Pyrolysis of drugs of abuse: a comprehensive review

The biological effects and thermal degradation of NPB-22, a synthetic cannabinoid

PURPOSE

NPB-22 (quinolin-8-yl 1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxylate), Adamantyl-THPINACA (N-(1-adamantantyl)-1-[(tetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)methyl]-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide), and CUMYL-4CN-B7AICA (1-(4-cyanobutyl)-N-(2-phenylpropan-2-yl)-1H- pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridine-3-carboxamide), synthetic cannabinoids were evaluated in terms of CB1 (cannabinoid receptor type 1) and CB2 (cannabinoid receptor type 2) activities, and their biological effects when inhaled similar to cigarettes were examined.

METHODS

The half maximal effective concentration values of the aforementioned synthetic cannabinoids at the CB1 and CB2 were investigated using [35S]guanosine-5'-O-(3-thio)-triphosphate binding assays. In addition, their biological effects were evaluated using the inhalation exposure test with mice. The smoke generated was recovered by organic solvents in the midget impingers, and the thermal degradation compounds of the smoke components were identified and quantified using a liquid chromatography-photo diode array detector.

RESULTS

NPB-22 and Adamantyl-THPINACA had equivalent CB1 activity in in vitro assays. Meanwhile, NPB-22 had a weaker biological effect on some items on the inhalation exposure test than Adamantyl-THPINACA. When analyzing organic solvents in the midget impingers, it was revealed that NPB-22 was degraded to 8-quinolinol and pentyl indazole 3-carboxylic acid by combustion. In addition, these degradation compounds did not have CB1 activity.

CONCLUSION

It was estimated that the biological effects of NPB-22 on the inhalation exposure test weakened because it underwent thermal degradation by combustion, and the resultant degradation compounds did not have any CB1 activity in vitro.

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol discrimination: Effects of route of administration in mice

Background

Route of administration is an important pharmacokinetic variable in development of translationally relevant preclinical models. Humans primarily administer cannabis through smoking, vaping, and edibles. In contrast, preclinical research has historically utilized injected Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The present study sought to examine how route of administration affected the potency and time course of THC's discriminative stimulus properties.

Methods

Adult female and male C57BL/6 mice were trained to discriminate intraperitoneal (i.p.) THC from vehicle in a drug discrimination procedure. After discrimination was acquired, a dose-effect curve was determined for i.p., oral (p.o.), subcutaneous (s.c.), and aerosolized THC. Subsequently, the time course of effects of each route of administration was determined.

Results

THC administered i.p., p.o., s.c., or via aerosolization fully substituted for i.p. THC. The potency of THC's psychoactive effects was similar for i.p., p.o., and s.c., except that THC was more potent when administered s.c. vs p.o. in females. All routes of administration had a similar potency in both sexes. The duration of THC's psychoactive effects was similar across i.p., s.c., and p.o. routes of administration, whereas aerosolized THC produced a faster onset and shorter duration of effects compared to the other routes.

Conclusion

THC administered via multiple routes of administration, including those commonly used in preclinical research (i.p. and s.c.) and more translationally relevant routes (aerosol and p.o.), produced THC-like discriminative stimulus effects in mice trained to discriminate i.p. THC. More precise predictions of THC's effects in humans may result from use of these translationally relevant routes of administration.

E-cigarettes may serve as a gateway to conventional cigarettes and other addictive drugs

Electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) are devices that allow the user to inhale nicotine in a vapor, and are primarily marketed as a means of quitting smoking and a less harmful replacement for traditional cigarette smoking. However, further research is needed to determine if vaping nicotine via e-cigarettes can be effective. Conversely, nicotine has been considered a gateway drug to alcohol and other addictive drugs and e-cigarettes containing nicotine may have the same effects. Previous reports have shown that e-cigarette use may open the gate for the use of other drugs including conventional cigarettes, cannabis, opioids, etc. The increasing prevalence of e-cigarettes, particularly among youth and adolescents in the last decade have led to an increase in the dual use of e-cigarettes with alcohol, cannabis, and other illicit drug use like heroin and 3-4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). The advent of e-cigarettes as a device to self-administer addictive agents such as cocaine and synthetic cathinones may bring about additional adverse health effects associated with their concurrent use. This review aims to briefly describe e-cigarettes and their different generations, and their co-use with other addictive drugs as well as the use of the device as a tool to self-administer addictive drugs, such as cocaine, etc.

Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol discrimination: Effects of route of administration in rats

Cannabis users typically smoke or vape cannabis or ingest it in edibles, whereas cannabinoids are typically administered via injection in rodent research. The present study examined the effects of route of administration (ROA) of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis. Adult female and male Long Evans rats were trained to discriminate intraperitoneal (i.p.) THC from vehicle in a drug discrimination procedure. Following acquisition, dose-effect curves were determined with THC using i.p., oral (p.o.), and subcutaneous (s.c.) injection in both sexes and aerosol exposure in males only, followed by a time course with one dose for each ROA. Both sexes acquired THC discrimination in a similar number of sessions, although baseline response rates were significantly lower in females than males. THC fully substituted for the 3 mg/kg i.p. training dose across all ROA. While potencies were similar for ROA involving first-pass metabolism (i.p. and p.o.), THC potency was lower with s.c. administration. During the time course analysis, aerosol administration had the shortest latency to onset of discriminative stimulus effects and the shortest duration of effect, whereas s.c. administration had the longest duration. The results of this examination of the effects of ROA on an abuse-related effect of THC provide an empirical foundation to facilitate choice of ROA for mechanistic investigation of THC's pharmacology. Further, animal models using translationally relevant ROA may facilitate more accurate predictions of their effects in humans.

Air monitoring for illegal drugs including new psychoactive substances: A review of trends, techniques and thermal degradation products

The detection of illicit psychotropic substances in both indoor and outdoor air is a challenging analytical discipline, and the data from such investigation may provide intelligence in a variety of fields. Applications of drug monitoring in air include providing data on national and international drug consumption trends, as monitored by organisations such as the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Air monitoring enables mapping of illicit drug manufacturing, dealing or consumption in cities and the identification of emergent compounds including the recent proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPS). The rapid spread of NPS has changed the global drug market with greater diversity and dynamic spread of such compounds over several nations. This review provides an up to date analysis of key thematic areas within this analytical discipline. The process of how illicit psychotropic substances spread from emission sources to the atmosphere is considered alongside the sampling and analytical procedures involved. Applications of the technique applied globally are reviewed with studies ranging from the analysis of individual dwellings through to major international air-monitoring campaigns providing evidence on global drug trends. Finally, we consider thermal breakdown products of illicit psychotropic substances including NPS that are released upon heating, combustion or vaping and related potential for exposure to these compounds in the air.

Aerodynamic Thermal Breakup Droplet Ionization in Mass Spectrometric Drug Analysis

Aerodynamic thermal breakup droplet ionization (ATBDI) in mass spectrometric drug analysis is considered. Cocaine, heroin, and the main alkaloids of opium (morphine, codeine, papaverine) were chosen as the test compounds. The principles of ATBDI ionization are discussed. The dependences of the intensities of the peaks of the target compounds on temperature during ATBDI ionization are also considered. In some cases, a comparison of ATBDI ionization with electrospray ionization (ESI) was performed. In addition, a comparison of methods is demonstrated by the analysis of confiscated opium that was provided by the local police department. Five major alkaloids are found in opium: morphine, codeine, thebaine, papaverine, and narcotine.

Opiate and Tobacco Use and Exposure to Carcinogens and Toxicants in the Golestan Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

There is little information on human exposure to carcinogens and other toxicants related to opiate use, alone or in combination with tobacco.

METHODS

Among male participants of the Golestan Cohort Study in Northeast Iran, we studied 28 never users of either opiates or tobacco, 33 exclusive cigarette smokers, 23 exclusive users of smoked opiates, and 30 opiate users who also smoked cigarettes (dual users; 21 smoked opiates and 9 ingested them). We quantified urinary concentrations of 39 exposure biomarkers, including tobacco alkaloids, tobacco-specific nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and volatile organic compounds (VOC), and used decomposition to parse out the share of the biomarker concentrations explained by opiate use and nicotine dose.

RESULTS

Dual users had the highest concentrations of all biomarkers, but exclusive cigarette smokers and exclusive opiate users had substantially higher concentrations of PAH and VOC biomarkers than never users of either product. Decomposition analysis showed that opiate use contributed a larger part of the PAH concentrations than nicotine dose, and the sum of 2- and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene (∑2,3-phe) resulted almost completely from opiate use. Concentrations of most VOC biomarkers were explained by both nicotine dose and opiate use. Two acrylamide metabolites, a 1,3-butadiene metabolite and a dimethylformamide metabolite, were more strongly explained by opiate use. Acrylamide metabolites and ∑2,3-phe were significantly higher in opiate smokers than opiate eaters; other biomarkers did not vary by the route of opiate intake.

CONCLUSIONS

Both cigarette smokers and opiate users (by smoking or ingestion) were exposed to many toxicants and carcinogens.

IMPACT

This high exposure, particularly among dual opiate and cigarette users, can have a substantial global public health impact.

Forty-Three Fatalities Involving the Synthetic Cannabinoid, 5-Fluoro-ADB: Forensic Pathology and Toxicology Implications

Forty-three fatalities involving the potent synthetic cannabinoid, 5-Fluoro-ADB, are summarized. For each case, a description of the terminal event, autopsy findings, cause of death, qualitative identification of 5-Fluoro-ADB and its ester hydrolysis metabolite, 5-Fluoro-ADB metabolite 7, in urine, and the quantitative values obtained in the blood specimens are outlined. Central blood concentrations ranged from 0.010 to 2.2 ng/mL for 5-Fluoro-ADB and 2.0 to 166 ng/mL for 5-Fluoro-ADB metabolite 7. Peripheral blood concentrations ranged from 0.010 to 0.77 ng/mL and 2.0 to 110 ng/mL for 5-Fluoro-ADB and 5-Fluoro-ADB metabolite 7, respectively. The majority of cases resulted in central to peripheral blood concentration ratios greater than 1 for 5-Fluoro-ADB (58%) and 5-Fluoro-ADB metabolite 7 (71%) suggesting that postmortem redistribution occurs to some extent. Combining the increased cardiac weight and/or gastric volume and toxicology data identifying 5-Fluoro-ADB, it is hypothesized that abuse of this substance may precipitate a dysrhythmia and cause sudden death.

Profiling cocaine residues and pyrolytic products in wastewater by mixed-mode liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

This work provides a new analytical method for the determination of cocaine, its metabolites benzoylecgonine and cocaethylene, the pyrolytic products anhydroecgonine and anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and the pharmaceutical levamisole in wastewater. Samples were solid-phase extracted and extracts analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using, for the first time in the illicit drug field, a stationary phase that combines reversed-phase and weak cation-exchange functionalities. The overall method performance was satisfactory, with limits of detection below 1 ng/L, relative standard deviations below 21%, and percentages of recovery between 93% and 121%. Analysis of 24-hour composite raw wastewater samples collected in Santiago de Compostela (Spain) and Brasilia (Brazil) highlighted benzoylecgonine as the compound showing the highest population-normalized mass loads (300-1000 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). In Brasilia, cocaine and levamisole loads underwent an upsurge on Sunday, indicating a high consumption, and likely a direct disposal, of cocaine powder on this day. Conversely, the pyrolytic product resulting from the smoke of crack, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, and its metabolite anhydroecgonine were relatively stable over the four days, agreeing with a non-recreational-associated use of crack.

Do you feel it now? Route of administration and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol-like discriminative stimulus effects of synthetic cannabinoids in mice

A recent push to provide more translationally relevant preclinical models for examination of pharmacological mechanisms underlying inhaled substances of abuse has resulted in the development of equipment and methods that allows exposure of freely moving rodents to aerosolized psychoactive drugs. In the present study, synthetic cannabinoids (CP55,940, AB-CHMINACA, and AMB-FUBINACA) were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) or aerosolized via a modified electronic cigarette device. Subsequently, the compounds were evaluated in adult male and female C57/Bl6 mice trained to discriminate i.p. 5.6 mg/kg Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) for food reinforcement. When administered i.p., THC and AB-CHMINACA were equally potent at producing THC-like effects in both sexes, but CP55,940 and AMB-FUBINACA were more potent in males. Upon aerosol exposure, all compounds continued to produce THC-like effects in both sexes, with AMB-FUBINACA remaining the most potent. In contrast, aerosolized CP55,940 showed substantial decreases in potency in both sexes. Aerosolized nicotine did not substitute for THC in either sex. In females, aerosolized cumyl-4CN-BINACA produced concentration-dependent increases in responding on the THC-associated nosepoke. In addition, the effects of an active concentration of AMB-FUBINACA were reversed by rimonabant, suggesting CB₁ receptor mediation. These results show that synthetic cannabinoids produce THC-like effects when injected i.p. or after aerosolization. This study adds to a growing literature suggesting that evaluation of abuse liability of substances via aerosol exposure is feasible and may provide a translationally relevant method that allows for investigation of factors important to the abuse of drugs which humans typically smoke or vape.

E-cigarettes-An unintended illicit drug delivery system

Since the introduction of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) in 2003, the technology has advanced allowing for greater user modifications, with users now able to control voltage, battery power, and constituents of the e-cigarette liquid. E-cigarettes have been the subject of a growing body of research with most research justifiably focused on the chemical makeup and risk analysis of chemicals, metals, and particulates found in e-cigarette liquids and vapor. Little research to date has focused on assessing the risks associated with the drug delivery unit itself and its potential for use as an illicit drug delivery system. In light of this, a range of illicit drugs was researched focusing on pharmacodynamics, usual method of administration, the dosage required for toxicity, toxic effects, and evidence of existing use in e-cigarettes in both literature and online illicit drug forums. A systematic literature search found evidence of current use of e-cigarettes to vape almost all illicit drug types analyzed. This presents both a potential population health risk and a management issue for clinicians. It also raises the issue of policing illicit drugs due to potential altered characteristic smells and storage within e-cigarette fluids. E-cigarettes are a viable illicit drug delivery system with evidence both inside and outside of the formal medical literature detailing their potential use for drug delivery of a wide range of illicit and legal drugs.

Characteristics of opioid-maintained clients smoking fentanyl patches: The importance of confirmatory drug analysis illustrated by a case series and mini-review

The increase in opioid prescribing in many European countries over the last decade has raised concerns about associated diversion, overdose, and mortality. Fentanyl is one of these synthetic opioids that is typically prescribed as a transdermal patch for pain that requires continuous pain relief and has been the focus of investigation due to reports of overdose and death. We report a case series of 14 drug addiction treatment entrants, who entered treatment in a service located in the region of Southern Denmark from August 2015 to December 2015 for smoking fentanyl patches. Clients presented with difficulties breathing and pains in the lungs. The clients had a history of past opioid use, including heroin. Relapses resulted in treatment disengagement. Immunoassays for fentanyl were used in the service. In some cases, false negative results occurred. Clients' urine samples were subsequently analysed in a collaborating laboratory. Seven clients tested positive for fentanyl. One client was positive for both fentanyl and heroin. Analyses were also positive for other opioids and metabolites in 6 clients, predominantly codeine and oxycodone. Results from confirmatory analysis contributed to clearer insights into clients' drug histories, which facilitated personalised care plans consisting of opioid agonist therapy informed by confirmed drug use. In Denmark, prescription levels of fentanyl are high, which has been accompanied by observations of diversion and smoking in a smaller population. In addition to revision of inappropriate prescribing to reduce diversion, we recommend increased reliance upon confirmatory drug analysis in the addiction treatment sector in Denmark.

The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonist New Psychoactive Substances: Evolution

Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are the largest and most structurally diverse class of new psychoactive substances (NPS). Although the earliest SCRA NPS were simply repurposed from historical academic manuscripts or pharmaceutical patents describing cannabinoid ligands, recent examples bear hallmarks of rational design. SCRA NPS manufacturers have applied traditional medicinal chemistry strategies (such as molecular hybridization, bioisosteric replacement, and scaffold hopping) to existing cannabinoid templates in order to generate new molecules that circumvent structure-based legislation. Most SCRAs potently activate cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 receptors (CB₁ and CB₂, respectively), with the former contributing to the psychoactivity of these substances. SCRAs are generally more toxic than the Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) found in cannabis, and this may be due to ligand bias, metabolism, or off-target activity. This chapter will chart the evolution of recently identified SCRA NPS chemotypes, as well as their putative manufacturing by-products and thermolytic degradants, and describe structure-activity relationships within each class.

Simultaneous determination of cocaine/crack and its metabolites in oral fluid, urine and plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and its application in drug users

INTRODUCTION

A single LC-MS equipment was used to validate three methods for simultaneously analyzing cocaine (COC), benzoylecgonine (BZE), cocaethylene (CE), anhydroecgonine methyl ester (AEME) and anhydroecgonine (AEC) in oral fluid (OF), urine and plasma.

METHODS

The methods were carried out using a Kinetex HILIC column for polar compounds at 30°C. Mobile phase with isocratic condition of acetonitrile: 13mM ammonium acetate pH 6.0: methanol (55:35:10 v/v/v) at 0.8mL/min flow rate was used.

RESULTS

After buffer dilution (OF) and protein precipitation (urine and plasma), calibration curve ranges were 4.25-544ng/mL for oral fluid and 5-320ng/mL for urine and plasma with correlation coefficients (r) between 0.9947 and 0.9992. The lowest concentration of the calibration curves were the lower limit of quantification. No major matrix effect could be noted, demonstrating the efficiency of the cleaning procedure.

DISCUSSION

The methods were fully validated and proved to be suitable for analysis of 124 cocaine and/or crack cocaine users. Among the subjects, 56.5% reported daily use of cocaine in the previous three months. Results show a high prevalence of the analytes, with BZE as the most prevalent (94 cases), followed by COC (93 cases), AEC (70 cases), CE (33 cases) and AEME (13 cases). In addition, the concentration of BZE in urine was higher compared to OF and plasma found in the real samples, showing the facility of accumulation in chronic users in matrices with a large detection window.

Vaping Synthetic Cannabinoids: A Novel Preclinical Model of E-Cigarette Use in Mice

Smoking is the most common route of administration for cannabis; however, vaping cannabis extracts and synthetic cannabinoids ("fake marijuana") in electronic cigarette devices has become increasingly popular. Yet, most animal models used to investigate biological mechanisms underlying cannabis use employ injection as the route of administration. This study evaluated a novel e-cigarette device that delivers aerosolized cannabinoids to mice. The effects of aerosolized and injected synthetic cannabinoids (CP 55,940, AB-CHMINACA, XLR-11, and JWH-018) in mice were compared in a battery of bioassays in which psychoactive cannabinoids produce characteristic effects. The most potent cannabinoids (CP 55,940 and AB-CHMINACA) produced the full cannabinoid profile (ie, hypothermia, hypolocomotion, and analgesia), regardless of the route of administration. In contrast, aerosolized JWH-018 and XLR-11 did not produce the full profile of cannabimimetic effects. Results of time course analysis for hypothermia showed that aerosol exposure to CP 55,940 and AB-CHMINACA produced faster onset of effects and shorter duration of action than injection. The ability to administer cannabinoids to rodents using the most common route of administration among humans provides a method for collecting preclinical data with enhanced translational relevance.

Thermolytic Degradation of Synthetic Cannabinoids: Chemical Exposures and Pharmacological Consequences

Synthetic cannabinoids are manufactured clandestinely with little quality control and are distributed as herbal "spice" for smoking or as bulk compound for mixing with a solvent and inhalation via electronic vaporizers. Intoxication with synthetic cannabinoids has been associated with seizure, excited delirium, coma, kidney damage, and other disorders. The chemical alterations produced by heating these structurally novel compounds for consumption are largely unknown. Here, we show that heating synthetic cannabinoids containing tetramethylcyclopropyl-ring substituents produced thermal degradants with pharmacological activity that varied considerably from their parent compounds. Moreover, these degradants were formed under conditions simulating smoking. Some products of combustion retained high affinity at the cannabinoid 1 (CB₁) and CB₂ receptors, were more efficacious than (-)-cis-3-[2-hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol (CP55,940) in stimulating CB₁ receptor-mediated guanosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) (GTPγS) binding, and were potent in producing Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol-like effects in laboratory animals, whereas other compounds had low affinity and efficacy and were devoid of cannabimimetic activity. Degradants that retained affinity and efficacy also substituted in drug discrimination tests for the prototypical synthetic cannabinoid 1-pentyl-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (JWH-018), and are likely to produce psychotropic effects in humans. Hence, it is important to take into consideration the actual chemical exposures that occur during use of synthetic cannabinoid formulations to better comprehend the relationships between dose and effect.

Combination Chemistry: Structure-Activity Relationships of Novel Psychoactive Cannabinoids

Originally developed as research tools for use in structure-activity relationship studies, synthetic cannabinoids contributed to significant scientific advances in the cannabinoid field. Unfortunately, a subset of these compounds was diverted for recreational use beginning in the early 2000s. As these compounds were banned, they were replaced with additional synthetic cannabinoids with increasingly diverse chemical structures. This chapter focuses on integration of recent results with those covered in previous reviews. Whereas most of the early compounds were derived from the prototypic naphthoylindole JWH-018, currently popular synthetic cannabinoids include tetramethylcyclopropyl ketones and indazole-derived cannabinoids (e.g., AB-PINACA, AB-CHMINACA). Despite their structural differences, psychoactive synthetic cannabinoids bind with high affinity to CB1 receptors in the brain and, when tested, have been shown to activate these receptors and to produce a characteristic profile of effects, including suppression of locomotor activity, antinociception, hypothermia, and catalepsy, as well as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-like discriminative stimulus effects in mice. When they have been tested, synthetic cannabinoids are often found to be more efficacious at activation of the CB1 receptor and more potent in vivo. Further, their chemical alteration by thermolysis during use and their uncertain stability and purity may result in exposure to degradants that differ from the parent compound contained in the original product. Consequently, while their intoxicant effects may be similar to those of THC, use of synthetic cannabinoids may be accompanied by unpredicted, and sometimes harmful, effects.

Comprehensive monitoring of the occurrence of 22 drugs of abuse and transformation products in airborne particulate matter in the city of Barcelona

In recent years monitoring the presence of psychotropic compounds in wastewater has been proposed as a tool to estimate community drug use. Measurement of drugs of abuse (DAs) in airborne particulate is currently being explored as an additional tool to evaluate drug use patterns in time and space, and identify potential emission sources. In this study, we comprehensively monitor the occurrence of 22 licit and illicit DAs and transformation products, belonging to 6 different chemical groups, in airborne particulate matter (PM10) in the city of Barcelona. In order to study spatial and temporal variations, samples were collected from 12 different selected locations on one weekday (Wednesday) and one weekend day (Saturday), during five consecutive weeks. A previously developed analytical methodology, based on pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) determination, was adapted for analysis of the target compounds with satisfactory performance, ensuring reliability of results. Among the investigated compounds, cannabinol (CBN), cocaine (COC), and methamphetamine (MA) were found to be the most ubiquitous and abundant compounds in PM10 with concentrations ranging from 0.7pg/m(3) (MA) to 6020pg/m(3) (CBN). Significant differences in total DA concentrations in PM10 were observed across sampling days and locations. DA emissions were identified in highly densely populated areas, where popular commercial and nightlife zones are located. Psychoactive effects due to inhalation of measured concentrations are probably negligible; however, potential health effects due to chronic exposure have not been explored yet.

Identification of polymorphism in ethylone hydrochloride: synthesis and characterization

Ethylone, a synthetic cathinone with psychoactive properties, is a designer drug which has appeared on the recreational drug market in recent years. Since 2012, illicit shipments of ethylone hydrochloride have been intercepted with increasing frequency at the Canadian border. Analysis has revealed that ethylone hydrochloride exists as two distinct polymorphs. In addition, several minor impurities were detected in some seized exhibits. In this study, the two conformational polymorphs of ethylone hydrochloride have been synthesized and fully characterized by FTIR, FT-Raman, powder XRD, GC-MS, ESI-MS/MS and NMR ((13) C CPMAS, (1) H, (13) C). The two polymorphs can be distinguished by vibrational spectroscopy, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. The FTIR data are applied to the identification of both polymorphs of ethylone hydrochloride (mixed with methylone hydrochloride) in a laboratory submission labelled as 'Ocean Snow Ultra'. The data presented in this study will assist forensic scientists in the differentiation of the two ethylone hydrochloride polymorphs. This report, alongside our recent article on the single crystal X-ray structure of a second polymorph of this synthetic cathinone, is the first to confirm polymorphism in ethylone hydrochloride. © 2015 Canada Border Services Agency. Drug Testing and Analysis published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. © 2015 Canada Border Services Agency. Drug Testing and Analysis published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.