marked altered state of consciousness. In recent years, there has been renewed attention to the possible use of classical psychedelics for the treatment of certain mental health disorders. However, further investigation to better understand their biological effects in humans, their mechanism of action, and their metabolism in humans is needed when considering the development of future novel therapeutic approaches. Both metabolic and metabolomics studies may help for these purposes. On one hand, metabolic studies aim to determine the main metabolites of the drug. On the other hand, the application of metabolomics in human psychedelics studies can help to further understand the biological processes underlying the psychedelic state and the mechanisms of action underlying their therapeutic potential. This review presents the state of the art of metabolic and metabolomic studies after lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and β-carboline alkaloids (ayahuasca brew), 5-methoxy-DMT and psilocybin administrations in humans. We first describe the characteristics of the published research. Afterward, we reviewed the main results obtained by both metabolic and metabolomics (if available) studies in classical psychedelics and we found out that metabolic and metabolomics studies in psychedelics progress at two different speeds. Thus, whereas the main metabolites for classical psychedelics have been robustly established, the main metabolic alterations induced by psychedelics need to be explored. The integration of metabolomics and pharmacokinetics for investigating the molecular interaction between psychedelics and multiple targets may open new avenues in understanding the therapeutic role of psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Madrid-Gambin
- Applied Metabolomics Research Group, Hospital del Mar Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - David Fabregat-Safont
- Applied Metabolomics Research Group, Hospital del Mar Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, 12071 Castelló, Spain
| | - Alex Gomez-Gomez
- Applied Metabolomics Research Group, Hospital del Mar Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; CERBA Internacional, Chromatography Department, 08203 Sabadell, Spain
| | - Eulàlia Olesti
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Area Medicament, Hospital Clinic of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Clinical Pharmacology, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Natasha L Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Oscar J Pozo
- Applied Metabolomics Research Group, Hospital del Mar Research Institute, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
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Eckernäs E, Macan-Schönleben A, Andresen-Bergström M, Birgersson S, Hoffmann KJ, Ashton M. N, N-dimethyltryptamine forms oxygenated metabolites via CYP2D6 - an in vitro investigation. Xenobiotica 2023; 53:515-522. [PMID: 37916667 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2023.2278488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a psychedelic compound that has shown potential in the treatment of depression. Aside from the primary role of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) in DMT metabolism, the metabolic pathways are poorly understood. Increasing this understanding is an essential aspect of ensuring safe and efficacious use of DMT.This work aimed to investigate the cytochrome 450 (CYP) mediated metabolism of DMT by incubating DMT with recombinant human CYP enzymes and human liver microsomes (HLM) followed by analysis using high-resolution mass spectrometry for metabolite identification.DMT was rapidly metabolised by CYP2D6, while stable with all other investigated CYP enzymes. The metabolism of DMT in HLM was reduced after inclusion of harmine and SKF-525A whereas quinidine did not affect the metabolic rate, likely due to MAO-A residues present in HLM. Analysis of the CYP2D6 incubates showed formation of mono-, di- and tri-oxygenated metabolites, likely as a result of hydroxylation on the indole core.More research is needed to investigate the role of this metabolic pathway in vivo and any pharmacological activity of the proposed metabolites. Our findings may impact on safety issues following intake of ayahuasca in slow CYP2D6 metabolizers or with concomitant use of CYP2D6 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Eckernäs
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Moa Andresen-Bergström
- Laboratory of Clinical Chemistry, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sofia Birgersson
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kurt-Jürgen Hoffmann
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Michael Ashton
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of Pharmacology, Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Ramaekers JG, Mallaroni P, Kloft L, Reckweg JT, Toennes SW, van Oorsouw K, Mason NL. Altered State of Consciousness and Mental Imagery as a Function of N, N-dimethyltryptamine Concentration in Ritualistic Ayahuasca Users. J Cogn Neurosci 2023; 35:1382-1393. [PMID: 37159257 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_02003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Consumption of the psychedelic brew ayahuasca is a central ritualistic aspect of the Santo Daime religion. The current observational, baseline controlled study was designed to assess whether members (n = 24) of the Santo Daime church would show enhanced capacity for mental imagery during an ayahuasca experience. In addition, this study assessed whether the effects of ayahuasca on consciousness and mental imagery were related to peak serum concentration of N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), the main psychoactive component. Measures of altered states of consciousness (5-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire) and ego dissolution (Ego Dissolution Inventory [EDI]) as well as measures of mental imagery (visual perspective shifting, vividness of visual imagery, cognitive flexibility, associative thinking) were taken on two subsequent days on which members of Santo Daime were sober or drank a self-selected volume of ayahuasca. Measures of altered states of consciousness revealed that feelings of oceanic boundlessness, visual restructuralization, and EDI increased most prominently after drinking and shared a positive correlation with peak DMT concentration. Measures of mental imagery did not noticeably differ between the baseline and ayahuasca condition, although subjective ratings of cognitive flexibility were lower under ayahuasca. Two measures related to mental imagery, that is, perspective shifts and cognitive flexibility, were significantly correlated to peak DMT concentrations. Peak concentrations of DMT and other alkaloids did not correlate with ayahuasca dose. These findings confirm previous notions that the primary phenomenological characteristics of ayahuasca are driven by DMT. Compensatory or neuroadaptive effects associated with long-term ayahuasca intake may have mitigated the acute impact of ayahuasca in Santo Daime members on mental imagery.
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7
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Wang T, Rho O, Eguiarte-Solomon F, DiGiovanni J. Twist1 as a target for prevention of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Mol Carcinog 2023; 62:62-76. [PMID: 36373194 PMCID: PMC9772054 DOI: 10.1002/mc.23482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) represents an important clinical problem requiring novel approaches for both prevention and treatment. The transcription factor, Twist-related protein 1 (Twist1), has been identified as having a key mechanistic role in the development and progression of cSCC. Studies in relevant mouse models of cSCC have shown that Twist1 regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and stemness driving progression and metastasis of cSCC. In addition, further research has shown that Twist1 regulates the balance between keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation and therefore impacts earlier stages of cSCC development. Through use of keratinocyte specific Twist1 knockout models, a role for this gene in keratinocyte stem cell homeostasis has been revealed. As a transcription factor, Twist1 regulates a large number of genes both in a positive, as well as a negative manner across several interdependent pathways. Studies in keratinocyte specific knockout models have shown that Twist1 upregulates the expression of genes involved in proliferation, stemness, and EMT while downregulating the expression of genes associated with differentiation. Furthermore, a number of compounds, including naturally occurring compounds, have been identified that target Twist1 and can block its effects in cancer cells and in keratinocytes in vivo. Collectively, the current understanding of Twist1 function in cSCC development and progression suggests that it represents a potential target for prevention and treatment of cSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingzeng Wang
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, United States
| | - Okkyung Rho
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, United States
| | - Fernando Eguiarte-Solomon
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, United States
| | - John DiGiovanni
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, United States
- Center for Molecular Carcinogenesis and Toxicology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, United States
- Livestrong Cancer Institutes, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78723, United States
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Sadgrove NJ. Rumors of Psychedelics, Psychotropics and Related Derivatives in Vachellia and Senegalia in Contrast with Verified Records in Australian Acacia. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3356. [PMID: 36501395 PMCID: PMC9738376 DOI: 10.3390/plants11233356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
There are almost 1000 species of Acacia sensu stricto in Australia, while the 44 species and 4 subspecies in southern Africa were taxonomically revised in the year 2011 to Senegalia and Vachellia. There are rumors of a chemical similarity between the Australian Acacia and their southern African sister genera. Chemical analysis has unequivocally demonstrated the presence of tryptamines (i.e., DMT), β-carbolines, histamines, and phenethylamines in Australian species. However, reliable published data were not found in support of similar alkaloids in southern African (or even African) species, indicating the need for exploratory phytochemical analysis. Interestingly, the Australian species are more like the Vachellia and Senegalia from the Americas. While many reliable chemical studies have been found, there are several more that report only tentative results. Tentative data and anecdotal accounts are included in the current review to guide researchers to areas where further work can be done. For example, the current review encourages further phytochemical work to confirm if the two metabolite families, tryptamine and β-carboline alkaloids, occur together in a single specimen. Tryptamines and β-carbolines are the prerequisite ingredients of the South American psychotropic drink ayahuasca, which utilizes two different species to create this synergistic combination. These observations and others are discussed in light of geochemical variability, the potential ethnobotanical implications, and the need for further research to confirm or nullify anecdotal reports and tentative chromatographic/spectroscopic data in southern African species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Sadgrove
- Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg (Auckland Park Campus), Auckland Park, P.O. Box 524, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
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Eckernäs E, Timmermann C, Carhart‐Harris R, Röshammar D, Ashton M. Population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling of the psychedelic experience induced by N,N-dimethyltryptamine - Implications for dose considerations. Clin Transl Sci 2022; 15:2928-2937. [PMID: 36088656 PMCID: PMC9747126 DOI: 10.1111/cts.13410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a psychedelic compound that is believed to have potential as a therapeutic option in several psychiatric disorders. The number of clinical investigations with DMT is increasing. However, very little is known about the pharmacokinetic properties of DMT as well as any relationship between its exposure and effects. This study aimed to characterize population pharmacokinetics of DMT as well as the relationship between DMT plasma concentrations and its psychedelic effects as measured through subjective intensity ratings. Data were obtained from 13 healthy subjects after intravenous administration of DMT. The data were analyzed using nonlinear mixed-effects modeling in NONMEM. DMT plasma concentrations were described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination leading to formation of the major metabolite indole 3-acetic acid. The relationship between plasma concentrations and psychedelic intensity was described by an effect site compartment model with a sigmoid maximum effect (Emax ) response. DMT clearance was estimated at 26 L/min, a high value indicating elimination of DMT to be independent of blood flow. Higher concentrations of DMT were associated with a more intense experience with the concentration of DMT at the effect site required to produce half of the maximum response estimated at 95 nM. The maximum achievable intensity rating was 10 and the simulated median maximum rating was zero, 2, 4, 8, and 9 after doses of 1, 4, 7, 14, and 20 mg, respectively. The model can be useful in predicting suitable doses for clinical investigations of DMT based on the desired intensity of the subjective experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Eckernäs
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of PharmacologySahlgrenska Academy at University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Christopher Timmermann
- Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Psychedelic ResearchImperial College LondonLondonUK
| | - Robin Carhart‐Harris
- Division of Psychiatry, Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Psychedelic ResearchImperial College LondonLondonUK,Psychedelics Division, Neuroscape, Department of NeurologyUniversity of California San FranciscoSan FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | | | - Michael Ashton
- Unit for Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Department of PharmacologySahlgrenska Academy at University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
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Madureira-Carvalho A, Brito-da-Costa A, Dias-da-Silva D, Dinis-Oliveira R. P03-20 Ayahuasca and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT): Toxicokinetics, toxicodynamics, and biological effects. Toxicol Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2022.07.282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Abstract
N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a potent psychedelic naturally produced by many plants and animals, including humans. Whether or not DMT is significant to mammalian physiology, especially within the central nervous system, is a debate that started in the early 1960s and continues to this day. This review integrates historical and recent literature to clarify this issue, giving special attention to the most controversial subjects of DMT's biosynthesis, its storage in synaptic vesicles and the activation receptors like sigma-1. Less discussed topics, like DMT's metabolic regulation or the biased activation of serotonin receptors, are highlighted. We conclude that most of the arguments dismissing endogenous DMT's relevance are based on obsolete data or misleading assumptions. Data strongly suggest that DMT can be relevant as a neurotransmitter, neuromodulator, hormone and immunomodulator, as well as being important to pregnancy and development. Key experiments are addressed to definitely prove what specific roles DMT plays in mammalian physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Hidalgo Jiménez
- ICEERS Foundation (International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services), Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- ICEERS Foundation (International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services), Barcelona, Spain
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12
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Duarte-Filho LAMDS, Amariz IA, Nishimura RHV, Massaranduba ABR, Menezes PMN, Damasceno TA, Brys I, Rolim LA, Silva FS, Ribeiro LADA. β-carboline-independent antidepressant-like effect of the standardized extract of the barks of Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd) Poir. occurs via 5-HT 2A/2C receptors in mice. J Psychopharmacol 2022; 36:836-848. [PMID: 35723216 DOI: 10.1177/02698811221104050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Depression is a psychiatric disorder with limited therapy options. Psychedelics are new antidepressant candidates, being the ayahuasca one of the most promising ones. A synergistic combination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and β-carbolines allows ayahuasca antidepressant properties. Another psychedelic and DMT-containing beverage is the jurema wine used religiously by indigenous people from Northeastern Brazil. AIMS To evaluate the antidepressant-like effect of standardized extract of Mimosa tenuiflora (SEMT), associated or not with harmine (β-carboline), in behavioral models of depression. METHODS The SEMT was submitted to (+) ESI-IT-LC/MS analysis for DMT quantification. To assess the antidepressant-like effect of SEMT, the open field (OFT), tail suspension (TST), and forced swim (FST) tests were performed. To verify the participation of serotonergic systems, the 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)-induced head twitch test was performed. RESULTS The content of DMT found in SEMT was 24.74 ± 0.8 mg/g. Yuremamine was also identified. SEMT presented an antidepressant-like effect in mice submitted to the TST and FST, independent from harmine, with no significant alterations on the OFT. The sub-dose interaction between SEMT and ketamine also produced an anti-immobility effect in the TST, with no changes in the OFT. SEMT potentiated the head twitch behavior induced by 5-HTP and ketanserin prevented its antidepressant-like effect in the TST (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS SEMT presented a harmine-independent antidepressant-like effect in mice submitted to the TST and FST. This effect occurs possibly via activation of serotonergic systems, particularly the 5-HT2A/2C receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isabela Araujo Amariz
- Rede Nordeste de Biotecnologia (RENORBIO), Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Central de Análise de Fármacos, Medicamentos e Alimentos (CAFMA) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Beatriz Rodrigues Massaranduba
- Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde e Biológicas (PGCSB) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Grupo de Pesquisa em Neurociências e Psicologia Experimental (Neurovale) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Grupo de Pesquisa em Processamento de Sinais e Visão Computacional (SigProCV) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | | | - Ivani Brys
- Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Saúde e Biológicas (PGCSB) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Grupo de Pesquisa em Neurociências e Psicologia Experimental (Neurovale) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Larissa Araújo Rolim
- Pós-Graduação em Biociências (PGB) UNIVASF, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Rede Nordeste de Biotecnologia (RENORBIO), Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Central de Análise de Fármacos, Medicamentos e Alimentos (CAFMA) UNIVASF, Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco (UNIVASF), Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Fabrício Souza Silva
- Pós-Graduação em Biociências (PGB) UNIVASF, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco (UNIVASF), Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Luciano Augusto de Araújo Ribeiro
- Pós-Graduação em Biociências (PGB) UNIVASF, Pernambuco, Brazil.,Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco (UNIVASF), Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil
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13
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Nižnanský Ľ, Nižnanská Ž, Kuruc R, Szórádová A, Šikuta J, Zummerová A. Ayahuasca as a Decoction Applied to Human: Analytical Methods, Pharmacology and Potential Toxic Effects. J Clin Med 2022; 11:1147. [PMID: 35207420 PMCID: PMC8880227 DOI: 10.3390/jcm11041147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ahyahuasca is a term commonly used to describe a decoction prepared by cooking the bark or crushed stems of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi (contains β-carbolines) alone or in combination with other plants, most commonly leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis (contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine-DMT). More than 100 different plants can serve as sources of β-carbolines and DMT, which are the active alkaloids of this decoction, and therefore it is important to know the most accurate composition of the decoction, especially when studying the pharmacology of this plant. The aim was to summarize the latest sensitive methods used in the analysis of the composition of the beverage itself and the analysis of various biological matrices. We compared pharmacokinetic parameters in all of the studies where decoction of ayahuasca was administered and where its composition was known, whereby minimal adverse effects were observed. The therapeutic benefit of this plant is still unclear in the scientific literature, and side effects occur probably on the basis of pre-existing psychiatric disorder. We also described toxicological risks and clinical benefits of ayahuasca intake, which meant that the concentrations of active alkaloids in the decoction or in the organism, often not determined in publications, were required for sufficient evaluation of its effect on the organism. We did not find any post-mortem study, in which the toxicological examination of biological materials together with the autopsy findings would suggest potential lethality of this plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ľuboš Nižnanský
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Žofia Nižnanská
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 84215 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Roman Kuruc
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Andrea Szórádová
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ján Šikuta
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Anežka Zummerová
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Health Care Surveillance Authority, Antolská 11, 85107 Bratislava, Slovakia; (R.K.); (A.S.); (J.Š.); (A.Z.)
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University in Bratislava, Sasinková 4, 81108 Bratislava, Slovakia
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14
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Kelley DP, Venable K, Destouni A, Billac G, Ebenezer P, Stadler K, Nichols C, Barker S, Francis J. Pharmahuasca and DMT Rescue ROS Production and Differentially Expressed Genes Observed after Predator and Psychosocial Stress: Relevance to Human PTSD. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:257-274. [PMID: 34990116 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with cognitive deficits, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Animal models have recapitulated features of PTSD, but no comparative RNA sequencing analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the brain between PTSD and animal models of traumatic stress has been carried out. We compared DEGs from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of an established stress model to DEGs from the dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) of humans. We observed a significant enrichment of rat DEGs in human PTSD and identified 20 overlapping DEGs, of which 17 (85%) are directionally concordant. N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a known indirect antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective compound with antidepressant and plasticity-facilitating effects. We tested the capacity of DMT, the monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) harmaline, and "pharmahuasca" (DMT + harmaline) to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and inflammatory gene expression and to modulate neuroplasticity-related gene expression in the model. We administered DMT (2 mg/kg IP), harmaline (1.5 mg/kg IP), pharmahuasca, or vehicle every other day for 5 days, following a 30 day stress regiment. We measured ROS production in the PFC and hippocampus (HC) by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy and sequenced total mRNA in the PFC. We also performed in vitro assays to measure the affinity and efficacy of DMT and harmaline at 5HT2AR compared to 5-HT. DMT and pharmahuasca reduced ROS production in the PFC and HC, while harmaline had mixed effects. Treatments normalized 9, 12, and 14 overlapping DEGs, and pathway analysis implicated that genes were involved in ROS production, inflammation, growth factor signaling, neurotransmission, and neuroplasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Parker Kelley
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Katy Venable
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Aspasia Destouni
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Gerald Billac
- Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Philip Ebenezer
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Krisztian Stadler
- Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70808, United States
| | - Charles Nichols
- Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, United States
| | - Steven Barker
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Joseph Francis
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
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15
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A target lipidomics approach to investigate the acute inflammatory irritation induced by indolealkylamines from Chansu water fraction in rats. Chin J Nat Med 2021; 19:856-867. [PMID: 34844724 DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(21)60117-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Chansu has demonstrated adverse reactions in clinical settings, which is associated with its toxicity and limits its clinical applications. But there are methodological limitations for drug safety evaluation. In the current study, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography, lipidomic profiling, and molecular docking were used to systemically assess Chansu-induced acute inflammatory irritation and further identify the underlying drug targets. Compared with the EtOAc extract, Chansu water fraction containing indolealkylamines caused acute inflammatory irritation in rats, including acute pain (spontaneous raising foot reaction), and inflammation (paw edema). At the molecular level, lipids analysis revealed significantly higher levels of pro-inflammatory mediators of the COX and LOX pathways. However, anti-inflammatory mediators from the CYP 450, ALA, and DHA pathways markedly decreased after exposure to Chansu water fraction. Moreover, four indolealkylamines from Chansu showed a high theoretical affinity to a known irritation target, 5-HT2AR. These results suggest that Chansu-induced inflammatory irritation is related to the distinct dysregulation of inflammatory lipids, and peripheral 5-HT2AR is a potential target for irritation therapy. The strategy used in this study can be a crucial approach in the safety evaluation of natural medicinal substances.
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16
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Daldegan-Bueno D, Favaro VM, Tófoli LF, Sussulini A, Cassas F, Oliveira MGM. Ayahuasca Lyophilization (Freeze-drying) Protocol with Pre- and Post-procedure Alkaloids Quantification. J Psychoactive Drugs 2021; 54:278-283. [PMID: 34530685 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2021.1971342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive brew from the decoction of different Amazonian plants, traditionally used in several cultures, religions, and rituals. Scientific studies with ayahuasca are rapidly increasing due to its subjective effects and therapeutic potential. Although ayahuasca is traditionally used in its liquid presentation, lyophilized (freeze-dried) ayahuasca is often used in scientific experimentation settings. However, there is no standard process or guideline to freeze-dry ayahuasca nor comparison of the chemical profile between the liquid and freeze-dried presentations. Therefore, we describe a reproducible five-day protocol for ayahuasca lyophilization with alkaloids quantification by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry of both the liquid and the final freeze-dried ayahuasca. By the end of the protocol, approximately 295 g of freeze-dried extract with similar alkaloids concentration were obtained from two liters of ayahuasca (dry matter: 14.75 %). The final extract was stored for three years inside a vacuum desiccator (approximately 6°C) with its texture quality preserved. Further studies should address the impact of different storage conditions and the lyophilization on the alkaloids' quantity of the freeze-dried ayahuasca, especially the use of heat in regards to the β-carbolines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitri Daldegan-Bueno
- Schools of Population Health and Pharmacy, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Psychobiology, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, Brazil.,Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (Icaro), School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Manchim Favaro
- Department of Psychobiology, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luís Fernando Tófoli
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (Icaro), School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Otto Richard Gottlieb Bioorganic Chemistry Lab (Labiorg), Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences (Icaqf/unifesp), Chemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Sussulini
- Laboratory of Bioanalytics and Integrated Omics (Labiomics), Institute of Chemistry, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, Brazil
| | - Fernando Cassas
- Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (Icaro), School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.,Otto Richard Gottlieb Bioorganic Chemistry Lab (Labiorg), Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences (Icaqf/unifesp), Chemistry Department, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Gabriela Menezes Oliveira
- Department of Psychobiology, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, Brazil.,Interdisciplinary Cooperation for Ayahuasca Research and Outreach (Icaro), School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
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17
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Liu M, Yang H, Hu J, Shen B, Xiang P, Qiang H, Deng H, Yu Z, Shi Y. Analysis of 28 hair samples from users of the hallucinogenic beverage ayahuasca. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 323:110790. [PMID: 33894686 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive beverage widely used in religious ceremonies in Amazonia. Dimethyltryptamine is the main active compound of ayahuasca. Dimethyltryptamine has many hazardous effects, including hallucinations. In the present study, a fast and reliable UPLC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the quantitation of dimethyltryptamine in hair samples. Twenty-milligram hair samples were pulverized with methanol below 4 °C. After ultrasonication, centrifugation and filtration, 200 μL of supernatant was placed into an autosampler vial for LC-MS/MS analysis. The lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) was 3 pg/mg. The resulting calibration curve for dimethyltryptamine fit the expression y = 281.50213x + 0.00231 (R2 = 0.992). Acceptable intraday and interday precision (RSD < 15%) and accuracy (92-113%) were achieved. The dilution integrity was deemed acceptable based on accuracy (96%) and precision (1.8%). The validated method was successfully applied to 28 forensic cases. The concentrations of dimethyltryptamine ranged from 3 to 1109 pg/mg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxi Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Huan Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China; Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Jing Hu
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Baohua Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Huosheng Qiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Hongxiao Deng
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China
| | - Zhiguo Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Wenhua Road 103, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Yan Shi
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, No.1347 Guangfu Xi Road, Shanghai 200063, China.
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18
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Acute Psychological Adverse Reactions in First-Time Ritual Ayahuasca Users: A Prospective Case Series. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2021; 41:163-171. [PMID: 33606432 DOI: 10.1097/jcp.0000000000001343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent decades, ritualistic use of ayahuasca has spread throughout the world. Retrospective studies have suggested a good psychological safety profile, but prospective studies involving ceremony ayahuasca-naive participants are lacking. METHODS We conducted the study using a subsample from a previous study, for which first-time ceremony ayahuasca participants were recruited. The subsample consisted of 7 subjects who experienced acute and challenging psychological reactions. The semistructured Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview and psychometric questionnaires were administered before participants attended the ayahuasca ceremony and at 1 and 6 months after exposure. Subjective experiences were also recorded. RESULTS Seven subjects from a sample of 40 reported having experienced intense challenging psychological effects during the ayahuasca ceremony. Four of those 7 subjects met the diagnostic criteria for 1 or more psychiatric disorder before the ayahuasca ceremony. One month after the ceremony, 2 of those subjects no longer showed psychiatric symptoms, whereas the symptoms of the other 2 were reduced considerably. Those results persisted at the 6-month follow-up. Inappropriate setting/context (poor guiding skills and screening) contributed to some of the challenging reactions. Most of the participants (6 of 7) did not take ayahuasca again during the study period. CONCLUSIONS Based on the cases reported here, we suggest that although it is possible that participating in ayahuasca ceremonies may entail acute psychological negative reactions, those challenging experiences can also have positive long-term effects. Prospective research on the safety profile of ayahuasca and how it is affected by the context of different practices and safety strategies is therefore necessary.
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19
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Chambers M, Appley MG, Longo CM, Musah RA. Detection and Quantification of Psychoactive N, N-Dimethyltryptamine in Ayahuasca Brews by Ambient Ionization High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:28547-28554. [PMID: 33195905 PMCID: PMC7658922 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c03196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime designated twenty psychoactive botanical species as "plants of concern" because of their increased recreational abuse. Four of these are used to prepare ayahuasca brews. The complexity of the plant matrices, as well as the beverage itself, make the identification and quantification of the Schedule I component, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a time-consuming and resource-intensive endeavor when performed using conventional approaches previously reported. Reported here is the development of a rapid validated method for the quantification of DMT in ayahuasca by direct analysis in real time-high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS). This ambient ionization approach also enables identification of ayahuasca through detection of the secondary metabolites associated with its plant constituents. Analysis of six ayahuasca brews created using different combinations of DMT/harmala alkaloid-containing plants resulted in beverages with DMT levels of 45.7-230.5 mg/L. The detected amounts were consistent with previously reported values determined by conventional approaches.
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20
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Lanaro R, Mello SM, da Cunha KF, Silveira G, Corrêa-Neto NF, Hyslop S, Cabrices OG, Costa JL, Linardi A. Kinetic profile of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and β-carbolines in saliva and serum after oral administration of ayahuasca in a religious context. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:664-678. [PMID: 33119972 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a beverage obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi plus Psychotria viridis. B. caapi contains the β-carbolines harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine that are monoamine oxidase inhibitors and P. viridis contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) that is responsible for the visionary effects of the beverage. Ayahuasca use is becoming a global phenomenon, and the recreational use of DMT and similar alkaloids has also increased in recent years; such uncontrolled use can lead to severe intoxications. In this investigation, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to study the kinetics of alkaloids over a 24 h period in saliva and serum of 14 volunteers who consumed ayahuasca twice a month in a religious context. We compared the area under the curve (AUC), maximum concentration (Cmax ), time to reach Cmax (Tmax ), mean residence time (MRT), and half-life (t1/2 ), as well as the serum/saliva ratios of these parameters. DMT and β-carboline concentrations (Cmax ) and AUC were higher in saliva than in serum and the MRT was 1.5-3.0 times higher in serum. A generalized estimation equations (GEEs) model suggested that serum concentrations could be predicted by saliva concentrations, despite large individual variability in the saliva and serum alkaloid concentrations. The possibility of using saliva as a biological matrix to detect DMT, β-carbolines, and their derivatives is very interesting because it allows fast noninvasive sample collection and could be useful for detecting similar alkaloids used recreationally that have considerable potential for intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Lanaro
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Sueli Moreira Mello
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Kelly Francisco da Cunha
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Gabriela Silveira
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Stephen Hyslop
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Oscar G Cabrices
- Global Technical Science - Forensics Testing, Sciex, 1201 Radio Road, Redwood City, CA, 94065, USA
| | - Jose Luiz Costa
- Poison Control Center, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil.,Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Linardi
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Santa Casa de São Paulo School of Medical Sciences, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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21
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Silveira GDO, Lourenço FR, Bruno V, Yonamine M. Fast Hollow Fiber Liquid-Phase Microextraction as a Greener Alternative for the Determination of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and Harmala Alkaloids in Human Urine. Front Chem 2020; 8:558501. [PMID: 33134270 PMCID: PMC7575737 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.558501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca tea is an entheogen hallucinogenic beverage used for shamanic and spiritual purposes, prepared by the decoction of different Amazonian plants containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and harmala alkaloids. Since the therapeutic potential of this tea has been broadly studied in recent years, mainly for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, the determination of the ayahuasca tea components in human and animal matrices is of utmost importance. In order to avoid the use of large amounts of toxic solvents, typically employed in traditional sample preparation methods, hollow fiber liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) presents a greener and time-saving alternative. The present study aims to fully develop and apply an HF-LPME method for the determination of DMT, harmine (HRM), harmaline (HRL), and tetrahydroharmine (THH) in human urine samples using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Fractional factorial and Box–Behnken designs were used to identify and optimize significant method variables. Once optimized, validation has shown a limit of detection (LoD) of 1.0 ng/ml for DMT and 2.0 ng/ml for the harmala alkaloid. The limit of quantification (LoQ) was of 5.0 ng/ml for all analytes. The method has shown to be linear over a concentration range of 5–200 ng/ml (r2 ≥ 0.99). Intra/inter-day precision and accuracy met the acceptance criteria at the three quality control (QC) levels studied (15.0, 90.0, and 170.0 ng/ml, n = 6, each). Matrix effect evaluation showed predominant ion enhancement and recovery values were above 80%. Dilution factors of 10- and 20-fold have shown acceptable values of accuracy. Selectivity studies showed no interferences. Analysis of eight authentic samples collected from four subjects proved method feasibility. A simple, time-saving and green alternative for the analysis of DMT and harmala alkaloids in human urine samples was developed, optimized using design of experiments, fully validated and applied to authentic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela de Oliveira Silveira
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Felipe Rebello Lourenço
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vitor Bruno
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Yonamine
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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22
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Ruffell S, Netzband N, Bird C, Young AH, Juruena MF. The pharmacological interaction of compounds in ayahuasca: a systematic review. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PSIQUIATRIA (SAO PAULO, BRAZIL : 1999) 2020; 42:646-656. [PMID: 32638916 PMCID: PMC7678905 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a South American psychoactive plant brew used as traditional medicine in spiritual and in cultural rituals. This is a review of the current understanding about the pharmacological mechanisms that may be interacting in ayahuasca. Searches were performed using PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases and 16 papers were selected. As hypothesized, the primary narrative in existing research revolved around prevention of deamination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (N,N-DMT, also referred to as DMT) by monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) in ayahuasca. Two of the constituents, DMT and harmine, have been studied more than the secondary harmala alkaloids. At present, it is unclear whether the pharmacological interactions in ayahuasca act synergistically or additively to produce psychoactive drug effects. The included studies suggest that our current understanding of the preparation's synergistic mechanisms is limited and that more complex processes may be involved; there is not yet enough data to determine any potential synergistic interaction between the known compounds in ayahuasca. Our pharmacological understanding of its compounds must be increased to avoid the potential risks of ayahuasca use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Ruffell
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- Correspondence: Mario F. Juruena, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, Room M3.24, PO72 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. E-mail:
| | - Nige Netzband
- University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
- Correspondence: Mario F. Juruena, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, Room M3.24, PO72 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. E-mail:
| | - Catherine Bird
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Allan H. Young
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Mario F. Juruena
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
- Correspondence: Mario F. Juruena, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, Room M3.24, PO72 De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, UK. E-mail:
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Brito-da-Costa AM, Dias-da-Silva D, Gomes NGM, Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Madureira-Carvalho Á. Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics of Ayahuasca Alkaloids N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Harmine, Harmaline and Tetrahydroharmine: Clinical and Forensic Impact. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2020; 13:ph13110334. [PMID: 33114119 PMCID: PMC7690791 DOI: 10.3390/ph13110334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic botanical beverage originally used by indigenous Amazonian tribes in religious ceremonies and therapeutic practices. While ethnobotanical surveys still indicate its spiritual and medicinal uses, consumption of ayahuasca has been progressively related with a recreational purpose, particularly in Western societies. The ayahuasca aqueous concoction is typically prepared from the leaves of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Psychotria viridis, and the stem and bark of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of harmala alkaloids. Herein, the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of the psychoactive DMT and harmala alkaloids harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, are comprehensively covered, particularly emphasizing the psychological, physiological, and toxic effects deriving from their concomitant intake. Potential therapeutic utility, particularly in mental and psychiatric disorders, and forensic aspects of DMT and ayahuasca are also reviewed and discussed. Following administration of ayahuasca, DMT is rapidly absorbed and distributed. Harmala alkaloids act as potent inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), preventing extensive first-pass degradation of DMT into 3-indole-acetic acid (3-IAA), and enabling sufficient amounts of DMT to reach the brain. DMT has affinity for a variety of serotonergic and non-serotonergic receptors, though its psychotropic effects are mainly related with the activation of serotonin receptors type 2A (5-HT2A). Mildly to rarely severe psychedelic adverse effects are reported for ayahuasca or its alkaloids individually, but abuse does not lead to dependence or tolerance. For a long time, the evidence has pointed to potential psychotherapeutic benefits in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders; and although misuse of ayahuasca has been diverting attention away from such clinical potential, research onto its therapeutic effects has now strongly resurged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Machado Brito-da-Costa
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
| | - Diana Dias-da-Silva
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: (D.D.-d.-S.); (R.J.D.-O.); Tel.: +351-224-157-216 (R.J.D.-O.)
| | - Nelson G. M. Gomes
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: (D.D.-d.-S.); (R.J.D.-O.); Tel.: +351-224-157-216 (R.J.D.-O.)
| | - Áurea Madureira-Carvalho
- Department of Sciences, IINFACTS-Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal; (A.M.B.-d.-C.); (N.G.M.G.); (Á.M.-C.)
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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Biodiversity of β-Carboline Profile of Banisteriopsis caapi and Ayahuasca, a Plant and a Brew with Neuropharmacological Potential. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9070870. [PMID: 32660098 PMCID: PMC7411993 DOI: 10.3390/plants9070870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive infusion with a large pharmacological application normally prepared with Banisteriopsis caapi, which contains the monoamine oxidase inhibitors β-carbolines, and Psichotria virids, which contains the serotonin receptor agonist N,N dimethyltryptamine (DMT). The objectives of this study were to investigate the chemical profile of B. caapi and of ayahuasca collected in various Brazilian regions. In total, 176 plant lianas, of which 159 B.caapi and 33 ayahuasca samples were analyzed. Dried liana samples were powdered, extracted with methanol, diluted, and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Ayahuasca samples were diluted and analyzed. Mean concentrations in B. caapi were 4.79 mg/g harmine, 0.451 mg/g harmaline, and 2.18 mg/g tetrahydroharmine (THH), with a high variability among the samples (RSD from 78.9 to 170%). Native B. caapi samples showed significantly higher harmine concentrations than cultivated ones, and samples from the Federal District/Goiás had higher THH content than those collected in the State of Acre. The other Malpighiaceae samples did not contain β-carbolines, except for one D. pubipetala sample. Concentrations in ayahuasca samples ranged from 0.109 to 7.11 mg/mL harmine, 0.012 to 0.945 mg/mL harmaline, 0.09 to 3.05 mg/mL THH, and 0.10 to 3.12 mg/mL DMT. The analysis of paired ayahuasca/B. caapi confirmed that harmine is reduced to harmaline and to THH during the brew preparation. This is the largest study conducted with Malpighiaceae samples and showed a large variability in the main β-carbolines present in B. caapi. This biodiversity is a challenge for standardization of the material used in ethnopharmacological studies of B.caapi and ayahuasca.
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Dellal H, Boulahtouf A, Alaterre E, Cuenant A, Grimaldi M, Bourguet W, Gongora C, Balaguer P, Pourquier P. High Content Screening Using New U2OS Reporter Cell Models Identifies Harmol Hydrochloride as a Selective and Competitive Antagonist of the Androgen Receptor. Cells 2020; 9:cells9061469. [PMID: 32560058 PMCID: PMC7349874 DOI: 10.3390/cells9061469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed malignancy in men. Its growth mainly relies on the activity of the androgen receptor (AR), justifying the use of androgen deprivation therapy as a gold standard treatment for the metastatic disease. Inhibition of the androgen axis using second generation antagonists has improved patients’ survival, but is systematically confronted to resistance mechanisms, leading to a median survival that does not exceed 5 years. Counteracting this resistance has been the object of a large number of investigations, with a particular emphasis towards the identification of new AR inhibitors, whether they antagonize the receptor by a competitive or a non-competitive binding. To this end, many high content screens have been performed, to identify new non-steroidal AR antagonists, using a variety of approaches, but reported somewhat controversial results, depending on the approach and on the cell model that was used for screening. In our study, we used the U2OS osteosarcoma cells stably transfected with AR or ARv7 and a luciferase reporter as a previously validated model to screen the Prestwick Phytochemical library. The results of our screen identified ellipticine, harmol, and harmine hydrochloride as confirmed hits. Surprisingly, we could demonstrate that harmol hydrochloride, previously identified as a non-competitive inhibitor of AR or a weak inhibitor of androgen signaling, was actually a competitive antagonist of AR, which inhibits the growth of VCaP prostate cancer line, at concentrations for which it did not affect the growth of the AR negative DU145 and PC3 cells. Interestingly, we also report for the first time that harmol hydrochloride was selective for AR, as it could not alter the activity of other nuclear receptors, such as the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), the progesterone receptor (PR), or the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). Additionally, we demonstrate that, conversely to enzalutamide, harmol hydrochloride did not show any agonistic activity towards the pregnane X receptor (PXR), a master regulator of drug metabolism. Together, our results shed light on the importance of the cellular context for the screening of new AR antagonists. They further indicate that some of the potential hits that were previously identified may have been overlooked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadjer Dellal
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
| | - Abdelhay Boulahtouf
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
- Institut régional du Cancer de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France
| | - Elina Alaterre
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
| | - Alice Cuenant
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
| | - Marina Grimaldi
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
| | - William Bourguet
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
- Centre de Biochimie Structurale, CNRS, INSERM, Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France
| | - Céline Gongora
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
| | - Patrick Balaguer
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
- Correspondence: (P.B.); (P.P.); Tel.: +33-4-67-61-24-09 (P.B.); +33-4-66-68-32-31 (P.P.); Fax: +33-4-67-61-23-37 (P.B.); +33-4-66-68-37-02 (P.P.)
| | - Philippe Pourquier
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, F-34298 Montpellier, France; (H.D.); (A.B.); (E.A.); (A.C.); (M.G.); (C.G.)
- Université de Montpellier, F-34298 Montpellier, France;
- Correspondence: (P.B.); (P.P.); Tel.: +33-4-67-61-24-09 (P.B.); +33-4-66-68-32-31 (P.P.); Fax: +33-4-67-61-23-37 (P.B.); +33-4-66-68-37-02 (P.P.)
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de Oliveira Silveira G, Guimarães dos Santos R, Rebello Lourenço F, Novak Rossi G, Hallak JEC, Yonamine M. Stability Evaluation of DMT and Harmala Alkaloids in Ayahuasca Tea Samples. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25092072. [PMID: 32365548 PMCID: PMC7248686 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25092072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ayahuasca tea is a hallucinogenic beverage used for religious purposes in Brazil and many other countries that has therapeutic potential in the treatment of some mental health disorders. In the context of psychedelic research, quantification of the tea's main alkaloids prior to its administration in animal or human studies is essential. For this reason, this study aims to provide information regarding the stability of the main ayahuasca alkaloids (dimethyltryptamine, DMT; harmine, HRM; tetrahydroharmine, THH; harmaline, HRL) in three different conditions: (1) A year stored in a refrigerator either in plastic or glass containers, (2) seven days at 37 °C to reproduce usual mail transportation, and (3) after three freeze-thaw cycles. Samples were quantified after a dilute-and-shoot procedure using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). There was no significant degradation of DMT concentration over time in all tested conditions. Harmala alkaloids (THH, HRL, and HRM) showed important variations after long-term and high-temperature storages. Although DMT has proven to be stable in all studied conditions, the harmala alkaloids revealed intense degradation and even concentration increment. This may be caused by degradation, alkaloid inter-conversion, and leaching from tea precipitate material. Therefore, ayahuasca quantification before administration in controlled sets is mandatory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela de Oliveira Silveira
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
- Correspondence:
| | - Rafael Guimarães dos Santos
- Department of Neurosciences and Behaviour, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil; (R.G.d.S.); (G.N.R.); (J.E.C.H.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology—Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Felipe Rebello Lourenço
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
| | - Giordano Novak Rossi
- Department of Neurosciences and Behaviour, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil; (R.G.d.S.); (G.N.R.); (J.E.C.H.)
| | - Jaime E. C. Hallak
- Department of Neurosciences and Behaviour, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil; (R.G.d.S.); (G.N.R.); (J.E.C.H.)
- National Institute of Science and Technology—Translational Medicine, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Yonamine
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
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Determination of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-carbolines in plants used to prepare ayahuasca beverages by means of solid-phase extraction and gas-chromatography–mass spectrometry. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-020-2296-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Abbott KL, Flannery PC, Gill KS, Boothe DM, Dhanasekaran M, Mani S, Pondugula SR. Adverse pharmacokinetic interactions between illicit substances and clinical drugs. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 52:44-65. [PMID: 31826670 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2019.1697283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Adverse pharmacokinetic interactions between illicit substances and clinical drugs are of a significant health concern. Illicit substances are taken by healthy individuals as well as by patients with medical conditions such as mental illnesses, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, diabetes mellitus and cancer. Many individuals that use illicit substances simultaneously take clinical drugs meant for targeted treatment. This concomitant usage can lead to life-threatening pharmacokinetic interactions between illicit substances and clinical drugs. Optimal levels and activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug-transporters are crucial for metabolism and disposition of illicit substances as well as clinical drugs. However, both illicit substances and clinical drugs can induce changes in the expression and/or activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug-transporters. Consequently, with concomitant usage, illicit substances can adversely influence the therapeutic outcome of coadministered clinical drugs. Likewise, clinical drugs can adversely affect the response of coadministered illicit substances. While the interactions between illicit substances and clinical drugs pose a tremendous health and financial burden, they lack a similar level of attention as drug-drug, food-drug, supplement-drug, herb-drug, disease-drug, or other substance-drug interactions such as alcohol-drug and tobacco-drug interactions. This review highlights the clinical pharmacokinetic interactions between clinical drugs and commonly used illicit substances such as cannabis, cocaine and 3, 4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Rigorous efforts are warranted to further understand the underlying mechanisms responsible for these clinical pharmacokinetic interactions. It is also critical to extend the awareness of the life-threatening adverse interactions to both health care professionals and patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kodye L Abbott
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Auburn University Research Initiative in Cancer, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Patrick C Flannery
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Rocky Vista University, Parker, CO, USA
| | - Kristina S Gill
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Auburn University Research Initiative in Cancer, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Dawn M Boothe
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Auburn University Research Initiative in Cancer, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Muralikrishnan Dhanasekaran
- Auburn University Research Initiative in Cancer, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, AL, USA
| | - Sridhar Mani
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Satyanarayana R Pondugula
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.,Auburn University Research Initiative in Cancer, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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Lo Faro AF, Di Trana A, La Maida N, Tagliabracci A, Giorgetti R, Busardò FP. Biomedical analysis of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) of natural origin. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 179:112945. [PMID: 31704129 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2019.112945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) can be divided into two main groups: synthetic molecules and active principles of natural origin. With respect to this latter group, a wide range of alkaloids contained in plants, mainly from Asia and South America, can be included in the class of NPS of natural origin. The majority NPS of natural origin presents stimulant and/or hallucinogenic effects (e.g. Catha edulis and Ayahuasca, respectively) while few of them show sedative and relaxing properties (e.g. kratom). Few information is available in relation to the analytical identification of psychoactive principles contained in the plant material. Moreover, to our knowledge, scarce data are present in literature, about the characterization and quantification of the parent drug in biological matrices from intoxication and fatality cases. In addition, the metabolism of natural active principles has not been yet fully investigated for most of the psychoactive substances from plant material. Consequently, their identification is not frequently performed and produced metabolites are often unknown. To fill this gap, we reviewed the currently available analytical methodologies for the identification and quantification of NPS of natural origin in plant material and, whenever possible, in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices of intoxicated and dead subjects. The psychoactive principles contained in the following plants were investigated: Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Ipomoea violacea, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Pausinystalia yohimbe, Piper methisticum, Psilocybe, Rivea corymbosa, Salvia divinorum, Sceletium tortuosum, Lactuca virosa. From the results obtained, it can be evidenced that although several analytical methods for the simultaneous quantification of different molecules from the same plants have been developed and validated, a comprehensive method to detect active compounds from different natural specimens both in biological and non-biological matrices is still lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Fabrizio Lo Faro
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Annagiulia Di Trana
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Nunzia La Maida
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Adriano Tagliabracci
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Via Tronto 71, Ancona, Italy.
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Toxicological Aspects and Determination of the Main Components of Ayahuasca: A Critical Review. MEDICINES 2019; 6:medicines6040106. [PMID: 31635364 PMCID: PMC6963515 DOI: 10.3390/medicines6040106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive beverage prepared traditionally from a mixture of the leaves and stems of Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi, respectively, being originally consumed by indigenous Amazonian tribes for ritual and medicinal purposes. Over the years, its use has spread to other populations as a means to personal growth and spiritual connection. Also, the recreational use of its isolated compounds has become prominent. The main compounds of this tea-like preparation are N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), β-Carbolines, and harmala alkaloids, such as harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline. The latter are monoamine-oxidase inhibitors and are responsible for DMT psychoactive and hallucinogenic effects on the central nervous system. Although consumers defend its use, its metabolic effects and those on the central nervous system are not fully understood yet. The majority of studies regarding the effects of this beverage and of its individual compounds are based on in vivo experiments, clinical trials, and even surveys. This paper will not only address the toxicological aspects of the ayahuasca compounds but also perform a comprehensive and critical review on the analytical methods available for their determination in biological and non-biological specimens, with special focus on instrumental developments and sample preparation approaches.
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Estrella-Parra EA, Almanza-Pérez JC, Alarcón-Aguilar FJ. Ayahuasca: Uses, Phytochemical and Biological Activities. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND BIOPROSPECTING 2019; 9:251-265. [PMID: 31134518 PMCID: PMC6646606 DOI: 10.1007/s13659-019-0210-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca (caapi, yajé), is a psychoactive brew from the Amazon Basin region of South America traditionally considered a "master plant." It is prepared as a decoction from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which it is thought that it stimulates creative thinking and visual creativity. Native healers of the Orinoco and Amazon basins have used traditionally ayahuasca as a healing tool for multiple purposes, particularly to treat psychological disorders in the patients, with some beneficial effects experimentally and clinically validated. Recently, several syncretic religions, as the "União de Vegetal" (UDV) group in Brazil, have been spread around the world. The use of ayahuasca has been popularized by internet and smart-shops, bringing the psychoactive substance to new highs, emerging new "ayahuasqueros." Ayahuasca has alkaloids as β-carbolines and dimethyltryptamines, which inhibit the monoamine oxidase and active the 5-HT2A (5-hydroxytryptamine) receptor, respectively, resulting in hallucinations in the users. Ayahuasca induces a psychedelic change in the anteroposterior coupling of the electrophysiological brain oscillations in humans. Traditional ayahuasca beverage is generating pharmacological, commercial and spiritual interest among the scientific community, government people, and different populations worldwide. The goal of this article is to report about the uses, chemistry and biological activities of ayahuasca.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Antonio Estrella-Parra
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Fitoquímica, Laboratorio de Farmacognosia, Laboratorio de Fisiología Vegetal, Unidad UBIPRO, FES-Iztacala, UNAM, Tlalnepantla de Baz, 54090, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
| | - Julio Cesar Almanza-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico
| | - Francisco Javier Alarcón-Aguilar
- Laboratorio de Farmacología. Dpto. Ciencias de la Salud. Div. C.B.S. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. Av. San Rafael Atlixco No. 186, Col. Vicentina, 09340, Mexico CDMX, Mexico.
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Hamill J, Hallak J, Dursun SM, Baker G. Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:108-128. [PMID: 29366418 PMCID: PMC6343205 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x16666180125095902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties, is made from bark of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (containing beta-carboline alkaloids) and leaves of the Psychotria viridis bush (supplying the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT). Originally used by indigenous shamans for the purposes of spirit communi-cation, magical experiences, healing, and religious rituals across several South American countries, ayahuasca has been in-corporated into folk medicine and spiritual healing, and several Brazilian churches use it routinely to foster a spiritual experi-ence. More recently, it is being used in Europe and North America, not only for religious or healing reasons, but also for rec-reation. Objective: To review ayahuasca’s behavioral effects, possible adverse effects, proposed mechanisms of action and potential clinical uses in mental illness. Method: We searched Medline, in English, using the terms ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Psy-chotria viridis and reviewed the relevant publications. Results: The following aspects of ayahuasca are summarized: Political and legal factors; acute and chronic psychological ef-fects; electrophysiological studies and imaging; physiological effects; safety and adverse effects; pharmacology; potential psychiatric uses. Conclusion: Many years of shamanic wisdom have indicated potential therapeutic uses for ayahuasca, and several present day studies suggest that it may be useful for treating various psychiatric disorders and addictions. The side effect profile ap-pears to be relatively mild, but more detailed studies need to be done. Several prominent researchers believe that government regulations with regard to ayahuasca should be relaxed so that it could be provided more readily to recognized, credible re-searchers to conduct comprehensive clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Hamill
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jaime Hallak
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Neurosciences and Behavior and National Institute of Science and Technology (Translational Medicine), Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil
| | - Serdar M Dursun
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Glen Baker
- Department of Psychiatry (Neurochemical Research Unit) and Neuroscience & Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Rodrigues AVSL, Almeida FJ, Vieira-Coelho MA. Dimethyltryptamine: Endogenous Role and Therapeutic Potential. J Psychoactive Drugs 2019; 51:299-310. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2019.1602291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra VSL Rodrigues
- Department of Biomedicine-Pharmacology and Therapeutics unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Francisco Jcg Almeida
- Department of Biomedicine-Pharmacology and Therapeutics unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria A Vieira-Coelho
- Department of Biomedicine-Pharmacology and Therapeutics unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Psychiatry and Mental Health Clinic, Hospital de São João, Porto, Portugal
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34
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Liu CH, Chu WL, Liao SC, Yang CC, Lin CC. Syrian rue seeds interacted with acacia tree bark in an herbal stew resulted in N,N-dimethyltryptamine poisoning. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2019; 57:867-869. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2019.1576877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Huai Liu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Lan Chu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, Institute of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Chen Liao
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Chang Yang
- Department of Internal Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, Institute of Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chuan Lin
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung, Taiwan
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital and Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Taoyuan, Taiwan
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Grafinger KE, Wilke A, König S, Weinmann W. Investigating the ability of the microbial model Cunninghamella elegans for the metabolism of synthetic tryptamines. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:721-729. [PMID: 30462883 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Tryptamines can occur naturally in plants, mushrooms, microbes, and amphibians. Synthetic tryptamines are sold as new psychoactive substances (NPS) because of their hallucinogenic effects. When it comes to NPS, metabolism studies are of crucial importance, due to the lack of pharmacological and toxicological data. Different approaches can be taken to study in vitro and in vivo metabolism of xenobiotica. The zygomycete fungus Cunninghamella elegans (C. elegans) can be used as a microbial model for the study of drug metabolism. The current study investigated the biotransformation of four naturally occurring and synthetic tryptamines [N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 4-hydroxy-N-methyl-N-ethyltryptamine (4-HO-MET), N,N-di allyl-5-methoxy tryptamine (5-MeO-DALT) and 5-methoxy-N-methyl-N-isoporpoyltryptamine (5-MeO-MiPT)] in C. elegans after incubation for 72 hours. Metabolites were identified using liquid chromatography-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS/MS) with a quadrupole time-of-flight (QqTOF) instrument. Results were compared to already published data on these substances. C. elegans was capable of producing all major biotransformation steps: hydroxylation, N-oxide formation, carboxylation, deamination, and demethylation. On average 63% of phase I metabolites found in the literature could also be detected in C. elegans. Additionally, metabolites specific for C. elegans were identified. Therefore, C. elegans is a suitable complementary model to other in vitro or in vivo methods to study the metabolism of naturally occurring or synthetic tryptamines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Elisabeth Grafinger
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 20, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 1, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Wilke
- Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, University of Applied Sciences Offenburg, Badstrasse 24, 77652, Offenburg, Germany
| | - Stefan König
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 20, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Wolfgang Weinmann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Chemistry, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 20, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
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Pope JD, Choy KW, Drummer OH, Schneider HG. Harmala Alkaloids Identify Ayahausca Intoxication in a Urine Drug Screen. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 43:e23-e27. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey D Pope
- Clinical Biochemistry, Alfred Pathology Service, Alfred Health, Commercial Road, Melbourne VIC, Australia
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank VIC, Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Kay Weng Choy
- Clinical Biochemistry, Monash Pathology, Monash Health, 246 Clayton Road, Clayton VIC, Australia
| | - Olaf H Drummer
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, 65 Kavanagh Street, Southbank VIC, Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Hans G Schneider
- Clinical Biochemistry, Alfred Pathology Service, Alfred Health, Commercial Road, Melbourne VIC, Australia
- School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, 553 St Kilda Road, Melbourne VIC, Australia
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Cameron LP, Olson DE. Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT). ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2344-2357. [PMID: 30036036 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Though relatively obscure, N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an important molecule in psychopharmacology as it is the archetype for all indole-containing serotonergic psychedelics. Its structure can be found embedded within those of better-known molecules such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin. Unlike the latter two compounds, DMT is ubiquitous, being produced by a wide variety of plant and animal species. It is one of the principal psychoactive components of ayahuasca, a tisane made from various plant sources that has been used for centuries. Furthermore, DMT is one of the few psychedelic compounds produced endogenously by mammals, and its biological function in human physiology remains a mystery. In this review, we cover the synthesis of DMT as well as its pharmacology, metabolism, adverse effects, and potential use in medicine. Finally, we discuss the history of DMT in chemical neuroscience and why this underappreciated molecule is so important to the field of psychedelic science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay P. Cameron
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Davis, 1544 Newton Ct., Davis, California 95618, United States
| | - David E. Olson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, 2700 Stockton Blvd., Suite 2102, Sacramento, California 95817, United States
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, 1544 Newton Ct., Davis, California 95618, United States
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Barker SA. N, N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an Endogenous Hallucinogen: Past, Present, and Future Research to Determine Its Role and Function. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:536. [PMID: 30127713 PMCID: PMC6088236 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
This report provides a historical overview of research concerning the endogenous hallucinogen N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), focusing on data regarding its biosynthesis and metabolism in the brain and peripheral tissues, methods and results for DMT detection in body fluids and brain, new sites of action for DMT, and new data regarding its possible physiological and therapeutic roles. Research that further elaborates its consideration as a putative neurotransmitter is also addressed. Taking these studies together, the report proposes several new directions and experiments to ascertain the role of DMT in the brain, including brain mapping of enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of DMT, further studies to elaborate its presence and role in the pineal gland, a reconsideration of binding site data, and new administration and imaging studies. The need to resolve the "natural" role of an endogenous hallucinogen from the effects observed from peripheral administration are also emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven A. Barker
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
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Cameron LP, Benson CJ, Dunlap LE, Olson DE. Effects of N, N-Dimethyltryptamine on Rat Behaviors Relevant to Anxiety and Depression. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:1582-1590. [PMID: 29664276 PMCID: PMC7196340 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression and anxiety disorders are debilitating diseases resulting in substantial economic costs to society. Traditional antidepressants often take weeks to months to positively affect mood and are ineffective for about 30% of the population. Alternatives, such as ketamine, a dissociative anesthetic capable of producing hallucinations, and the psychoactive tisane ayahuasca, have shown great promise due to their fast-acting nature and effectiveness in treatment-resistant populations. Here, we investigate the effects of N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), the principle hallucinogenic component of ayahuasca, in rodent behavioral assays relevant to anxiety and depression using adult, male, Sprague-Dawley rats. We find that while DMT elicits initial anxiogenic responses in several of these paradigms, its long-lasting effects tend to reduce anxiety by facilitating the extinction of cued fear memory. Furthermore, DMT reduces immobility in the forced swim test, which is a characteristic behavioral response induced by many antidepressants. Our results demonstrate that DMT produces antidepressant and anxiolytic behavioral effects in rodents, warranting further investigation of ayahuasca and classical psychedelics as treatments for depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay P. Cameron
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95618, United States
| | - Charlie J. Benson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Lee E. Dunlap
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - David E. Olson
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Sacramento, Davis, California 95817, United States
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95618, United States
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40
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Pires JM, Mendes FR, Pires APS, Yonamine M, Amaral JLGD, Carlini EA. Pre-clinical interaction of ayahuasca, a brew used in spiritual movements, with morphine and propofol. BRAZ J PHARM SCI 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/s2175-97902018000117174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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41
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da Motta LG, de Morais JA, Tavares ACA, Vianna LMS, Mortari MR, Amorim RFB, Carvalho RR, Paumgartten FJR, Pic-Taylor A, Caldas ED. Maternal and developmental toxicity of the hallucinogenic plant-based beverage ayahuasca in rats. Reprod Toxicol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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42
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Wagner DJ, Duan H, Chapron A, Lee RW, Wang J. Potent inhibition of human organic cation transporter 2 (hOCT2) by β-carboline alkaloids. Xenobiotica 2017; 47:1112-1120. [PMID: 27977936 PMCID: PMC5648609 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2016.1271160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
1. Beta-carbolines are indole alkaloids with a wide range of pharmacological and toxicological activities. Beta-carbolines are structurally related to the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), a known substrate of organic cation transporters (OCTs). The goal of this study is to determine the interaction of β-carbolines with human OCT1, 2, and 3 (SLC22A1-3). 2. Dose-dependent inhibition studies were performed for five commercially available β-carbolines using a fluorescent substrate assay in HEK293 cells stably expressing hOCT1-3. The substrate potential was evaluated by uptake assays and the impact of active transport on cellular toxicity examined. 3. All tested β-carbolines potently inhibited hOCT2 with IC50 values in the sub- or low micromolar range. Harmaline is the most potent hOCT2 inhibitor (IC50 = 0.50 ± 0.08 μM). hOCT1 and hOCT3 are less sensitive to β-carboline inhibition. Harmaline, norharmanium, and 2,9-dimethyl-4,9-dihydro-3H-β-carbolinium accumulated 2- to 7-fold higher in cells expressing hOCT1-3. HEK293 cells expressing hOCT1-3 were 6.5- to 13-fold more sensitive to harmane and norharmanium toxicity. 4. Our data support a significant role of hOCT1-3 in tissue uptake and disposition of β-carbolines. Importantly, the potent inhibition of hOCT2 by β-carbolines also raises the concern of potential drug interactions between naturally occurring bioactive alkaloids and drugs eliminated by hOCT2.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J. Wagner
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Haichuan Duan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Alenka Chapron
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Richard W. Lee
- School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Joanne Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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43
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Morales-García JA, de la Fuente Revenga M, Alonso-Gil S, Rodríguez-Franco MI, Feilding A, Perez-Castillo A, Riba J. The alkaloids of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of the Amazonian hallucinogen Ayahuasca, stimulate adult neurogenesis in vitro. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5309. [PMID: 28706205 PMCID: PMC5509699 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05407-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Banisteriopsis caapi is the basic ingredient of ayahuasca, a psychotropic plant tea used in the Amazon for ritual and medicinal purposes, and by interested individuals worldwide. Animal studies and recent clinical research suggests that B. caapi preparations show antidepressant activity, a therapeutic effect that has been linked to hippocampal neurogenesis. Here we report that harmine, tetrahydroharmine and harmaline, the three main alkaloids present in B. caapi, and the harmine metabolite harmol, stimulate adult neurogenesis in vitro. In neurospheres prepared from progenitor cells obtained from the subventricular and the subgranular zones of adult mice brains, all compounds stimulated neural stem cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation into adult neurons. These findings suggest that modulation of brain plasticity could be a major contribution to the antidepressant effects of ayahuasca. They also expand the potential application of B. caapi alkaloids to other brain disorders that may benefit from stimulation of endogenous neural precursor niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Morales-García
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain.,Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), 28031, Madrid, Spain.,Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Medicina, UCM, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mario de la Fuente Revenga
- Human Neuropsychopharmacology Research Group. Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research (IIB-Sant Pau). Sant Antoni María Claret, 167. 08025, Barcelona, Spain.,Instituto de Química Médica (IQM-CSIC), Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006, Madrid, Spain.,MFR currently at: Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA
| | - Sandra Alonso-Gil
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain.,Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), 28031, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Amanda Feilding
- The Beckley Foundation, Beckley Park, Oxford, OX3 9SY, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Perez-Castillo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CSIC-UAM), Arturo Duperier 4, 28029, Madrid, Spain. .,Center for Networked Biomedical Research on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), 28031, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Jordi Riba
- Human Neuropsychopharmacology Research Group. Sant Pau Institute of Biomedical Research (IIB-Sant Pau). Sant Antoni María Claret, 167. 08025, Barcelona, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Planta, 028029, Madrid, Spain.
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Brown T, Shao W, Ayub S, Chong D, Cornelius C. A Physician's Attempt to Self-Medicate Bipolar Depression with N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT). J Psychoactive Drugs 2017; 49:294-296. [PMID: 28686543 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1344898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is a psychoactive substance that has been gaining popularity in therapeutic and recreational use. This is a case of a physician who chronically took DMT augmented with phenelzine in an attempt to self-medicate refractory bipolar depression. His presentation of altered mental status, mania, and psychosis is examined in regards to his DMT use. This case discusses DMT, the possible uses of DMT, and the theorized mechanism of DMT in psychosis and treatment of depression, particularly involving its agonist activity at 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C. It is also important to recognize the dangers of self-medication, particularly amongst physicians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanida Brown
- a Psychiatry Resident Physician, Banner-University Medical Center , Phoenix , AZ , USA
| | - Wanda Shao
- a Psychiatry Resident Physician, Banner-University Medical Center , Phoenix , AZ , USA.,b Clinical Associate Instructor, University of Arizona College of Medicine , Phoenix , AZ , USA
| | - Shehzad Ayub
- c Attending Faculty Psychiatrist, Banner-University Medical Center , Phoenix , AZ , USA.,d Clinical Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, University of Arizona College of Medicine , Phoenix , AZ , USA
| | - David Chong
- a Psychiatry Resident Physician, Banner-University Medical Center , Phoenix , AZ , USA.,b Clinical Associate Instructor, University of Arizona College of Medicine , Phoenix , AZ , USA
| | - Christian Cornelius
- c Attending Faculty Psychiatrist, Banner-University Medical Center , Phoenix , AZ , USA.,d Clinical Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, University of Arizona College of Medicine , Phoenix , AZ , USA
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Wang J, Qi P, Hou J, Shen Y, Yang M, Bi Q, Deng Y, Shi X, Feng R, Feng Z, Wu W, Guo D. The profiling of the metabolites of hirsutine in rat by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap Orbitrap mass spectrometry: An improved strategy for the systematic screening and identification of metabolites in multi-samples in vivo. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 134:149-157. [PMID: 27915192 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Drug metabolites identification and construction of metabolic profile are meaningful work for the drug discovery and development. The great challenge during this process is the work of the structural clarification of possible metabolites in the complicated biological matrix, which often resulting in a huge amount data sets, especially in multi-samples in vivo. Analyzing these complex data manually is time-consuming and laborious. The object of this study was to develop a practical strategy for screening and identifying of metabolites from multiple biological samples efficiently. Using hirsutine (HTI), an active components of Uncaria rhynchophylla (Gouteng in Chinese) as a model and its plasma, urine, bile, feces and various tissues were analyzed with data processing software (Metwork), data mining tool (Progenesis QI), and HR-MSn data by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/linear ion trap-Orbitrap mass spectrometry (U-HPLC/LTQ-Orbitrap-MS). A total of 67 metabolites of HTI in rat biological samples were tentatively identified with established library, and to our knowledge most of which were reported for the first time. The possible metabolic pathways were subsequently proposed, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, oxidation, N-oxidation, hydrolysis, reduction and glucuronide conjugation were mainly involved according to metabolic profile. The result proved application of this improved strategy was efficient, rapid, and reliable for metabolic profiling of components in multiple biological samples and could significantly expand our understanding of metabolic situation of TCM in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwei Wang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Nantong Vocational University, Nantong 226007, China
| | - Peng Qi
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Jinjun Hou
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yao Shen
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Min Yang
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Qirui Bi
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yanping Deng
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Xiaojian Shi
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Ruihong Feng
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Zijin Feng
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Wanying Wu
- Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Dean Guo
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; Shanghai Research Center for Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine, National Engineering Laboratory for TCM Standardization Technology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haike Road 501, Shanghai 201203, China.
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Carbonaro TM, Gatch MB. Neuropharmacology of N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:74-88. [PMID: 27126737 PMCID: PMC5048497 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is an indole alkaloid widely found in plants and animals. It is best known for producing brief and intense psychedelic effects when ingested. Increasing evidence suggests that endogenous DMT plays important roles for a number of processes in the periphery and central nervous system, and may act as a neurotransmitter. This paper reviews the current literature of both the recreational use of DMT and its potential roles as an endogenous neurotransmitter. Pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action in the periphery and central nervous system, clinical uses and adverse effects are also reviewed. DMT appears to have limited neurotoxicity and other adverse effects except for intense cardiovascular effects when administered intravenously in large doses. Because of its role in nervous system signaling, DMT may be a useful experimental tool in exploring how the brain works, and may also be a useful clinical tool for treatment of anxiety and psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa M Carbonaro
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Michael B Gatch
- Center for Neuroscience Discovery University of North Texas Health Science Center Fort Worth, TX, United States.
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Wagmann L, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. What is the contribution of human FMO3 in the N-oxygenation of selected therapeutic drugs and drugs of abuse? Toxicol Lett 2016; 258:55-70. [PMID: 27320963 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Revised: 06/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the role of flavin-containing monooxygenases (FMOs) in the metabolism of xenobiotics. FMO3 is the isoform in adult human liver with the highest impact on drug metabolism. The aim of the presented study was to elucidate the contribution of human FMO3 to the N-oxygenation of selected therapeutic drugs and drugs of abuse (DOAs). Its contribution to the in vivo hepatic net clearance of the N-oxygenation products was calculated by application of an extended relative activity factor (RAF) approach to differentiate from contribution of cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoforms. FMO3 and CYP substrates were identified using pooled human liver microsomes after heat inactivation and chemical inhibition, or single enzyme incubations. Kinetic parameters were subsequently determined using recombinant human enzymes and mass spectrometric analysis via authentic reference standards or simple peak areas of the products divided by those of the internal standard. FMO3 was identified as enzyme mainly responsible for the formation of N,N-diallyltryptamine N-oxide and methamphetamine hydroxylamine (>80% contribution for both). A contribution of 50 and 30% was calculated for the formation of N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide and methoxypiperamide N-oxide, respectively. However, FMO3 contributed with less than 5% to the formation of 3-bromomethcathinone hydroxylamine, amitriptyline N-oxide, and clozapine N-oxide. There was no significant difference in the contributions when using calibrations with reference metabolite standards or peak area ratio calculations. The successful application of a modified RAF approach including FMO3 proved the importance of FMO3 in the N-oxygenation of DOAs in human metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany; Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg, Germany.
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Lesiak AD, Musah RA. Application of ambient ionization high resolution mass spectrometry to determination of the botanical provenance of the constituents of psychoactive drug mixtures. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 266:271-280. [PMID: 27348465 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A continuing challenge in analytical chemistry is species-level determination of the constituents of mixtures that are made of a combination of plant species. There is an added urgency to identify components in botanical mixtures that have mind altering properties, due to the increasing global abuse of combinations of such plants. Here we demonstrate the proof of principle that ambient ionization mass spectrometry, namely direct analysis in real time-high resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS), and statistical analysis tools can be used to rapidly determine the individual components within a psychoactive brew (Ayahuasca) made from a mixture of botanicals. Five plant species used in Ayahuasca preparations were subjected to DART-HRMS analysis. The chemical fingerprint of each was reproducible but unique, thus enabling discrimination between them. The presence of important biomarkers, including N,N-dimethyltryptamine, harmaline and harmine, was confirmed using in-source collision-induced dissociation (CID). Six Ayahuasca brews made from combinations of various plant species were shown to possess a high level of similarity, despite having been made from different constituents. Nevertheless, the application of principal component analysis (PCA) was useful in distinguishing between each of the brews based on the botanical species used in the preparations. From a training set based on 900 individual analyses, three principal components covered 86.38% of the variance, and the leave-one-out cross validation was 98.88%. This is the first report of ambient ionization MS being successfully used for determination of the individual components of plant mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashton D Lesiak
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany-State University of New York, 1400 Washington Ave, Albany, NY 12222, United States
| | - Rabi A Musah
- Department of Chemistry, University at Albany-State University of New York, 1400 Washington Ave, Albany, NY 12222, United States.
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Schenberg EE, Alexandre JFM, Filev R, Cravo AM, Sato JR, Muthukumaraswamy SD, Yonamine M, Waguespack M, Lomnicka I, Barker SA, da Silveira DX. Acute Biphasic Effects of Ayahuasca. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137202. [PMID: 26421727 PMCID: PMC4589238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ritual use of ayahuasca, an amazonian Amerindian medicine turned sacrament in syncretic religions in Brazil, is rapidly growing around the world. Because of this internationalization, a comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological mechanisms of action of the brew and the neural correlates of the modified states of consciousness it induces is important. Employing a combination of electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings and quantification of ayahuasca's compounds and their metabolites in the systemic circulation we found ayahuasca to induce a biphasic effect in the brain. This effect was composed of reduced power in the alpha band (8-13 Hz) after 50 minutes from ingestion of the brew and increased slow- and fast-gamma power (30-50 and 50-100 Hz, respectively) between 75 and 125 minutes. Alpha power reductions were mostly located at left parieto-occipital cortex, slow-gamma power increase was observed at left centro-parieto-occipital, left fronto-temporal and right frontal cortices while fast-gamma increases were significant at left centro-parieto-occipital, left fronto-temporal, right frontal and right parieto-occipital cortices. These effects were significantly associated with circulating levels of ayahuasca's chemical compounds, mostly N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine and some of their metabolites. An interpretation based on a cognitive and emotional framework relevant to the ritual use of ayahuasca, as well as it's potential therapeutic effects is offered.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Renato Filev
- Departamento de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andre Mascioli Cravo
- Centro de Matemática, Computação e Cognição, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | - João Ricardo Sato
- Centro de Matemática, Computação e Cognição, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | | | - Maurício Yonamine
- Departamento de Análises Clinicas e Toxicológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marian Waguespack
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Izabela Lomnicka
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Steven A. Barker
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
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Pic-Taylor A, da Motta LG, de Morais JA, Junior WM, Santos ADFA, Campos LA, Mortari MR, von Zuben MV, Caldas ED. Behavioural and neurotoxic effects of ayahuasca infusion (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis) in female Wistar rat. Behav Processes 2015; 118:102-10. [PMID: 26049017 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Revised: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 05/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Ayahuasca, a psychoactive beverage used by indigenous and religious groups, is generally prepared by the coction of Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi plants containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and β-carboline alkaloids, respectively. To investigate the acute toxicity of ayahuasca, the infusion was administered by gavage to female Wistar rats at doses of 30X and 50X the dose taken during a religious ritual, and the animals observed for 14 days. Behavioural functions were investigated one hour after dosing at 15X and 30X using the open field, elevated plus maze, and forced swimming tests. Neuronal activation (c-fos marked neurons) and toxicity (Fluoro-Jade B and Nissl/Cresyl staining) were investigated in the dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN), amygdaloid nucleus, and hippocampal formation brain areas of rats treated with a 30X ayahuasca dose. The actual lethal oral dose in female Wistar rats could not be determined in this study, but was shown to be higher than the 50X (which corresponds to 15.1mg/kg bw DMT). The ayahuasca and fluoxetine treated groups showed a significant decrease in locomotion in the open field and elevated plus-maze tests compared to controls. In the forced swimming test, ayahuasca treated animals swam more than controls, a behaviour that was not significant in the fluoxetine group. Treated animals showed higher neuronal activation in all brain areas involved in serotoninergic neurotransmission. Although this led to some brain injury, no permanent damage was detected. These results suggest that ayahuasca has antidepressant properties in Wistar female at high doses, an effect that should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Pic-Taylor
- Department of Genetic and Morphology, Institute of Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | - Luciana Gueiros da Motta
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | - Juliana Alves de Morais
- Department of Genetic and Morphology, Institute of Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | - Willian Melo Junior
- Department of Genetic and Morphology, Institute of Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | | | - Leandro Ambrósio Campos
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | - Marcia Renata Mortari
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biology, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil
| | | | - Eloisa Dutra Caldas
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, DF, Brazil.
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