Self-objectification and disordered eating: A meta-analysis

The Relationship Between Racial Attitudes and Disordered Eating Behaviors in Black Men and Black Women

OBJECTIVE

Black individuals remain underrepresented in disordered eating research, despite evidence that both Black men and women present with disordered eating behaviors. Culturally-informed theoretical frameworks suggest that these behaviors may be linked to race-related sociocultural experiences, such as aspects of racial identity. While studies have focused on racial identity commitment, the association between attitudes toward one's racial identity and disordered eating remains underexplored. The present study examines whether positive attitudes toward one's Blackness and Black culture are associated with disordered eating.

METHOD

In a cross-sectional online sample of Black men and women (N = 458), we measured self-reported attitudes toward Blackness (i.e., centrality and private regard) and disordered eating behaviors (i.e., purging, binge eating, excessive exercise, and drive for thinness).

RESULTS

In pre-registered linear regression models, private regard was negatively associated with purging and binge eating. Across all models, centrality was not associated with disordered eating. On average, Black women reported greater drive for thinness whereas Black men reported higher excessive exercise scores.

DISCUSSION

This is the first study to demonstrate associations between racial attitudes and disordered eating among Black men and women. Our findings affirm unique correlates of disordered eating among Black people and suggest that positive attitudes toward one's Blackness and Black culture may be a protective factor against the development of disordered eating.

Testing body-related components of objectification theory: A meta-analysis of the relations between body shame, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction

Objectification theory has been instrumental in better understanding risk for eating disorders, depression, and sexual dysfunction, with self-objectification and body shame as serial mediators leading to these outcomes. Although originally proposed to explain these mental health outcomes in heterosexual women, researchers have extended objectification theory to individuals of various ages, racial identities, and sexual and gender identities. We conducted a systematic literature review of empirical peer-reviewed published research examining the relationship between the constructs of self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and body shame in adult, youth, and LGBTQ+ samples. Our search yielded 5200 results, of which 318 met inclusion criteria. Of the papers included in this review, 26 reported correlations with sexual and gender diverse samples, 43 reported correlations with youth samples, and 249 reported correlations with samples of general adults (non-sexual or gender minorities). The meta-analyses yielded significant, moderate, positive correlations between body dissatisfaction and self-objectification, and between body shame and self-objectification, for each of the sub-samples. The majority of samples were predominantly White and cisgender female, suggesting the need for additional research examining these constructs among racial and gender minority populations. Overall, the results of this review highlight the unique contributions of body shame and body dissatisfaction to self-objectifying behaviors, and identify the moderating role of race and gender in these interrelations.

Sexual Harassment and Binge Eating Among Chinese Female Undergraduates: A Mediation Model of Self-Objectification and Self-Control

Sexual harassment is a serious health issue prevalent on campuses worldwide, with significant implications for individuals' well-being. Past research has highlighted the close association between sexual harassment and eating disorders, yet little is known about the mechanisms underlying this relationship. This study aimed to investigate the potential mediating roles of self-objectification and self-control in linking sexual harassment to binge eating, drawing upon objectification theory and self-control resource theory. A sample of 801 Chinese female undergraduates, with a mean age of 19.60 years (SD = 1.42), participated in the study by completing questionnaires on sexual harassment experience, self-objectification, self-control, and binge eating. The results indicated that sexual harassment experience exhibited a significant positive correlation with binge eating and self-objectification, while showing a negative correlation with self-control. And an increased frequency of sexual harassment experiences and self-objectification were associated with lower levels of self-control. Furthermore, mediation analyses utilizing Hayes' PROCESS macro (2013) for SPSS (Model 6) demonstrated that both self-objectification and self-control independently and sequentially mediated the relationship between sexual harassment and young women's binge eating. In other words, young women who had experienced sexual harassment were more likely to exhibit increased self-objectification, leading to decreased self-control and ultimately culminating in binge eating behaviors. This study provides valuable insights into how sexual harassment affects young women's binge eating by elucidating the mediating roles of self-objectification and self-control, thus enhancing our understanding of developing strategies to mitigate the negative consequences of experiencing sexual harassment.

How sexual objectification marks the brain: fMRI evidence of self-objectification and its harmful emotional consequences

Female Sexual Objectification refers to perceiving and treating women based on their body appearance. This phenomenon may serve as a precursor for dysfunctional behaviors, particularly among females prone to self-objectification and experiencing shame emotions. Understanding this challenging trajectory by disclosing its neural consequences may be crucial for comprehending extreme psychopathological outcomes. However, investigations in this sense are still scarce. The present study explores the neural correlates of female participants' experiences of being objectified and their relationship with self-objectification, emotional responses and individual dispositions in self-esteem, emotion regulation abilities and self-conscious emotion proneness. To this aim, 25 female participants underwent an fMRI experimental session while they were exposed to interpersonal encounters with objectifying or non-objectifying men. Participants' experienced emotions and levels of attention shifted toward their bodies (self-objectification) was reported after each interaction. The results revealed increased brain activity in objectifying contexts, impacting cortical (frontal, occipital and temporal cortex) and subcortical regions (thalamus, and hippocampus) involved in visual, emotion, and social processing. Remarkably, the inferior temporal gyrus emerged as a crucial neural hub associated in opposite ways with self-esteem and the self-conscious emotion of shame, highlighting its role in self-referential processing during social dynamics. This study points out the importance of adopting a neuroscientific perspective for a deeper understanding of sexual objectification, and to shed light on its possible neural consequences.

The relation between body dysmorphic disorder symptoms and photo-based behaviors: is body appreciation a protective factor?

Body image and social media use seem to be significantly associated. In particular, photo-based behaviors (i.e., photo investment and manipulation) seemed to have a positive relation with negative body image dimensions. On the other hand, positive body image dimensions could demonstrate the role of moderators. However, current available studies did not support these findings consistently. Moreover, available studies did not assess Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) and Muscle Dysmorphia (MD) symptoms. To address these issues, the associations between BDD/MD symptoms and photo-based behaviors and the possible moderation of body appreciation were examined in a sample of 485 social media users (71.1 % women). Findings from hierarchical multiple regressions highlighted that BDD symptoms were significantly associated with photo investment and manipulation, and MD symptoms were significantly associated with photo investment only. Body appreciation demonstrated a moderating role in the relation involving photo investment and BDD symptoms. Current findings supported that photo-based behaviors are significantly associated with negative body image dimensions, while positive body image demonstrated only a marginal protective role.

Self-objectification in Chinese pregnant women: The mixed role of functionality appreciation

Extensions of objectification theory to pregnant women are few and continued research is needed to better understand the psychological consequences of significant changes to physical appearance during pregnancy. Specific interests in this area include functionality appreciation which may be particularly relevant to pregnancy. Research in this area is also lacking representation of non-Western cultural contexts. To this end, we employed an online survey to assess objectification theory and functionality appreciation in Chinese pregnant women (N = 345). Correlations showed that higher body surveillance and body shame were associated with higher disordered eating and psychological distress, and higher functionality appreciation was associated with lower body surveillance, body shame, and disordered eating. Mediation analyses suggested that higher body surveillance was associated with higher body shame which, in turn, was associated with higher disordered eating and psychological distress. Main effects suggested a negative association between functionality appreciation and body shame, but moderation analyses suggested that higher functionality appreciation strengthened the positive association between body surveillance and body shame. Findings underscore objectification theory as a useful framework to understand eating and body image disturbances and psychological distress in Chinese pregnant women and outline future directions to clarify the temporal nature of these associations and the precise role of functionality appreciation.

Risk Factors for Eating Disorders in University Students: The RUNEAT Study

The purpose of the study is to assess the risk of developing general eating disorders (ED), anorexia nervosa (AN), and bulimia nervosa (BN), as well as to examine the effects of gender, academic year, place of residence, faculty, and diet quality on that risk. Over two academic years, 129 first- and fourth-year Uneatlántico students were included in an observational descriptive study. The self-administered tests SCOFF, EAT-26, and BITE were used to determine the participants' risk of developing ED. The degree of adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MD) was used to evaluate the quality of the diet. Data were collected at the beginning (T1) and at the end (T2) of the academic year. The main results were that at T1, 34.9% of participants were at risk of developing general ED, AN 3.9%, and BN 16.3%. At T2, these percentages were 37.2%, 14.7%, and 8.5%, respectively. At T2, the frequency of general ED in the female group was 2.5 times higher (OR: 2.55, 95% CI: 1.22-5.32, p = 0.012). The low-moderate adherence to the MD students' group was 0.92 times less frequent than general ED at T2 (OR: 0.921, 95%CI: 0.385-2.20, p < 0.001). The most significant risk factor for developing ED is being a female in the first year of university. Moreover, it appears that the likelihood of developing ED generally increases during the academic year.

Psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the functionality appreciation scale

BACKGROUND

The Functionality Appreciation Scale is a 7-item measure of an individual's appreciation of his or her body for what it can do and is capable of doing. While this instrument has been increasingly used in intervention-based research, its psychometric properties have not been extensively studied in non-English-speaking populations. The psychometric properties of a novel Spanish translation of the FAS were examined.

METHODS

An online sample of 838 Spanish adults (mean age = 31.79 ± 11.95 years, 50.48% men) completed the Spanish FAS and validated measures of body appreciation, eating disorder symptomatology, intuitive eating, and life satisfaction.

RESULTS

Exploratory factor analysis supported a 1-dimensional factor structure of the FAS, which was further supported by confirmatory factor analysis (SBχ²(14) = 83.82, SBχ²normed = 1.48, robust RMSEA = 0.094 (90% CI = 0.074, 0.115), SRMR = 0.040, robust CFI = 0.946, robust TLI = 0.924). Invariance across genders was shown, and there were no significant differences according to gender (t(417) = 0.77, p =.444, d = 0.07). Construct validity was also supported through significant associations with the other measures of the study. Incremental validity was established in women. Thus, appreciation of functionality predicted life satisfaction over and above the variance accounted for by other body image and eating disorder-related measures (F(4, 399) = 18.86, p <.001, ΔR2 = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the psychometric properties of the Spanish FAS and demonstrate the importance of the appreciation of functionality in relation to a healthier body image and psychological wellbeing.

Self-Objectification and Self-Sexualizing Appearance Behaviors in Chinese Lesbian and Bisexual Females: Moderating Effect of Femme/Butch/Androgyne Identity

In heterosexual populations, self-objectification is associated with self-sexualizing appearance behaviors. This study examined the relationship between self-objectification and self-sexualizing appearance behaviors and the moderating effect of butch/androgynous/femme sexual self-label identification in Chinese bisexual and lesbian females. We recruited 637 bisexual and lesbian females to complete an online questionnaire that asked about demographic information and feminine and masculine self-sexualizing appearance behaviors and measured the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale. Feminine self-sexualizing appearance behaviors include wearing high heels, short skirts, low-cut outfits, skinny clothes and makeup. Masculine self-sexualizing appearance behaviors include wearing short hair and binding breasts. Femme-identified females scored higher on body surveillance than did butch- and androgynous-identified females. Butch-identified females reported having more masculine self-sexualizing behaviors, whereas femme-identified females reported having more feminine self-sexualizing appearance behaviors. Sexual self-label identification moderated the relationship between self-objectification and feminine self-sexualizing behaviors. Body surveillance was significantly associated with feminine self-sexualizing behaviors in femme- and androgynous-identified females but not in butch-identified females. Body shame was negatively associated with feminine self-sexualizing appearance behaviors in androgynous-identified females. The current findings highlight the role of sexual self-label identification in self-objectification among Chinese bisexual and lesbian females. The findings imply the heterogeneousness of self-objectification among Chinese bisexual and lesbian females.

Self-Objectification, Disordered Eating and Sexual Orientation in Men

The interplay between disordered eating, depressive symptoms and self-objectification differs between genders and sexual orientations, and merits further study in homosexual and heterosexual men. We examined disordered eating, depressive symptoms and self-objectification in a sample of Israeli heterosexual and homosexual men. Participants were 215 men aged 19-65, 108 of whom were classified by the Kinsey scale as being heterosexual and 107 as homosexual. They completed online measures of self-objectification, disordered eating and depressive symptoms. Heterosexual men reported lower levels of disordered eating and self-objectification than homosexual men, however the difference in depressive symptoms was not statistically significant. Correlations between disordered eating, self-objectification and depressive symptoms when controlling for age, BMI and number of children were all significant, with similar patterns of association for heterosexual and homosexual men. Self-objectification partially mediated the association between sexual orientation and disordered eating. However, contrary to our hypothesis, sexual orientation (homosexual/heterosexual) did not moderate the association between disordered eating and self-objectification. The tendency of homosexual men towards self-objectification is linked to unhealthy eating habits. Self-objectification helps explain the propensity of homosexual versus heterosexual men to develop disordered eating and possibly eating disorders. It should therefore be targeted in prevention and in therapy.

The role of developmental caregiving programming in modulating our affiliation tendency and the vulnerability to social anxiety and eating disorders

Attachment is the evolutionarily-established process through which humans create bonds with others to receive care from them. The phenomenon is as essential to our physical survival as it is to our psychological development. An increasing number of studies demonstrates that in sensitive periods during the early years of life, our brain circuitry is programmed in the interactions with our caregivers, with the imprinting of information over multiple attachment dimensions. Adopting a basic brain-computer analogy, we can think of this knowledge as the psycho-social firmware of our mind. According to a recently proposed extension of the classical three-dimensional view, one attachment dimension - somaticity - concerns the caregiver's task of reflecting and confirming the child's (internal) states - such as sensations, emotions, and representations - to support the child's ability to identify and define those entities autonomously. Relying on multidisciplinary evidence - from neuroscientific, developmental, evolutionary, and clinical sources - we suggest that somaticity (H1) has the adaptive function to modulate our tendency to comply and affiliate with a reference group but also (H2) increases the vulnerability to developing Social Anxiety (SA) and Eating Disorders (EDs). We evaluate H1-H2, (1) indicating the evolutionary role of somaticity in modulating our affiliation tendency to optimize the ancestral threat-opportunity balance coming from infectious diseases and (2) showing the deep connection between SA-EDs and the features most closely related to somaticity - interoception and parenting style. Finally, we discuss three relevant implications of H1-H2: (A) Bringing into research focus the adaptive role of our firmware knowledge system versus the hardware (neural substrate) and software (higher cognition) ones. (B) Complementing the well-grounded Objectification and Allocentric Lock Theories, allowing us to integrate multiple levels of explanation on the etiology of psychopathology. (C) Suggesting the design of new psychological treatments. While not aiming to prove H1-H2, our analysis supports them and encourages their direct testing.

Relationship of Objectified Short-Form Videos Exposure to Satisfaction and Objectification in Relationships Among Chinese Women: A Pilot Study

Studies have indicated the impact of exposure to objectifying media on objectification and relationship satisfaction from a romantic context. This study examined the association between viewing objectified short-form videos and self-and partner-objectification (i.e., objectifying one's partner), as well as relationship satisfaction among Chinese women. The study participants comprised 241 Chinese women in romantic relationships who were recruited online. Participants completed measures of viewing objectified male and female videos, self-objectification (SO), partner-objectification (PO), and relationship satisfaction. The results showed a significant association between exposure to objectified female videos and SO, but not with relationship satisfaction. Exposure to objectified male videos was associated significantly with PO. The indirect effect of objectified male videos exposure on relationship satisfaction via PO was significant. This implies that PO plays an important role in relationship satisfaction as opposed to SO.

Examining an integrated sociocultural and objectification model of thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in Chinese older men and women

OBJECTIVE

We tested an integrated model of three prominent theories of disordered eating (tripartite influence theory, objectification theory, and social comparison theory) in a sample of older Chinese men and women.

METHOD

Chinese older men (n = 270) and women (n = 160) completed questionnaires assessing the tripartite influence, objectification, and social comparison theories and thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating. Two structural equation models were tested in Chinese older men and women.

RESULTS

The integrated model showed good model fit and described meaningful variance in thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in Chinese older men and women. Higher appearance pressures were uniquely related to higher muscularity-oriented disordered eating in men. Across both gender groups, higher thinness internalization was uniquely related to higher thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating, and in women only, higher muscularity internalization was uniquely related to lower thinness-oriented disordered eating. In men, higher upward and downward body image comparisons were uniquely related to higher and lower, respectively, muscularity-oriented disordered eating. In women, higher upward body image comparisons were only uniquely related to higher muscularity-oriented disordered eating while higher downward body image comparisons were uniquely related to both outcomes. Higher body shame was uniquely related to higher thinness-oriented disordered eating across both groups and in men alone, higher body shame was also uniquely related to higher muscularity-oriented disordered eating.

DISCUSSION

Findings, which tested the integration of tripartite influence, objectification, and social comparison theories, inform the prevention and treatment of disordered eating in Chinese older populations.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

The present study is the first to describe theories of disordered eating (tripartite influence, objectification, and social comparison) in Chinese older adults. Findings suggested good model fit and the integrated models described meaningful variance in thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating in Chinese older women and men. Findings extend existing theories of disordered eating and, pending further study, may inform theory-driven prevention and treatment approaches in Chinese older adults.

Brains over beauty: A preregistered test of the effects of objectification on women's cognitive performance

The present study was a preregistered, well-powered experimental test of findings related to the effect of state self-objectification and anticipation of the sexualized male gaze on women's cognitive performance. College women (n = 407) performed a working memory task in one of three randomly assigned conditions. In the experimental conditions (self-objectification and male gaze), women completed the task while being video recorded from the neck down. In the male gaze condition, participants were told their videos would later be evaluated by men as part of a separate dating study. Women in the control condition were not video recorded. Results indicated women experienced a moderate increase in state self-objectification in both experimental conditions. However, compared to the control condition, women in the experimental conditions did not show reduced performance on the working memory task (in either latency or accuracy), decreases in body satisfaction, or increases in negative mood. Across conditions, state self-objectification was not associated with accuracy or latency on the working memory task. Mixed findings concerning objectification's effect on cognitive performance may be attributed to variability in experimental manipulations and dependent variables employed in this area of research.

Predictive factors of disordered eating among adolescents in Bosnia and Herzegovina

BACKGROUND

Due to excessive concerns and focus on weight control and body shape, adolescents often resort to inappropriate behaviours and attitudes towards eating, resulting in physical and psychological issues. This study aimed to assess possible relationships and predictor variables between disordered eating and age, BMI, body appreciation, self-esteem, quality of family interactions, psychosocial health and childhood trauma experience in adolescents of both sexes in the city of Mostar (Bosnia and Herzegovina).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out on a suitable sample of 724 high-school students aged 14-19 years. The following tools have been used: socio-demographic questionnaire, The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), Body Mass Index (BMI), Body Appreciation Scale (BAS), Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale, Quality of Family Interaction Scale (KOBI), and Paediatric Quality of Life Inventory, version 4.0 (PedsQLTM) and Childhood trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Collected data were analyzed in SPSS v. 20.0 software using Pearson's correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis.

RESULTS

Body appreciation is the most significant predictor for developing disordered eating across the entire sample of adolescents (β = -0.325, P < 0.05) and individually for male adolescents (β = -0.199, P = 0.010) and female adolescents (β = -0.379, P < 0.001). In addition to this variable, BMI has proved to be a statistically significant predictor in explaining the eating behaviours of female adolescents (β = 0.185, P < 0.001), while this happens to be self-esteem for male adolescents (β = -0.211, P < 0.022).

CONCLUSION

The most significant risk factors for developing disordered eating in adolescents are body appreciation, BMI and self-esteem. Results of this research can contribute to enhancement of intervention programmes which promote a positive body image and aim to prevent disordered eating in adolescents of both sexes.

What can my body do for me? Guided body-functionality mirror gazing task improved college women's body appreciation and body functionality orientation

Objective: Focusing on body functionality - what the body can do - may benefit women's body image. This pilot study examined the effects of focusing on body functionality appreciation during an audio-guided mirror gazing task (F-MGT). Participants: 101 college women, M(SD)_AGE = 19.49(1.31), were alternately assigned to F-MGT or a comparison with no guidance on how to examine the body, directed attention mirror gazing task (DA-MGT). Methods: Participants self-reported pre- and post-MGT body appreciation, state appearance satisfaction, and orientation to and satisfaction with physical functionality. Results: Group interactions were significant for body appreciation and functionality orientation. DA-MGT decreased body appreciation from pre- to post-MGT; F-MGT did not change. There were no significant interactions in post-MGT state appearance satisfaction or functionality satisfaction, though state appearance satisfaction increased significantly in F-MGT. Conclusions: Integrating body functionality may buffer against harmful effects of mirror gazing. Given F-MGT's brevity, additional work must assess its potential as an intervention technique.

Do I Say or Let it Go? Emotions Predict How People Respond to Receiving Sexual Objectification at Work

Many people are reluctant to report sexual objectification at work. We tested whether emotions determine how people respond to sexual objectification at work. In Study 1 (N = 159) women recalled a time that they had experienced sexual objectification at work. Participants then rated their emotions in this situation and how they responded. Anger positively and a shame-based emotion (rejection) negatively predicted taking action against the perpetrator (active response). In contrast, shame positively predicted women blaming themselves (self-blame). Moreover, pride positively and anger negatively predicted women viewing the action positively (e.g., as flattering, benign response). In Study 2 (N = 135) women imagined themselves receiving either a highly objectifying or ambiguous comment at work. Being objectified increased negative emotions and decreased pride. Moral outrage (i.e., anger and disgust) positively whilst shame-based emotions negatively predicted active responding. Shame-based emotions positively predicted self-blame, whilst pride positively and anger negatively predicted benign responding. Therefore, emotions determine how people respond to sexual objectification at work. Promoting moral outrage and reducing other emotions (e.g., shame, fear, and pride) may make women (a) more willing to report sexual objectification at work and (b) less likely to blame themselves or view such actions positively (i.e., benign responses).

The social media diet: A scoping review to investigate the association between social media, body image and eating disorders amongst young people

Background

Eating disorders are a group of heterogenous, disabling and deadly psychiatric illnesses with a plethora of associated health consequences. Exploratory research suggests that social media usage may be triggering body image concerns and heightening eating disorder pathology amongst young people, but the topic is under-researched as a global public health issue.

Aim

To systematically map out and critically review the existing global literature on the relationship between social media usage, body image and eating disorders in young people aged 10–24 years.

Methods

A systematic search of MEDLINE, PyscINFO and Web of Science for research on social media use and body image concerns / disordered eating outcomes published between January 2016 and July 2021. Results on exposures (social media usage), outcomes (body image, eating disorders, disordered eating), mediators and moderators were synthesised using an integrated theoretical framework of the influence of internet use on body image concerns and eating pathology.

Results

Evidence from 50 studies in 17 countries indicates that social media usage leads to body image concerns, eating disorders/disordered eating and poor mental health via the mediating pathways of social comparison, thin / fit ideal internalisation, and self-objectification. Specific exposures (social media trends, pro-eating disorder content, appearance focused platforms and investment in photos) and moderators (high BMI, female gender, and pre-existing body image concerns) strengthen the relationship, while other moderators (high social media literacy and body appreciation) are protective, hinting at a ‘self-perpetuating cycle of risk’.

Conclusion

Social media usage is a plausible risk factor for the development of eating disorders. Research from Asia suggests that the association is not unique to traditionally western cultures. Based on scale of social media usage amongst young people, this issue is worthy of attention as an emerging global public health issue.

Status, sexual capital, and intraminority body stigma in a size-diverse sample of gay men

Gay men are more likely than heterosexual men to experience social pressure based on body weight, shape, and muscularity, which may drive disparities in body image concerns and eating disorders. Utilizing a sample of 1723 gay men living in the United States, the present study examined whether sociodemographic factors (used as proxies for status and sexual capital) and frequency of attending gay-specific establishments or gatherings (community involvement) were associated with gay men's experiences of negative or discriminatory pressures based on body size and shape specifically from other gay men (intraminority body stigma). Experiences of intraminority body stigma were significantly more common among gay men who identified as higher-weight (r = 0.28), less masculine (r = -0.21), less wealthy (r = -0.21), younger (r = -0.21), or people of color (ds = 0.25-0.28). Furthermore, indicators of low status and sexual capital were indirectly associated with less frequent community involvement via more frequent experiences of intraminority body stigma. In addition to frequency, the valence of interactions between gay men should be considered when assessing body image and eating disorder risk in this population. Future research is encouraged to examine intraminority body stigma as an intersectional source of intraminority stress to inform prevention and treatment efforts for gay men.

Body Uneasiness and Dissatisfaction Among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Persons

Introduction

While sexual minority people have been widely considered at risk for developing a range of body image concerns, evidence of body dissatisfaction and shame amongst LGB (lesbian, gay, and bisexual) individuals is mixed. This study investigated differences in body uneasiness, body dissatisfaction, and self-blaming/attacking attitudes between LGB and heterosexual individuals, as well as within LGB groups, while also examining the predictive role of body mass index (BMI).

Methods

A sample of cisgender lesbian women (n = 163), gay men (n = 277), bisexual women (n = 135), bisexual men (n = 39), heterosexual women (n = 398), and heterosexual men (n = 219) completed an online survey assessing different aspects of body image between May and July 2020.

Results

Gay and bisexual men reported greater body image disturbance and self-blaming attitudes relative to heterosexual men. In contrast, lesbian women reported lower body uneasiness than their bisexual and heterosexual counterparts, but greater self-hate. Moreover, lesbian and bisexual women showed more body dissatisfaction than gay men, and bisexual individuals reported more body uneasiness than individuals in other sexual minority subgroups. Higher BMI emerged as a significant predictor of body image concerns and dissatisfaction.

Conclusions

Body image dimensions showed sexual identity-based differences. Determining the specific nuances of body image in LGB individuals can provide important information on potential risk factors that may impact mental health outcomes.

Policy Implications

In-depth knowledge of body dissatisfaction and uneasiness in individuals with LGB identities may have critical implications for the development of personalized prevention and treatment strategies.

Social physical anxiety and eating disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The present study's aim was to summarize existing quantitative evidence linking social physique anxiety (SPA) and eating disorders (ED). Eligible studies were searched for up to June 2, 2022 in six databases: MEDLINE, Current Contents Connect, PsycINFO, Web of Science, SciELO, and Dissertations & Theses Global. Studies were considered eligible if they included information derived from self-report instruments that allowed for computing the relationship between SPA and ED. Pooled effect sizes (r) were computed using three-level meta-analytic models. Potential sources of heterogeneity were examined using univariable and multivariable meta-regressions. Influence analyses and a three-parameter selection model (3PSM) were used for the purpose of examining the robustness of the results and publication bias, respectively. Results summarizing 170 effect sizes from 69 studies (N = 41,257) showed two main groups of findings. Firstly, that SPA and ED were very largely related (i.e., r = .51). Secondly, that this relationship was stronger (i) among individuals from Western countries, and (ii) when ED scores concerned the diagnostic feature of bulimia/anorexia nervosa involving body image disturbances. The present study adds to the current understanding of ED by suggesting that SPA is a maladaptive emotion with a potential role in the onset and maintenance of these group of pathologies.

Pornography, Sexual Insecurity, and Orgasm Difficulty

While recent meta-analyses have provided answers to a number of historically contentious debates about correlates of pornography use, several questions remain unanswered. Whether pornography is associated with sexual functioning is one such question. Informed by theorizing on sexual scripting, social comparisons, and sexual objectification, the present study examined the possibility that pornography is related to orgasm difficulty through sexual insecurity (i.e., insecurity about one's sexual performance and sexual attractiveness). Data were from the National Survey of Porn Use, Relationships, and Sexual Socialization (NSPRSS), a U.S. population-based probability study. There was an indirect effect of pornography consumption frequency on orgasm difficulty through sexual insecurity. Participants who used pornography more frequently reported higher levels of sexual insecurity, and higher levels of sexual insecurity predicted orgasm difficulty. There was also an indirect effect of partner pressure to view pornography on orgasm difficulty. Higher levels of partner pressure to view pornography were associated with higher levels of sexual insecurity, which in turn predicted orgasm difficulty. Results were indistinguishable by gender and maintained after controlling for a number of potential confounds. These findings suggest that some men and women's personal and (pressured) partnered pornography consumption have the potential to increase orgasm difficulty through bodily and performance insecurity.

Self-Objectification and its Biological, Psychological and Social Predictors: A Cross-Cultural Study in Four European Countries and Iran

Although scholars started investigating self-objectification more than twenty years ago, only a few studies focused on men and even fewer have taken into account the cross-cultural dimension. Our study focused on the antecedents of self-objectification paying attention to the role of biological and sociodemographic variables (gender, BMI), psychological characteristics (self-esteem, perfectionism) together with social and cultural factors (internalization of media standards, influence of family and friends). Self-objectification was operationalized as Body Shame and Body Surveillance. A self-reported questionnaire was administered to 2165 adults living in four European countries (UK, Italy, Poland and Romania) and Iran. Ten regression models were performed (2 per country) to analyse the correlates of self-objectification. Overall, self-objectification emerged as a process affected by factors entrenched in psychological, biological, social and cultural domains, partially different for Body Shame and Body Surveillance. Findings showed the key role of self-esteem as a protective factor against Body Shame across countries. On the other hand, the internalization of media standards emerged as risk factor for both Body Shame and Body Surveillance in the five countries. Taken together, these results underline the complexity of self-objectification and the need to deepen research on this topic among non-Western countries.

Psychometric Examination of the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) among Spanish Adolescents and Young Adults

The Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) has been frequently used within the context of research on eating disorders (ED). Although both long (BEECOM-L) and short (BEECOM-S) versions of the instrument exist, their psychometric properties have not yet been concurrently investigated across different populations in terms of age and gender. The present study aimed to compare the psychometric properties of both the BEECOM-L and the BEECOM-S among Spanish male and female non-clinical adolescents and young adults. Data from 4 samples including 1213 middle school and college students enrolled in 10 education centers from southern Spain (age ranging from 12 to 35 years, M_age = 17.796, SD_age = 4.796, 53% females) were analyzed using factorial, correlation, and regression analysis techniques. Results provided evidence that support the reliability, measurement invariance according to age and gender, and convergent/incremental validity for the scores from both the BEECOM-L and BEECOM-S. Concerning factorial validity, marginally acceptable and adequate goodness-of-fit indices were obtained for the BEECOM-L and BEECOM-S, respectively. The BEECOM-S proves to be a psychometrically sound instrument with potential value for assessing social comparisons focused on body, eating, and exercise in non-clinical adolescents and young adults from Spain.

Weight changes and the incidence of depressive symptom in the middle-aged and older adults: findings from the Chinese nationwide cohort study

BACKGROUND

Previous studies, predominantly in Western individuals, have reported weight gain or weight loss are related to the increased depressive symptoms at all ages, but no study of depressive symptoms has examined its relation to actual (not just self-reported) weight changes in the middle-aged and older adults. Evidence of the relationship in older Asian individuals remains sparse. The study aimed to examine the relationship between weight changes and incidence of depressive symptoms in a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling older Asians.

METHOD

Data were obtained from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), which included 17,284 adults aged 45 years. Participants were followed every two years using a face-to-face, computer-aided personal interview (CAPI) and structured questionnaire. We excluded participants with no follow-up data. The numbers of individuals who completed both the baseline and follow-up surveys were 3118 for the short-term (two years from 2011-2013) and the long-term (four years from 2011-2015). Additionally, to associate weight change with subsequent depressive symptoms, we also included 2472 participants without depressive symptom in 2013 and observed the incidence of depressive symptom in 2015 (subsequent term from 2013-2015). Finally, weight changes were classified as loss > -3%, stable-3-3%, gain3-6%, gain6-9%, and gain > 9%. Multivariable-adjusted cox regression in the study were used to assess the hazard ratios (HRs) of each weight change category.

RESULTS

The incidence of depressive symptoms was 20.72% in the 2011-2013, 27.04% in the 2011-2015, and 23.02% in 2013-2015. Weight loss > 3% for all intervals was associated with higher depressive symptoms than stable weight during the 2011-2013 [1.305(1.031,1.651)] among the total populations. When stratified by sex, the results in males and females were different from those in the total population [females:1.389(0.997, 1.935); males:1.263(0.902, 1.767)]. Weight loss > 3% for intervals was associated with higher depressive symptoms than stable weight during the 2013-2015[1.643(1.140, 2.368)] among the males and its effect was also stronger for the total in 2011-2013. Moreover, there was no significant association between weight gain and incident depressive symptom, and no significant interaction effect in terms of the sex*weight changes.

CONCLUSION

Our findings could inform health promotion interventions to body-weight management aimed at improving the health of the middle-aged and older adults, particularly in the total people with short-term weight loss and males with subsequent term weight loss.

The body satisfaction and psychological well-being of retired women athletes: A long-term qualitative analysis of bodies in motion

We conducted a qualitative evaluation of Bodies in Motion (BIM), a dissonance, mindful self-compassion-based program that addresses the unique experiences and needs of female athletes with respect to their bodies and their well-being. Using semi-structured interviews, 12 collegiate female athletes (retired 2 - 6 years) reflected and provided feedback on the enduring impact of BIM on their body image, relationship to food and exercise, and overall psychological well-being. Through thematic analysis, we found that these retired athletes, extending from their initial program learning, reported increased awareness of sport and societal messages and their impact on body image, shifted perspectives in their view of themselves and their bodies, and used learned skills to manage body image in their lives. Further, with the passage of time, athletes emphasized how what they had learned in BIM remained essential as they navigated challenging life transitions, such as their retirement from collegiate sports. Our findings indicate that the benefits female athletes report accruing in the immediate aftermath of BIM remain with them, even growing and becoming more salient as they continue to reflect on the program and its impact on their body awareness and how they navigate their lives as women and former athletes.

The Role of Body Shame and Age on Appearance-Based Exercise and Positive Body Image in Women from Poland: Preliminary Results of a Cluster Analysis

The aim of this study has been to analyse whether body shame and age may play a role in appearance-based exercise and positive body image in Women from Poland. It was assumed that women with high body shame and at the stage of young adulthood have significantly greater levels of appearance-based exercise and lower positive body image than those with a low level of body shame and at the stage of middle adulthood. The final sample included 234 Polish women (age: M = 31.58, SD = 13.93; body mass index: M = 23.45, SD = 4.72). Participants completed: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS), the Exercise Appearance Motivations Scale (EAMS), the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) and a socio-demographic survey. The cluster analysis technique indicated four distinct clusters: (a) Cluster 1 (N = 83): high body shame and young adulthood; (b) Cluster 2 (N = 29): high body shame and middle adulthood; (c) Cluster 3 (N = 88): low body shame and young adulthood; (d) Cluster 4 (N = 34): low body shame and middle adulthood. The outcomes partially support the hypothesis, as higher levels of almost all subscales related to appearance-based exercise (EAMS: "muscularity", "societal pressures", "shape/weight concerns", "avoidance/shame") and lower positive body image (BAS-2) were observed in women with high body shame and at the stage of young adulthood compared with women with a low level of body shame and at the stage of middle adulthood. These results indicate that both body shame and age may contribute to the intensity of appearance-based exercise and positive body image deterioration. Clarity on this issue is essential to ensure that an appropriate preventive activity and interventions are made which will be able to take into account the specific sociocultural context in Poland.

The development and validation of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire

OBJECTIVE

Self-objectification is linked to disordered eating (DE) behaviors in women. However, the awareness of objectification by the self and others, not just the objectifying experiences themselves, may be differentially related to DE. The proposed study examines the development and validity of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ), which seeks to evaluate awareness of objectification by others and intentional self-objectification.

METHOD

In Study 1, 24 participants who identify as women (≥18 years) will provide qualitative feedback on COQ items, and survey items will be updated based on participant feedback. In Study 2, separate participants will complete the COQ and questionnaires assessing DE, self-objectification, and mental health correlates. Exploratory factor analyses will be conducted on the COQ, and reliability and convergent and divergent validity will be assessed.

RESULTS

Results will clarify whether the COQ is a reliable and valid instrument that measures the distinct construct of awareness of objectification.

DISCUSSION

If proven psychometrically sound, the COQ may be useful for future research on the link between awareness of objectification and disordered eating.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

The novel Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ) assesses the degree to which women recognize and act upon being objectified. The COQ will be reviewed by self-objectification experts and pilot participants before being psychometrically evaluated with data from a larger sample. The COQ is expected to differentially relate to disordered eating above and beyond existing self-objectification measures and accurately represent the distinct construct of conscious awareness of societal and self-objectification.

Buffering an Objectifying Culture: Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Self-Objectification, and Attachment Anxiety

In this article, we report two studies that examined the dynamics between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and individuals’ attachment in romantic relationships. Study 1 was based on data from 392 college students ( Mage = 21.42 years, 66.8% women). Results showed positive associations between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance among women. For men, significant and positive associations were only observed between interpersonal sexual objectification and self-objectification and between self-objectification and attachment anxiety. Study 2 was a 6-month longitudinal study where we recruited participants through CloudResearch ( n = 638, Mage = 24.26 years, 55.8% women at Time 1; n = 283, Mage = 24.43 years, 56.9% women at Time 2; return rate = 44.36%). Results from longitudinal analyses showed that women reported stronger stability in self-objectification than men, and for both women and men, their attachment anxiety predicted increased self-objectification. Additionally, in both studies, women reported higher levels of interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and attachment anxiety than men. Overall, the findings suggest that high-quality relationships may help buffer the negative effects engendered by an objectifying culture. Based on our results, we recommend that clinicians and parents work to foster secure and healthy relationships as a means of reducing the extensive negative repercussions of objectification.

Associations between Self-Objectification and Lifestyle Habits in a Large Sample of Adolescents

The aim of the present study was to test associations between self-objectification and health-related lifestyle habits in a large sample of adolescents. In 2019–2020, a large sample of adolescents (n = 1402, 40.4% boys) participated in the survey and, as a part of a larger study, filled in questionnaires on self-objectification and lifestyle. Self-objectification was assessed using the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (SOQ). The lifestyle questionnaire had three batteries: eating attitudes and behaviors, dietary habits, and questions on harmful behaviors together with time spending patterns: sedentary lifestyle and physical activity. The ages ranged from 15–19 years with a mean age of 16.97 ± 0.46 years. Self-objectification (SO) was associated with a less healthy lifestyle: more frequent dieting and unhealthy eating habits in girls, skipping breakfast, and a lower number of meals per day. Adolescent boys and girls with higher SO demonstrated more frequent smoking and alcohol consumption until they felt dizzy and more frequent consumption of soft drinks, energy drinks, and fast foods. Girls with higher SO demonstrated lower perceived physical activity and longer duration of internet browsing for non-educational purposes. The results of the present study inform healthy lifestyle promotion programs for adolescents, suggesting that including psychoeducation about self-objectification, body functionality, and positive embodiment might be an effective strategy.

A qualitative study of gendered psychosocial processes in eating disorder development

OBJECTIVE

Gender and sexual identity constitute social categories that have been found to be important when identifying persons at risk for eating disorders (ED), since prevalence rates are especially high for women as well as persons of gender and sexual minorities. The objective of this study is to enhance the understanding of how these social categories relate to ED development.

METHOD

A qualitative, inductive approach was used in order to develop empirically grounded hypotheses about gendered aspects in ED development. Data are 14 narrative interviews with persons of diverse sexual and gender identities who recovered from anorexia or bulimia nervosa. Interviews were analyzed in depth using Grounded Theory Methodology and Voice Centered Listening.

RESULTS

Results suggest that social experiences related to female gender, as well as social experiences related to non-compliance with social gender norms, can be important for ED development. Those social experiences were described as influencing participants' self-worth, body image and self-regulatory strategies, which were connected to ED symptomatology.

DISCUSSION

Future research should further validate the gendered aspects presented in this paper, since including a broader array of gendered social aspects in ED research might help to improve etiological understanding and prevention methods.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study contributes a special perspective to research on eating disorders and gender, because it is based on first-person perspectives of formerly affected persons and integrates the experiences of persons with different gender and sexual identities. Participants described four categories of gendered social experiences relevant for their eating disorders. We discuss the potential of these categories to guide future research on the development of eating disorders and their prevention.

Internalized Stigma as a Transdiagnostic Factor for Women with Eating Disorders

This study aimed to examine how internalized weight bias (IWB), body surveillance, and body shame relate to eating pathology in women with diagnosed eating disorders (EDs) across the weight spectrum. Previous research has examined these variables in primarily non-clinical populations, binge eating disorder, and higher weight populations. In a sample of 98 women with diagnosed EDs, the association of IWB, body surveillance, and body shame on the severity of ED symptoms was examined with hierarchical multiple regression analyses. Results indicate that IWB, body surveillance, and body shame significantly predicted global eating pathology, F (4, 93) = 40.74, p < .001. IWB, body surveillance, and body shame related to global eating pathology, even after controlling for previous weight bias experiences. Analyses with specific symptom clusters found that only body surveillance predicted dietary restraint, only IWB and body shame predicted overvaluation of shape/weight, and only IWB predicted body dissatisfaction. The findings in this study provide initial support for internalized stigma variables (IWB, body surveillance, and body shame) related to ED pathology in a transdiagnostic clinical eating disorder sample across the weight spectrum. Results suggest that further examination of internalized stigma is needed within ED treatment.

Sexual orientation differences in pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I

Objectification theory and the tripartite influence model provide useful frameworks for understanding the body image experiences of men and women. However, there is little systematic investigation of how sexual orientation moderates the links between these constructs and body image satisfaction. It has been hypothesized, for example, that the associations of surveillance (i.e., monitoring of one's appearance due to objectification by others) would be strongest for groups targeted by the male gaze (e.g., gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women). Here we proposed an integrated sociocultural model and examined these pathways in multigroup structural equation models in a national sample of heterosexual, bisexual, and lesbian women (ns = 5395; 598; 213, respectively), and heterosexual, bisexual, and gay men (4869; 194; and 194, respectively) aged 18-65 years. Sexual orientation moderated some of these pathways. The most consistent pattern was that appearance pressures were internalized to a greater extent among bisexual participants. The pathways to poorer body image were generally similar among heterosexual and gay/lesbian men and women. These findings highlight the importance of examining sexual orientation-specific influences on body image across diverse groups, as well as the commonalities in the experiences of men and women across sexual orientations.

Shame and eating disorders symptoms: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Numerous empirical studies and theoretical models posit that shame is a common experience among individuals across the eating disorder spectrum. In this study we aim to investigate the association between shame and eating disorders symptoms using a meta-analytical approach.

METHOD

In this meta-analysis, we synthesized findings from 195 studies to examine the proposed association between shame and eating disorders symptoms. We looked at the associations with both general eating disorders symptoms and with specific eating disorders symptoms (i.e., anorexic, bulimic, and binge-eating symptoms). Moderation analyses testing for the effect of type of shame, type of eating symptoms, clinical status, quality of the study, age, and gender were conducted.

RESULTS

Shame was significantly associated with a medium to large effect size with all types of eating disorders symptoms (rs between .40 and .52). Body shame (r = .55) and shame around eating (r = .59) were more strongly related with eating disorders pathology. Type of eating disorders symptoms did not moderate the relationship between shame and disturbed eating.

DISCUSSION

Overall, the magnitude of the effect size of the association between shame and eating disorders symptoms is a medium to large one. Body shame and shame around eating seem to be the types of shame most closely tied with eating disorders symptoms, suggesting that directly targeting them in interventions might be highly beneficial. Findings highlight current gaps in the literature (e.g., mostly correlational studies, low quality studies) with implications for future research.

Validation of the Chinese Version of the Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale

Given the limitations of the existing tools used for measuring self-objectification in China, this study aims to validate the Chinese version of the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors scale (C-SOBBS). In this study, we first translated and culturally adopted SOBBS to the Chinese context. We conducted two wave surveys. In the first-wave survey, we recruited 331 female college students whose age ranged from 18 to 35 (M_age=20.28, SD=2.99) to complete an online survey that included demographic questions, C-SOBBS, and four other scales to assess the validity of C-SOBBS. In the second-wave survey, 76 participants who took part in the first-wave survey completed the C-SOBBS at a two-week interval for the assessment of test-retest stability. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to validate the factor structure of the C-SOBBS. The relationship between the C-SOBBS, its factors, and four other measures demonstrated that the C-SOBBS has a convergent and discriminant validity. Furthermore, the results of hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated the C-SOBBS’s incremental validity related to the Female Questionnaire of Trait Self-Objectification and Objectified Body Consciousness-Surveillance subscale. Additionally, the internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the C-SOBBS were also verified. The results of this study demonstrate the utility of the C-SOBBS in assessing the self-objectification beliefs and behaviors of young Chinese women within the context of Chinese culture.

Towards a Comprehensive Understanding of Body Image: Integrating Positive Body Image, Embodiment and Self-Compassion

Body image (BI) disturbance is a relevant factor in the etiology and treatment of eating disorders (ED). Although progress has been made in recent decades in understanding BI and its relationship with ED, the efficacy of BI disturbance prevention and intervention programs is still limited. In order to reach deeper understanding of BI disturbance and clarify the interactions between some protective and risk factors related to this construct, we carried out a literature review on some specific BI-related factors that so far have been analyzed independently. We specifically examined positive and negative BI; embodiment and its role in the development of positive and negative BI; and self-compassion as a protective factor that promotes positive embodiment (vs. disembodiment) and protection against body shame. We conclude that integrating the available evidence on these factors into BI models may be used to enhance our understanding of BI and improve the efficacy of prevention and intervention programs to help fight negative BI (by reducing body shame and disembodiment) and promote positive BI (by increasing self-compassion and positive embodiment).

Digital Hazards for Feeding and Eating: What We Know and What We Don't

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We aimed to accrue recent evidence exploring effects of modern online activities (e.g., Internet use) on feeding and eating disorder symptoms, and related traits. We examined available evidence to ascertain any direct influences from online activities on feeding and eating disorders, thereby shedding light on putative mechanisms by which those influences may occur.

RECENT FINDINGS

Many facets of problematic usage of the Internet correlate cross sectionally with eating disorder and related psychopathology. There is evidence to suggest that significant effects do exist in the direction of specific Internet activities contributing to eating disorder symptoms, viewed dimensionally. Putative mechanisms are discussed. However, a significant number of eating disorder phenotypes and Internet-related activities remain under-researched. Specific facets of engagement with the online environment appear to confer risk for feeding and eating problems, evidence being strongest for non-clinical studies using dimensional measures. More research is required to rigorously confirm causal effects, including in patients meeting formal diagnostic criteria for eating disorders. We also highlight the need for high-quality evidence to explore how eating disorder phenotypes are commonly as well as uniquely affected by different online activities. Such research is needed in order that scientific understanding in this area can be translated to protect those most at risk of disordered eating, including through changes in public health approaches and clinical practice.

Beyond Objectification: Understanding the Correlates and Consequences of Sexualization for Black and White Adolescent Girls

Although objectification theory posits negative consequences of self-objectification for adolescent girls, few studies have tested how objectification and sexualization contribute to mental health for youth of color. Accordingly, the current study explores the relations among body surveillance, enjoyment of sexualization, and mental health for a sample of 473 Black and White adolescent girls (Mage = 15.21, SD = 1.43). As expected, body surveillance and enjoyment of sexualization were associated with various forms of diminished well-being. Race moderated two of these links, with Black girls who reported higher levels of body surveillance also reporting higher levels of depression and hostility compared with their White peers. Future work should examine the implications of enjoyment of sexualization for youth of color.

Toward an Intersectional Psychological Science of Reproductive Norms: Generating Research Across the Natalism Spectrum

Pronatalism is the belief system that encourages parenthood and reproduction, supporting the notion that a woman’s value is rooted in her ability to give birth to and parent children. Pronatalist expectations are disproportionately applied to high-status women in the United States, prescribing not only that women are supposed to reproduce, but which women are supposed to reproduce. Those who deviate from this hegemonic idea of a prototypical mother may disproportionately encounter antinatalist norms that prescribe that they should not bear or parent children. In the present article, I advocate for an intersectional psychological study of reproductive norms across the natalism spectrum, grounded in interdisciplinary insights and an understanding of systems of power and oppression. I discuss three common areas of interdisciplinary research related to reproductive norms: (a) pronatalism as a limit to women’s freedom, (b) racism and the control of Black women’s reproduction, and (c) queer perspectives on reproduction. Informed by intersectionality and stigma frameworks, I propose a generative model and six research questions that serve as a research agenda for the psychological study of reproductive norms across the natalism spectrum.

The Role of Disordered Eating in Type 2 Diabetes: A Pilot Study

Rates of type 2 diabetes mellitus continue to rise around the world, largely due to lifestyle factors such as poor diet, overeating, and lack of physical activity. Diet and eating is often the most challenging aspect of management and, when disordered, has been associated with increased risk for diabetes-related complications. Thus, there is a clear need for accessible and evidence-based interventions that address the complex lifestyle behaviors that influence diabetes management. The current study sought to assess the efficacy and acceptability of a pilot lifestyle intervention for women with type 2 diabetes and disordered eating. The intervention followed a cognitive behavioral therapy guided-self-help (CBTgsh) model and included several pillars of lifestyle medicine, including: diet, exercise, stress, and relationships. Ten women completed the 12-week intervention that provided social support, encouraged physical activity, and addressed eating behaviors and cognitions. Results indicate the lifestyle intervention was a feasible treatment for disordered eating behaviors among women with type 2 diabetes and was also associated with improved diabetes-related quality of life. The intervention was also acceptable to participants who reported satisfaction with the program. The current CBTgsh lifestyle intervention is a promising treatment option to reduce disordered eating and improve diabetes management.

Disordered eating, self-esteem, and depression symptoms in Iranian adolescents and young adults: A network analysis

OBJECTIVE

The network theory of psychopathology examines networks of interconnections across symptoms. Several network studies of disordered eating have identified central and bridge symptoms in Western samples, yet network models of disordered eating have not been tested in non-Western samples. The current study tested a network model of disordered eating in Iranian adolescents and college students, as well as models of co-occurring depression and self-esteem.

METHOD

Participants were Iranian college students (n= 637) and adolescents (n = 1,111) who completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and Beck Depression Inventory, Second Edition (BDI-II). We computed six Glasso networks and identified central and bridge symptoms.

RESULTS

Central disordered eating nodes in most models were a desire to lose weight and discomfort when seeing one's own body. Central self-esteem and depression nodes were feeling useless and self-dislike, respectively. Feeling like a failure was the most common bridge symptom between disordered eating and depression symptoms. With exception of a few differences in some edges, networks did not significantly differ in structure.

DISCUSSION

Desire to lose weight was the most central node in the networks, which is consistent with sociocultural theories of disordered eating development, as well as prior network models from Western-culture samples. Feeling like a failure was the most central bridge symptom between depression and disordered eating, suggesting that very low self-esteem may be a shared correlate or risk factor for disordered eating and depression in Iranian adolescents and young adults.

'Silencing the self' and women's mental health problems: A narrative review

In the context of women's mental health several propositions have been made to account for their increased susceptibility to certain psychiatric illnesses. However, given the topic's multifacetedness, no single explanation is found sufficient in itself. 'Silencing the Self' theory sheds new light on this issue because it acknowledges the importance of social and cultural processes. Besides with its relational perspective, it centers on the primacy of core relationships and its influence on a woman's mental health. Even though, since its inception three decades ago, the theory has been studied in relation to various psychological and physical disorders; it has hitherto received inadequate attention by scholars. Nonetheless, it has the potential to inform our understanding when formulating women's mental health issues. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive narrative account of the extant work on 'silencing the self' in relation to psychiatric illnesses like depression, eating disorder and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. It attempts to synthesize the work done till date, as a starting point for further investigation of unexamined areas.

Examining the role of social physique anxiety on the relationship between physical appearance comparisons and disordered eating symptoms among Spanish emerging adults

The present study extends previous research by examining the moderating/mediating role of social physique anxiety (SPA) on the relationship between physical appearance comparisons (PAC) and symptoms of disordered eating (DE) in adolescent population. A total of 555 emerging adults (59% women) ranging from 18 to 30 years of age (M = 21.34, SD = 2.80) were recruited from two public universities from Spain using a non-probabilistic sampling technique. Participants completed a self-reported questionnaire comprising the variables of research interest. Once the effects of sex (i.e., being men or women), age, body mass index, and depressive symptoms were controlled for, the results from bootstrapping cross-sectional regression analyses supported both the moderating and mediating effect of SPA on the relationship between PAC and DE. Sex did not moderate any of these relationships. From these findings, it follows that incorporating strategies aimed at decreasing PAC and SPA may contribute to improved prevention efforts aimed at decreasing DE among Spanish emerging adults of both sexes.