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Harmon IP, McCabe EA, Vergun MR, Weinstein J, Graves HL, Boldt CM, Bradley DD, Lee J, Maurice JM, Solomon-Lane TK. Multiple behavioral mechanisms shape development in a highly social cichlid fish. Physiol Behav 2024; 278:114520. [PMID: 38492910 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
Early-life social experiences shape adult phenotype, yet the underlying behavioral mechanisms remain poorly understood. We manipulated early-life social experience in the highly social African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni to investigate the effects on behavior and stress axis function in juveniles. Juveniles experienced different numbers of social partners in stable pairs (1 partner), stable groups (6 fish; 5 partners), and socialized pairs (a novel fish was exchanged every 5 days; 5 partners). Treatments also differed in group size (groups vs. pairs) and stability (stable vs. socialized). We then measured individual behavior and water-borne cortisol to identify effects of early-life experience. We found treatment differences in behavior across all assays: open field exploration, social cue investigation, dominant behavior, and subordinate behavior. Treatment did not affect cortisol. Principal components (PC) analysis revealed robust co-variation of behavior across contexts, including with cortisol, to form behavioral syndromes sensitive to early-life social experience. PC1 (25.1 %) differed by social partner number: juveniles with more partners (groups and socialized pairs) were more exploratory during the social cue investigation, spent less time in the territory, and were more interactive as dominants. PC5 (8.5 %) differed by stability: socialized pairs were more dominant, spent less time in and around the territory, were more socially investigative, and had lower cortisol than stable groups or pairs. Observations of the home tanks provided insights into the social experiences that may underlie these effects. These results contribute to our understanding of how early-life social experiences are accrued and exert strong, lasting effects on phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - June Lee
- Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA, USA
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2
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Mascarenhas R, Meirelles PM, Batalha-Filho H. Urbanization drives adaptive evolution in a Neotropical bird. Curr Zool 2023; 69:607-619. [PMID: 37637315 PMCID: PMC10449428 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Urbanization has dramatic impacts on natural habitats and such changes may potentially drive local adaptation of urban populations. Behavioral change has been specifically shown to facilitate the fast adaptation of birds to changing environments, but few studies have investigated the genetic mechanisms of this process. Such investigations could provide insights into questions about both evolutionary theory and management of urban populations. In this study, we investigated whether local adaptation has occurred in urban populations of a Neotropical bird species, Coereba flaveola, specifically addressing whether observed behavioral adaptations are correlated to genetic signatures of natural selection. To answer this question, we sampled 24 individuals in urban and rural environments, and searched for selected loci through a genome-scan approach based on RADseq genomic data, generated and assembled using a reference genome for the species. We recovered 46 loci as putative selection outliers, and 30 of them were identified as associated with biological processes possibly related to urban adaptation, such as the regulation of energetic metabolism, regulation of genetic expression, and changes in the immunological system. Moreover, genes involved in the development of the nervous system showed signatures of selection, suggesting a link between behavioral and genetic adaptations. Our findings, in conjunction with similar results in previous studies, support the idea that cities provide a similar selective pressure on urban populations and that behavioral plasticity may be enhanced through genetic changes in urban populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rilquer Mascarenhas
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 40170-115 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Pedro Milet Meirelles
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 40170-115 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Henrique Batalha-Filho
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies in Ecology and Evolution (INCT IN-TREE), Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 40170-115 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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3
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Solomon-Lane TK, Butler RM, Hofmann HA. Vasopressin mediates nonapeptide and glucocorticoid signaling and social dynamics in juvenile dominance hierarchies of a highly social cichlid fish. Horm Behav 2022; 145:105238. [PMID: 35932752 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Early-life social experience can strongly affect adult behavior, yet the behavioral mechanisms underlying developmental trajectories are poorly understood. Here, we use the highly social cichlid, Burton's Mouthbrooder (Astatotilapia burtoni) to investigate juvenile social status and behavior, as well as the underlying neuroendocrine mechanisms. We placed juveniles in pairs or triads and found that they readily establish social status hierarchies, with some group structural variation depending on group size, as well as the relative body size of the group members. Next, we used intracerebroventricular injections to test the hypothesis that arginine vasopressin (AVP) regulates juvenile social behavior and status, similar to adult A. burtoni. While we found no direct behavioral effects of experimentally increasing (via vasotocin) or decreasing (via antagonist Manning Compound) AVP signaling, social interactions directed at the treated individual were significantly altered. This group-level effect of central AVP manipulation was also reflected in a significant shift in whole brain expression of genes involved in nonapeptide signaling (AVP, oxytocin, and oxytocin receptor) and the neuroendocrine stress axis (corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), glucocorticoid receptors (GR) 1a and 1b). Further, social status was associated with the expression of genes involved in glucocorticoid signaling (GR1a, GR1b, GR2, mineralocorticoid receptor), social interactions with the dominant fish, and nonapeptide signaling activity (AVP, AVP receptor V1aR2, OTR). Together, our results considerably expand our understanding of the context-specific emergence of social dominance hierarchies in juveniles and demonstrate a role for nonapeptide and stress axis signaling in the regulation of social status and social group dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa K Solomon-Lane
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America.
| | - Rebecca M Butler
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Institute for Cell & Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America
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4
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Rodriguez-Santiago M, Jordan A, Hofmann HA. Neural activity patterns differ between learning contexts in a social fish. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220135. [PMID: 35506226 PMCID: PMC9065956 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning and decision-making are greatly influenced by context. When navigating a complex social world, individuals must quickly ascertain where to gain important resources and which group members are useful sources of such information. Such dynamic behavioural processes require neural mechanisms that are flexible across contexts. Here we examine how the social context influences the learning response during a cue discrimination task and the neural activity patterns that underlie acquisition of this novel information. Using the cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni, we show that learning of the task is faster in social groups than in a non-social context. We quantify the neural activity patterns by examining the expression of Fos, an immediate-early gene, across brain regions known to play a role in social behaviour and learning (such as the putative teleost homologues of the mammalian hippocampus, basolateral amygdala and medial amygdala/BNST complex). We find that neural activity patterns differ between social and non-social contexts. Taken together, our results suggest that while the same brain regions may be involved in the learning of a cue association, the activity in each region reflects an individual's social context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Rodriguez-Santiago
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.,Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.,Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Alex Jordan
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.,Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.,Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.,Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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5
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Wallace KJ, Choudhary KD, Kutty LA, Le DH, Lee MT, Wu K, Hofmann HA. Social ascent changes cognition, behaviour and physiology in a highly social cichlid fish. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20200448. [PMID: 35000445 PMCID: PMC8743896 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
When an individual ascends in dominance status within their social community, they often undergo a suite of behavioural, physiological and neuromolecular changes. While these changes have been extensively characterized across a number of species, we know much less about the degree to which these changes in turn influence cognitive processes like associative learning, memory and spatial navigation. Here, we assessed male Astatotilapia burtoni, an African cichlid fish known for its dynamic social dominance hierarchies, in a set of cognitive tasks both before and after a community perturbation in which some individuals ascended in dominance status. We assayed steroid hormone (cortisol, testosterone) levels before and after the community experienced a social perturbation. We found that ascending males changed their physiology and novel object recognition preference during the perturbation, and they subsequently differed in social competence from non-ascenders. Additionally, using a principal component analysis we were able to identify specific cognitive and physiological attributes that appear to predispose certain individuals to ascend in social status once a perturbation occurs. These previously undiscovered relationships between social ascent and cognition further emphasize the broad influence of social dominance on animal decision-making. This article is part of the theme issue 'The centennial of the pecking order: current state and future prospects for the study of dominance hierarchies'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J. Wallace
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Kavyaa D. Choudhary
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Layla A. Kutty
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Don H. Le
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Matthew T. Lee
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Karleen Wu
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Hans A. Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA,Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Hollander-Cohen L, Meir I, Shulman M, Levavi-Sivan B. Identifying the Interaction of the Brain and the Pituitary in Social - and Reproductive - State of Tilapia by Transcriptome Analyses. Neuroendocrinology 2022; 112:1237-1260. [PMID: 35381588 DOI: 10.1159/000524437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION As in all vertebrates, reproduction in fish is regulated by gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) control on gonadotrophic hormones (GtHs) activity. However, the neuroendocrine factors that promote GnRH and GtH activity are unknown. In Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), sexual activity and reproduction ability depend on social rank; only dominant males and females reproduce. Here, this characteristic of dominant fish allows us to compare brain and pituitary gene expression in animals that do and do not reproduce, aiming to reveal mechanisms that regulate reproduction. METHODS An extensive transcriptome analysis was performed, combining two sets of transcriptomes: a novel whole-brain and pituitary transcriptome of established dominant and subordinate males, together with a cell-specific transcriptome of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone cells. Pituitary incubation assay validated the direct effect of steroid application on chosen genes and GtH secretion. RESULTS In most dominant fish, as determined behaviorally, the gonadosomatic index was higher than in subordinate fish, and the leading upregulated pituitary genes were those coding for GtHs. In the brain, various neuropeptide genes, including isotocin, cholecystokinin, and MCH, were upregulated; these may be related to reproductive status through effects on behavior and feeding. In a STRING network analysis combining the two transcriptome sets, brain aromatase, highly expressed in LH cells, is the most central gene with the highest number of connections. In the pituitary incubation assay, testosterone and estradiol increased the secretion of LH and specific gene transcription. CONCLUSIONS The close correlation between behavioral dominance and reproductive capacity in tilapia allows unraveling novel genes that may regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, highlighting aromatase as the main factor affecting the brain and pituitary in maintaining a sexually active organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Hollander-Cohen
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel,
| | - Inbar Meir
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Miriam Shulman
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Berta Levavi-Sivan
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food, and Environment, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
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Kabelik D, Julien AR, Ramirez D, O'Connell LA. Social boldness correlates with brain gene expression in male green anoles. Horm Behav 2021; 133:105007. [PMID: 34102460 PMCID: PMC8277760 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.105007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Within populations, some individuals tend to exhibit a bold or shy social behavior phenotype relative to the mean. The neural underpinnings of these differing phenotypes - also described as syndromes, personalities, and coping styles - is an area of ongoing investigation. Although a social decision-making network has been described across vertebrate taxa, most studies examining activity within this network do so in relation to exhibited differences in behavioral expression. Our study instead focuses on constitutive gene expression in bold and shy individuals by isolating baseline gene expression profiles that influence social boldness predisposition, rather than those reflecting the results of social interaction and behavioral execution. We performed this study on male green anole lizards (Anolis carolinensis), an established model organism for behavioral research, which provides a crucial comparison group to investigations of birds and mammals. After identifying subjects as bold or shy through repeated reproductive and agonistic behavior testing, we used RNA sequencing to compare gene expression profiles between these groups within various forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain regions. The ventromedial hypothalamus had the largest group differences in gene expression, with bold males having increased expression of neuroendocrine and neurotransmitter receptor and calcium channel genes compared to shy males. Conversely, shy males express more integrin alpha-10 in the majority of examined regions. There were no significant group differences in physiology or hormone levels. Our results highlight the ventromedial hypothalamus as an important center of behavioral differences across individuals and provide novel candidates for investigations into the regulation of individual variation in social behavior phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kabelik
- Department of Biology & Program in Neuroscience, Rhodes College, Memphis, TN 38112, USA.
| | - Allison R Julien
- Department of Biology & Program in Neuroscience, Rhodes College, Memphis, TN 38112, USA
| | - Dave Ramirez
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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8
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Maguire SM, DeAngelis R, Dijkstra PD, Jordan A, Hofmann HA. Social network dynamics predict hormone levels and behavior in a highly social cichlid fish. Horm Behav 2021; 132:104994. [PMID: 33991797 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.104994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Group living confers many benefits while simultaneously exposing group members to intense competition. An individual's rise to prominence within a group may conflict with the overall functioning of the group. There is therefore a complex and dynamic relationship between the behavioral displays that directly benefit an individual, the consequences of these actions for the community, and how they feed back on individual-level fitness. We used a network analysis approach to study the link between behavior, social stability, and steroid hormone levels in replicate communities of the cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni, which live in social groups with a dominance hierarchy. We demonstrate that individual behavior can have direct and indirect effects on the behavior of others while also affecting group characteristics. Our results show that A. burtoni males form stable social networks, where dominant individuals act as hubs for social interactions. However, there was variation in the temporal stability in these networks, and this variation in stability impacted hormone levels. Dominant males had higher testosterone levels, however, the differences in testosterone levels between dominant and subordinate males were greatest in stable communities. In sum, our analyses provide novel insights into the processes by which individual and community properties interact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Maguire
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Ross DeAngelis
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Peter D Dijkstra
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Alex Jordan
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA; Institue for Cellular & Molecular Biology, Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
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9
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Neural substrates involved in the cognitive information processing in teleost fish. Anim Cogn 2021; 24:923-946. [PMID: 33907938 PMCID: PMC8360893 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01514-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Over the last few decades, it has been shown that fish, comprising the largest group of vertebrates and in many respects one of the least well studied, possess many cognitive abilities comparable to those of birds and mammals. Despite a plethora of behavioural studies assessing cognition abilities and an abundance of neuroanatomical studies, only few studies have aimed to or in fact identified the neural substrates involved in the processing of cognitive information. In this review, an overview of the currently available studies addressing the joint research topics of cognitive behaviour and neuroscience in teleosts (and elasmobranchs wherever possible) is provided, primarily focusing on two fundamentally different but complementary approaches, i.e. ablation studies and Immediate Early Gene (IEG) analyses. More recently, the latter technique has become one of the most promising methods to visualize neuronal populations activated in specific brain areas, both during a variety of cognitive as well as non-cognition-related tasks. While IEG studies may be more elegant and potentially easier to conduct, only lesion studies can help researchers find out what information animals can learn or recall prior to and following ablation of a particular brain area.
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10
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Wallace KJ, Hofmann HA. Equal performance but distinct behaviors: sex differences in a novel object recognition task and spatial maze in a highly social cichlid fish. Anim Cogn 2021; 24:1057-1073. [PMID: 33718996 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01498-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in behavior and cognition can be driven by differential selection pressures from the environment and in the underlying neuromolecular mechanisms of decision-making. The highly social cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni exhibits dynamic and complex social hierarchies, yet explicit cognitive testing (outside of social contexts) and investigations of sex differences in cognition have yet to be fully explored. Here we assessed male and female A. burtoni in two cognitive tasks: a novel object recognition task and a spatial task. We hypothesized that males outperform females in a spatial learning task and exhibit more neophilic/exploratory behavior across both tasks. In the present study we find that both sexes prefer the familiar object in a novel object recognition task, but the time at which they exhibit this preference differs between the sexes. Females more frequently learned the spatial task, exhibiting longer decision latencies and quicker error correction, suggesting a potential speed-accuracy tradeoff. Furthermore, the sexes differ in space use in both tasks and in a principal component analysis of the spatial task. A model selection analysis finds that preference, approach, and interaction duration in the novel object recognition task reach a threshold of importance averaged across all models. This work highlights the need to explicitly test for sex differences in cognition to better understand how individuals navigate dynamic social environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Wallace
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, 1 University Station C0990, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas, 1 University Station C0990, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
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11
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Radical change: temporal patterns of oxidative stress during social ascent in a dominance hierarchy. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-02981-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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12
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Pannebakker BA, Cook N, van den Heuvel J, van de Zande L, Shuker DM. Genomics of sex allocation in the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:499. [PMID: 32689940 PMCID: PMC7372847 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-06904-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whilst adaptive facultative sex allocation has been widely studied at the phenotypic level across a broad range of organisms, we still know remarkably little about its genetic architecture. Here, we explore the genome-wide basis of sex ratio variation in the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis, perhaps the best studied organism in terms of sex allocation, and well known for its response to local mate competition. RESULTS We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for single foundress sex ratios using iso-female lines derived from the recently developed outbred N. vitripennis laboratory strain HVRx. The iso-female lines capture a sample of the genetic variation in HVRx and we present them as the first iteration of the Nasonia vitripennis Genome Reference Panel (NVGRP 1.0). This panel provides an assessment of the standing genetic variation for sex ratio in the study population. Using the NVGRP, we discovered a cluster of 18 linked SNPs, encompassing 9 annotated loci associated with sex ratio variation. Furthermore, we found evidence that sex ratio has a shared genetic basis with clutch size on three different chromosomes. CONCLUSIONS Our approach provides a thorough description of the quantitative genetic basis of sex ratio variation in Nasonia at the genome level and reveals a number of inter-related candidate loci underlying sex allocation regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart A Pannebakker
- Laboratory of Genetics, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Nicola Cook
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, UK
| | - Joost van den Heuvel
- Laboratory of Genetics, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Louis van de Zande
- Evolutionary Genetics, Development and Behaviour, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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13
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Behavioral and brain- transcriptomic synchronization between the two opponents of a fighting pair of the fish Betta splendens. PLoS Genet 2020; 16:e1008831. [PMID: 32555673 PMCID: PMC7299326 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Conspecific male animals fight for resources such as food and mating opportunities but typically stop fighting after assessing their relative fighting abilities to avoid serious injuries. Physiologically, how the fighting behavior is controlled remains unknown. Using the fighting fish Betta splendens, we studied behavioral and brain-transcriptomic changes during the fight between the two opponents. At the behavioral level, surface-breathing, and biting/striking occurred only during intervals between mouth-locking. Eventually, the behaviors of the two opponents became synchronized, with each pair showing a unique behavioral pattern. At the physiological level, we examined the expression patterns of 23,306 brain transcripts using RNA-sequencing data from brains of fighting pairs after a 20-min (D20) and a 60-min (D60) fight. The two opponents in each D60 fighting pair showed a strong gene expression correlation, whereas those in D20 fighting pairs showed a weak correlation. Moreover, each fighting pair in the D60 group showed pair-specific gene expression patterns in a grade of membership analysis (GoM) and were grouped as a pair in the heatmap clustering. The observed pair-specific individualization in brain-transcriptomic synchronization (PIBS) suggested that this synchronization provides a physiological basis for the behavioral synchronization. An analysis using the synchronized genes in fighting pairs of the D60 group found genes enriched for ion transport, synaptic function, and learning and memory. Brain-transcriptomic synchronization could be a general phenomenon and may provide a new cornerstone with which to investigate coordinating and sustaining social interactions between two interacting partners of vertebrates. Agonistic encounters induce changes in the brain and behavior, but their underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. The fighting fish Betta splendens are small freshwater fish that are well known for their aggressiveness and are widely used to study aggression. Here, by measuring aggressive behavior displays (bite/strike/surface-breathing) between two opponents during fighting, we demonstrate that the two opponents in each fighting pair showed similar fighting configurations by influencing each other. In addition, we compared brain gene expression between opponents and showed synchronization of gene expression within a fighting pair, leading to pair-specific synchronization in genes associated with ion transport, synapse function, and learning and memory. This study presents the possibility that similar behaviors in pairs of animals under similar conditions may trigger synchronizing waves of transcription between the individuals, providing a hint to support the idea that fighting behaviors contain cooperative aspects at the molecular level.
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Demin KA, Lakstygal AM, Volgin AD, de Abreu MS, Genario R, Alpyshov ET, Serikuly N, Wang D, Wang J, Yan D, Wang M, Yang L, Hu G, Bytov M, Zabegalov KN, Zhdanov A, Harvey BH, Costa F, Rosemberg DB, Leonard BE, Fontana BD, Cleal M, Parker MO, Wang J, Song C, Amstislavskaya TG, Kalueff AV. Cross-species Analyses of Intra-species Behavioral Differences in Mammals and Fish. Neuroscience 2020; 429:33-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.12.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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15
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DeOliveira-Mello L, Lara JM, Arevalo R, Velasco A, Mack AF. Sox2 expression in the visual system of two teleost species. Brain Res 2019; 1722:146350. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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16
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Solomon-Lane TK, Hofmann HA. Early-life social environment alters juvenile behavior and neuroendocrine function in a highly social cichlid fish. Horm Behav 2019; 115:104552. [PMID: 31276665 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Early-life experiences can shape adult behavior, with consequences for fitness and health, yet fundamental questions remain unanswered about how early-life social experiences are translated into variation in brain and behavior. The African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni, a model system in social neuroscience, is well known for its highly plastic social phenotypes in adulthood. Here, we rear juveniles in either social groups or pairs to investigate the effects of early-life social environments on behavior and neuroendocrine gene expression. We find that both juvenile behavior and neuroendocrine function are sensitive to early-life effects. Behavior robustly co-varies across multiple contexts (open field, social cue investigation, and dominance behavior assays) to form a behavioral syndrome, with pair-reared juveniles towards the end of syndrome that is less active and socially interactive. Pair-reared juveniles also submit more readily as subordinates. In a separate cohort, we measured whole brain expression of stress and sex hormone genes. Expression of glucocorticoid receptor 1a was elevated in group-reared juveniles, supporting a highly-conserved role for the stress axis mediating early-life effects. The effect of rearing environment on androgen receptor α and estrogen receptor α expression was mediated by treatment duration (1 vs. 5 weeks). Finally, expression of corticotropin-releasing factor and glucocorticoid receptor 2 decreased significantly over time. Rearing environment also caused striking differences in gene co-expression, such that expression was tightly integrated in pair-reared juveniles but not group-reared or isolates. Together, this research demonstrates the important developmental origins of behavioral phenotypes and identifies potential behavioral and neuroendocrine mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa K Solomon-Lane
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America.
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America; Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States of America
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17
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Hou L, Li B, Ding D, Kang L, Wang X. CREB-B acts as a key mediator of NPF/NO pathway involved in phase-related locomotor plasticity in locusts. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1008176. [PMID: 31150381 PMCID: PMC6561586 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression changes in neural systems are essential for environment-induced behavioral plasticity in animals; however, neuronal signaling pathways mediating the effect of external stimuli on transcriptional changes are largely unknown. Recently, we have demonstrated that the neuropeptide F (NPF)/nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway plays a regulatory role in phase-related locomotor plasticity in the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria. Here, we report that a conserved transcription factor, cAMP response element-binding protein B (CREB-B), is a key mediator involved in the signaling pathway from NPF2 to NOS in the migratory locust, triggering locomotor activity shift between solitarious and gregarious phases. We find that CREB-B directly activates brain NOS expression by interacting with NOS promoter region. The phosphorylation at serine 110 site of CREB-B dynamically changes in response to population density variation and is negatively controlled by NPF2. The involvement of CREB-B in NPF2-regulated locomotor plasticity is further validated by RNAi experiment and behavioral assay. Furthermore, we reveal that protein kinase A mediates the regulatory effects of NPF2 on CREB-B phosphorylation and NOS transcription. These findings highlight a precise signal cascade underlying environment-induced behavioral plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Beibei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ding Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Le Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xianhui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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18
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Allen AM, Anreiter I, Vesterberg A, Douglas SJ, Sokolowski MB. Pleiotropy of the Drosophila melanogaster foraging gene on larval feeding-related traits. J Neurogenet 2018; 32:256-266. [PMID: 30303018 PMCID: PMC6309726 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2018.1500572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the molecular underpinning of behavioral pleiotropy. The Drosophila melanogaster foraging gene is highly pleiotropic, affecting many independent larval and adult phenotypes. Included in foraging's multiple phenotypes are larval foraging path length, triglyceride levels, and food intake. foraging has a complex structure with four promoters and 21 transcripts that encode nine protein isoforms of a cGMP dependent protein kinase (PKG). We examined if foraging's complex molecular structure underlies the behavioral pleiotropy associated with this gene. Using a promotor analysis strategy, we cloned DNA fragments upstream of each of foraging's transcription start sites and generated four separate forpr-Gal4s. Supporting our hypothesis of modular function, they had discrete, restricted expression patterns throughout the larva. In the CNS, forpr1-Gal4 and forpr4-Gal4 were expressed in neurons while forpr2-Gal4 and forpr3-Gal4 were expressed in glia cells. In the gastric system, forpr1-Gal4 and forpr3-Gal4 were expressed in enteroendocrine cells of the midgut while forpr2-Gal4 was expressed in the stem cells of the midgut. forpr3-Gal4 was expressed in the midgut enterocytes, and midgut and hindgut visceral muscle. forpr4-Gal4's gastric system expression was restricted to the hindgut. We also found promoter specific expression in the larval fat body, salivary glands, and body muscle. The modularity of foraging's molecular structure was also apparent in the phenotypic rescues. We rescued larval path length, triglyceride levels (bordered on significance), and food intake of for0 null larvae using different forpr-Gal4s to drive UAS-forcDNA. In a foraging null genetic background, forpr1-Gal4 was the only promoter driven Gal4 to rescue larval path length, forpr3-Gal4 altered triglyceride levels, and forpr4-Gal4 rescued food intake. Our results refine the spatial expression responsible for foraging's associated phenotypes, as well as the sub-regions of the locus responsible for their expression. foraging's pleiotropy arises at least in part from the individual contributions of its four promoters.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. M. Allen
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3G5
- Current address: Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK, OX1 3SR
| | - I. Anreiter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3B2
- Child and Brain Development Program, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), MaRS Centre, West Tower, 661 University Ave., Suite 505, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5G 1M1
| | - A. Vesterberg
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3B2
| | - S. J. Douglas
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3G5
| | - M. B. Sokolowski
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Harbord Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3G5
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 25 Willcocks Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5S 3B2
- Child and Brain Development Program, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), MaRS Centre, West Tower, 661 University Ave., Suite 505, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5G 1M1
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19
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Pauquet G, Salzburger W, Egger B. The puzzling phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:5637-5648. [PMID: 29938080 PMCID: PMC6010872 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Astatotilapia burtoni is a member of the "modern haplochromines," the most species-rich lineage within the family of cichlid fishes. Although the species has been in use as research model in various fields of research since almost seven decades, including developmental biology, neurobiology, genetics and genomics, and behavioral biology, little is known about its spatial distribution and phylogeography. Here, we examine the population structure and phylogeographic history of A. burtoni throughout its entire distribution range in the Lake Tanganyika basin. In addition, we include several A. burtoni laboratory strains to trace back their origin from wild populations. To this end, we reconstruct phylogenetic relationships based on sequences of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (d-loop) as well as thousands of genomewide single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) derived from restriction-associated DNA sequencing. Our analyses reveal high population structure and deep divergence among several lineages, however, with discordant nuclear and mtDNA phylogenetic inferences. Whereas the SNP-based phylogenetic hypothesis uncovers an unexpectedly deep split in A. burtoni, separating the populations in the southern part of the Lake Tanganyika basin from those in the northern part, analyses of the mtDNA control region suggest deep divergence between populations from the southwestern shoreline and populations from the northern and southeastern shorelines of Lake Tanganyika. This phylogeographic pattern and mitochondrial haplotype sharing between populations from the very North and the very South of Lake Tanganyika can only partly be explained by introgression linked to lake-level fluctuations leading to past contact zones between otherwise isolated populations and large-scale migration events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Bernd Egger
- Zoological InstituteUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
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20
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Renn SC, Machado HE, Duftner N, Sessa AK, Harris RM, Hofmann HA. Gene expression signatures of mating system evolution. Genome 2018; 61:287-297. [DOI: 10.1139/gen-2017-0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The diversity of mating systems among animals is astounding. Importantly, similar mating systems have evolved even across distantly related taxa. However, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying these convergently evolved phenotypes is limited. Here, we examine on a genomic scale the neuromolecular basis of social organization in cichlids of the tribe Ectodini from Lake Tanganyika. Using field-collected males and females of four closely related species representing two independent evolutionary transitions from polygyny to monogamy, we take a comparative transcriptomic approach to test the hypothesis that these independent transitions have recruited similar gene sets. Our results demonstrate that while lineage and species exert a strong influence on neural gene expression profiles, social phenotype can also drive gene expression evolution. Specifically, 331 genes (∼6% of those assayed) were associated with monogamous mating systems independent of species or sex. Among these genes, we find a strong bias (4:1 ratio) toward genes with increased expression in monogamous individuals. A highly conserved nonapeptide system known to be involved in the regulation of social behavior across animals was not associated with mating system in our analysis. Overall, our findings suggest deep molecular homologies underlying the convergent or parallel evolution of monogamy in different cichlid lineages of Ectodini.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heather E. Machado
- Department of Biology, Reed College
- Department of Biology, Stanford University
| | - Nina Duftner
- Department of Integrative Biology, the University of Texas at Austin
| | - Anna K. Sessa
- Department of Integrative Biology, the University of Texas at Austin
| | - Rayna M. Harris
- Department of Integrative Biology, the University of Texas at Austin
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, the University of Texas at Austin
| | - Hans A. Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, the University of Texas at Austin
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, the University of Texas at Austin
- Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Institute for Neuroscience, the University of Texas at Austin
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21
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Renn SCP, O'Rourke CF, Aubin-Horth N, Fraser EJ, Hofmann HA. Dissecting the Transcriptional Patterns of Social Dominance across Teleosts. Integr Comp Biol 2018; 56:1250-1265. [PMID: 27940616 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In many species, under varying ecological conditions, social interactions among individuals result in the formation of dominance hierarchies. Despite general similarities, there are robust differences among dominance hierarchies across species, populations, environments, life stages, sexes, and individuals. Understanding the proximate mechanisms underlying the variation is an important step toward understanding the evolution of social behavior. However, physiological changes associated with dominance, such as gonadal maturation and somatic growth, often complicate efforts to identify the specific underlying mechanisms. Traditional gene expression analyses are useful for generating candidate gene lists, but are biased by choice of significance cut-offs and difficult to use for between-study comparisons. In contrast, complementary analysis tools allow one to both test a priori hypotheses and generate new hypotheses. Here we employ a meta-analysis of high-throughput expression profiling experiments to investigate the gene expression patterns that underlie mechanisms and evolution of behavioral social phenotypes. Specifically, we use a collection of datasets on social dominance in fish across social contexts, sex, and species. Using experimental manipulation to produce female dominance hierarchies in the cichlid Astatotilapia burtoni, heralded as a genomic model of social dominance, we generate gene lists, and assess molecular gene modules. In the dominant female gene expression profile, we demonstrate a strong pattern of up-regulation of genes previously identified as having male-biased expression and furthermore, compare expression biases between male and female dominance phenotypes. Using a threshold-free approach to identify correlation throughout ranked gene lists, we query previously published datasets associated with maternal behavior, alternative reproductive tactics, cooperative breeding, and sex-role reversal to describe correlations among these various neural gene expression profiles associated with different instances of social dominance. These complementary approaches capitalize on the high-throughput gene expression profiling from similar behavioral phenotypes in order to address the mechanisms associated with social dominance behavioral phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzy C P Renn
- *Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 SE Woodstock blvd, Portland, OR 97202, USA
| | - Cynthia F O'Rourke
- *Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 SE Woodstock blvd, Portland, OR 97202, USA
| | - Nadia Aubin-Horth
- Département de Biologie & Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, 1030 Avenue de la Médecine - Local 1242 Québec G1V 0A6, QC Canada
| | - Eleanor J Fraser
- UCSF School of Medicine, 513 Parnassus Ave, Med Sci, San Francisco, CA 94122, USA
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, The University of Texas at Austin, 2415 Speedway - C0990, Austin, TX 78705, USA
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22
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Rittschof CC, Hughes KA. Advancing behavioural genomics by considering timescale. Nat Commun 2018; 9:489. [PMID: 29434301 PMCID: PMC5809431 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-02971-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal behavioural traits often covary with gene expression, pointing towards a genomic constraint on organismal responses to environmental cues. This pattern highlights a gap in our understanding of the time course of environmentally responsive gene expression, and moreover, how these dynamics are regulated. Advances in behavioural genomics explore how gene expression dynamics are correlated with behavioural traits that range from stable to highly labile. We consider the idea that certain genomic regulatory mechanisms may predict the timescale of an environmental effect on behaviour. This temporally minded approach could inform both organismal and evolutionary questions ranging from the remediation of early life social trauma to understanding the evolution of trait plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare C Rittschof
- Department of Entomology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546, USA.
| | - Kimberly A Hughes
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
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23
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Socially induced plasticity in sensorimotor gating in the African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni. Behav Brain Res 2017; 332:32-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.05.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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24
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Kabir ZD, Martínez-Rivera A, Rajadhyaksha AM. From Gene to Behavior: L-Type Calcium Channel Mechanisms Underlying Neuropsychiatric Symptoms. Neurotherapeutics 2017; 14:588-613. [PMID: 28497380 PMCID: PMC5509628 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-017-0532-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The L-type calcium channels (LTCCs) Cav1.2 and Cav1.3, encoded by the CACNA1C and CACNA1D genes, respectively, are important regulators of calcium influx into cells and are critical for normal brain development and plasticity. In humans, CACNA1C has emerged as one of the most widely reproduced and prominent candidate risk genes for a range of neuropsychiatric disorders, including bipolar disorder (BD), schizophrenia (SCZ), major depressive disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Separately, CACNA1D has been found to be associated with BD and autism spectrum disorder, as well as cocaine dependence, a comorbid feature associated with psychiatric disorders. Despite growing evidence of a significant link between CACNA1C and CACNA1D and psychiatric disorders, our understanding of the biological mechanisms by which these LTCCs mediate neuropsychiatric-associated endophenotypes, many of which are shared across the different disorders, remains rudimentary. Clinical studies with LTCC blockers testing their efficacy to alleviate symptoms associated with BD, SCZ, and drug dependence have provided mixed results, underscoring the importance of further exploring the neurobiological consequences of dysregulated Cav1.2 and Cav1.3. Here, we provide a review of clinical studies that have evaluated LTCC blockers for BD, SCZ, and drug dependence-associated symptoms, as well as rodent studies that have identified Cav1.2- and Cav1.3-specific molecular and cellular cascades that underlie mood (anxiety, depression), social behavior, cognition, and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeeba D Kabir
- Pediatric Neurology, Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Weill Cornell Autism Research Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Arlene Martínez-Rivera
- Pediatric Neurology, Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Weill Cornell Autism Research Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Anjali M Rajadhyaksha
- Pediatric Neurology, Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Weill Cornell Autism Research Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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25
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Weitekamp CA, Nguyen J, Hofmann HA. Social context affects behavior, preoptic area gene expression, and response to
D2
receptor manipulation during territorial defense in a cichlid fish. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2017; 16:601-611. [DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. A. Weitekamp
- Department of Integrative Biology University of Texas at Austin Austin TX USA
| | - J. Nguyen
- Department of Integrative Biology University of Texas at Austin Austin TX USA
| | - H. A. Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology University of Texas at Austin Austin TX USA
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology University of Texas at Austin Austin TX USA
- Institute for Neuroscience University of Texas at Austin Austin TX USA
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26
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Barbaro N, Boutwell BB, Barnes J, Shackelford TK. Genetic confounding of the relationship between father absence and age at menarche. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Weitekamp CA, Hofmann HA. Neuromolecular correlates of cooperation and conflict during territory defense in a cichlid fish. Horm Behav 2017; 89:145-156. [PMID: 28108326 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Revised: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Cooperative behavior is widespread among animals, yet the neural mechanisms have not been studied in detail. We examined cooperative territory defense behavior and associated neural activity in candidate forebrain regions in the cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni. We find that a territorial male neighbor will engage in territory defense dependent on the perceived threat of the intruder. The resident male, on the other hand, engages in defense based on the size and behavior of his partner, the neighbor. In the neighbor, we find that an index of engagement correlates with neural activity in the putative homolog of the mammalian basolateral amygdala and in the preoptic area, as well as in preoptic dopaminergic neurons. In the resident, neighbor behavior is correlated with neural activity in the homolog of the mammalian hippocampus. Overall, we find distinct neural activity patterns between the neighbor and the resident, suggesting that an individual perceives and processes an intruder challenge differently during cooperative territory defense depending on its own behavioral role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea A Weitekamp
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78705, USA
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78705, USA; Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78705, USA; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78705, USA.
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28
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Schneider RF, Meyer A. How plasticity, genetic assimilation and cryptic genetic variation may contribute to adaptive radiations. Mol Ecol 2016; 26:330-350. [PMID: 27747962 DOI: 10.1111/mec.13880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that phenotypic plasticity can promote population divergence by facilitating phenotypic diversification and, eventually, genetic divergence. When a 'plastic' population colonizes a new habitat, it has the possibility to occupy multiple niches by expressing several distinct phenotypes. These initially reflect the population's plastic range but may later become genetically fixed by selection via the process of 'genetic assimilation' (GA). Through this process multiple specialized sister lineages can arise that share a common plastic ancestor - the 'flexible stem'. Here, we review possible molecular mechanisms through which natural selection could fix an initially plastic trait during GA. These mechanisms could also explain how GA may contribute to cryptic genetic variation that can subsequently be coopted into other phenotypes or traits, but also lead to nonadaptive responses. We outline the predicted patterns of genetic and transcriptional divergence accompanying flexible stem radiations. The analysis of such patterns of (retained) adaptive and nonadaptive plastic responses within and across radiating lineages can inform on the state of ongoing GA. We conclude that, depending on the stability of the environment, the molecular architecture underlying plastic traits can facilitate diversification, followed by fixation and consolidation of an adaptive phenotype and degeneration of nonadaptive ones. Additionally, the process of GA may increase the cryptic genetic variation of populations, which on one hand may serve as substrate for evolution, but on another may be responsible for nonadaptive responses that consolidate local allopatry and thus reproductive isolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf F Schneider
- Lehrstuhl für Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitaetstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Axel Meyer
- Lehrstuhl für Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitaetstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
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29
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Hejazi M, Movahedi MF, Askari O, Higbee BS. Novel Chemo-Attractants for Trapping Tomato Leafminer Moth (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2016; 109:2074-2081. [PMID: 27567219 DOI: 10.1093/jee/tow195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The tomato leafminer moth, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick), is a devastating pest for tomatoes in Iran and throughout the world. This pest reduces tomato yields in farms and greenhouses. It appears some floral odors are significant attractants for tomato leafminer moth. In this study, the effects of three floral compounds, phenylacetaldehyde (PAA), acetic acid (AA), and 3-methyl-1-butanol (MB), were evaluated as trap attractants for tomato leafminer moth. The attractants were tested separately, combined, and blended in binary and tertiary. Lures were tested in delta and water pan traps under field conditions and compared with unbaited traps as controls. Results indicated that water pan traps caught more moths than delta traps. Also treatments with PAA + AA combined and the AA + MB blend were strongly attractive to tomato leafminer moth males compared with other treatments in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hejazi
- Department of Plant Protection, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran (; )
| | - M F Movahedi
- Department of Plant Protection, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran (; )
| | - O Askari
- Plant Protection Organization, P.O. Box 1454, Tehran 19395, Iran
| | - B S Higbee
- Director, Entomology Research, Wonderful Orchards, 6801 E. Lerdo Hwy, Shafter, CA 93263
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30
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Rieger MA, Dougherty JD. Analysis of within Subjects Variability in Mouse Ultrasonic Vocalization: Pups Exhibit Inconsistent, State-Like Patterns of Call Production. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:182. [PMID: 27733819 PMCID: PMC5039195 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Mice produce ultrasonic vocalizations (USV) in multiple communicative contexts, including adult social interaction (e.g., male to female courtship), as well as pup calls when separated from the dam. Assessment of pup USV has been widely applied in models of social and communicative disorders, dozens of which have shown alterations to this conserved behavior. However, features such as call production rate can vary substantially even within experimental groups and it is unclear to what extent aspects of USV represent stable trait-like influences or are vulnerable to an animal's state. To address this question, we have employed a mixed modeling approach to describe consistency in USV features across time, leveraging multiple large cohorts recorded from two strains, and across ages/times. We find that most features of pup USV show consistent patterns within a recording session, but inconsistent patterns across postnatal development. This supports the conclusion that pup USV is most strongly influenced by "state"-like variables. In contrast, adult USV call rate and call duration show higher consistency across sessions and may reflect a stable "trait." However, spectral features of adult song such as the presence of pitch jumps do not show this level of consistency, suggesting that pitch modulation is more susceptible to factors affecting the animal's state at the time of recording. Overall, the utility of this work is three-fold. First, as variability necessarily affects the sensitivity of the assay to detect experimental perturbation, we hope the information provided here will be used to help researchers plan sufficiently powered experiments, as well as prioritize specific ages to study USV behavior and to decide which features to consider most strongly in analysis. Second, via the mouseTube platform, we have provided these hundreds of recordings and associated data to serve as a shared resource for other researchers interested in either benchmark data for these strains or in developing algorithms for studying features of mouse song. Finally, we hope that this work informs both interpretation of USV studies in models of developmental disorder, and helps to further research into understanding the neural processes that contribute to the production and predictability of USV behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Rieger
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of MedicineSt. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of MedicineSt. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Joseph D. Dougherty
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of MedicineSt. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of MedicineSt. Louis, MO, USA
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Simões JM, Barata EN, Harris RM, O'Connell LA, Hofmann HA, Oliveira RF. Social odors conveying dominance and reproductive information induce rapid physiological and neuromolecular changes in a cichlid fish. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:114. [PMID: 25766511 PMCID: PMC4344806 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1255-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 01/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Social plasticity is a pervasive feature of animal behavior. Animals adjust the expression of their social behavior to the daily changes in social life and to transitions between life-history stages, and this ability has an impact in their Darwinian fitness. This behavioral plasticity may be achieved either by rewiring or by biochemically switching nodes of the neural network underlying social behavior in response to perceived social information. Independent of the proximate mechanisms, at the neuromolecular level social plasticity relies on the regulation of gene expression, such that different neurogenomic states emerge in response to different social stimuli and the switches between states are orchestrated by signaling pathways that interface the social environment and the genotype. Here, we test this hypothesis by characterizing the changes in the brain profile of gene expression in response to social odors in the Mozambique Tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus. This species has a rich repertoire of social behaviors during which both visual and chemical information are conveyed to conspecifics. Specifically, dominant males increase their urination frequency during agonist encounters and during courtship to convey chemical information reflecting their dominance status. Results We recorded electro-olfactograms to test the extent to which the olfactory epithelium can discriminate between olfactory information from dominant and subordinate males as well as from pre- and post-spawning females. We then performed a genome-scale gene expression analysis of the olfactory bulb and the olfactory cortex homolog in order to identify the neuromolecular systems involved in processing these social stimuli. Conclusions Our results show that different olfactory stimuli from conspecifics’ have a major impact in the brain transcriptome, with different chemical social cues eliciting specific patterns of gene expression in the brain. These results confirm the role of rapid changes in gene expression in the brain as a genomic mechanism underlying behavioral plasticity and reinforce the idea of an extensive transcriptional plasticity of cichlid genomes, especially in response to rapid changes in their social environment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1255-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Simões
- Unidade de Investigação em Eco-Etologia, ISPA - Instituto Universitário, Rua Jardim do Tabaco 34, 1149-041, Lisbon, Portugal. .,Integrative Behavioural Biology Lab, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal. .,Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Eduardo N Barata
- CCMAR-CIMAR Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal. .,Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Évora, Apartado 94, 7002-554, Évora, Portugal.
| | - Rayna M Harris
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. .,Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
| | - Lauren A O'Connell
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. .,Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. .,Current address: FAS Center for Systems Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. .,Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA. .,Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA.
| | - Rui F Oliveira
- Unidade de Investigação em Eco-Etologia, ISPA - Instituto Universitário, Rua Jardim do Tabaco 34, 1149-041, Lisbon, Portugal. .,Integrative Behavioural Biology Lab, Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal. .,Champalimaud Neuroscience Programme, Champalimaud Foundation, Lisbon, Portugal.
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Huffman LS, Hinz FI, Wojcik S, Aubin-Horth N, Hofmann HA. Arginine vasotocin regulates social ascent in the African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2015; 212:106-13. [PMID: 24662391 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 02/01/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides modulate many aspects of behavior and physiology in a broad range of animals. Arginine vasotocin (AVT) is implicated in mediating social behavior in teleost fish, although its specific role varies between species, sexes, life stages, and social context. To investigate whether the effects of AVT on behavior depend on social context, we used the African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni, which is well-known for its remarkable behavioral plasticity. We pharmacologically manipulated the AVT system in established socially dominant and subordinate A. burtoni males, as well as in males ascending to dominance status in a socially unstable environment. Our results show that exogenous AVT causes a stress response, as evidenced by reduced behavioral activity and increased circulating levels of cortisol in established dominant and subordinate males. Administration of the AVT antagonist Manning compound, on the other hand, did not affect established subordinate or dominant males. However, AVT antagonist-treated males ascending from subordinate to dominant status exhibited reduced aggressive and increased courtship behavior compared to vehicle-treated animals. Finally, we measured circulating cortisol levels and brain gene expression levels of AVT and its behaviorally relevant V1a2 receptor in all three social phenotypes and found that plasma cortisol and mRNA levels of both genes were increased in ascending males compared to dominant and subordinate males. Our results provide a more detailed understanding of the role of the AVT system in the regulation of complex behavior in a dynamically changing social environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin S Huffman
- The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Integrative Biology, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Flora I Hinz
- The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Integrative Biology, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Sophie Wojcik
- Université de Montréal, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Montréal, Québec H2V 2S9, Canada
| | - Nadia Aubin-Horth
- Université de Montréal, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Montréal, Québec H2V 2S9, Canada; Université Laval, Département de Biologie & Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Québec, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- The University of Texas at Austin, Department of Integrative Biology, Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Center for Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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Jensen P. Adding ‘epi-’ to behaviour genetics: implications for animal domestication. J Exp Biol 2015; 218:32-40. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.106799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In this review, it is argued that greatly improved understanding of domestication may be gained from extending the field of behaviour genetics to also include epigenetics. Domestication offers an interesting framework of rapid evolutionary changes caused by well-defined selection pressures. Behaviour is an important phenotype in this context, as it represents the primary means of response to environmental challenges. An overview is provided of the evidence for genetic involvement in behavioural control and the presently used methods for finding so-called behaviour genes. This shows that evolutionary changes in behaviour are to a large extent correlated to changes in patterns of gene expression, which brings epigenetics into the focus. This area is concerned with the mechanisms controlling the timing and extent of gene expression, and a lot of focus has been placed on methylation of cytosine in promoter regions, usually associated with genetic downregulation. The review considers the available evidence that environmental input, for example stress, can modify methylation and other epigenetic marks and subsequently affect behaviour. Furthermore, several studies are reviewed, demonstrating that acquired epigenetic modifications can be inherited and cause trans-generational behaviour changes. In conclusion, epigenetics may signify a new paradigm in this respect, as it shows that genomic modifications can be caused by environmental signals, and random mutations in DNA sequence are therefore not the only sources of heritable genetic variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Jensen
- Linköping University, IFM Biology, AVIAN Behaviour Genomics and Physiology Group, 58183 Linköping, Sweden
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Eifert C, Farnworth M, Schulz-Mirbach T, Riesch R, Bierbach D, Klaus S, Wurster A, Tobler M, Streit B, Indy JR, Arias-Rodriguez L, Plath M. Brain size variation in extremophile fish: local adaptation versus phenotypic plasticity. J Zool (1987) 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Eifert
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt; Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - M. Farnworth
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt; Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - T. Schulz-Mirbach
- Department Biology II; Ludwig-Maximilians-University; Planegg Germany
| | - R. Riesch
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield UK
- School of Biological Sciences; Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour; Royal Holloway University of London; Egham Surrey UK
| | - D. Bierbach
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt; Frankfurt am Main Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries; Berlin Germany
| | - S. Klaus
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt; Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - A. Wurster
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt; Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - M. Tobler
- Department of Zoology; Oklahoma State University; Stillwater OK USA
| | - B. Streit
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt; Frankfurt am Main Germany
| | - J. R. Indy
- División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas; Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco (UJAT); Villahermosa Tabasco México
| | - L. Arias-Rodriguez
- División Académica de Ciencias Biológicas; Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco (UJAT); Villahermosa Tabasco México
| | - M. Plath
- College of Animal Science and Technology; Northwest A&F University; Yangling China
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Theis A, Ronco F, Indermaur A, Salzburger W, Egger B. Adaptive divergence between lake and stream populations of an East African cichlid fish. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:5304-22. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anya Theis
- Zoological Institute; University of Basel; Vesalgasse 1 4051 Basel Switzerland
| | - Fabrizia Ronco
- Zoological Institute; University of Basel; Vesalgasse 1 4051 Basel Switzerland
| | - Adrian Indermaur
- Zoological Institute; University of Basel; Vesalgasse 1 4051 Basel Switzerland
| | - Walter Salzburger
- Zoological Institute; University of Basel; Vesalgasse 1 4051 Basel Switzerland
| | - Bernd Egger
- Zoological Institute; University of Basel; Vesalgasse 1 4051 Basel Switzerland
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Harris RM, Dijkstra PD, Hofmann HA. Complex structural and regulatory evolution of the pro-opiomelanocortin gene family. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2014; 195:107-15. [PMID: 24188887 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The melanocortin system is a neuroendocrine machinery that has been associated with phenotypic diversification in a number of vertebrate lineages. Central to the highly pleiotropic melanocortin system is the pro-opiomelanocortin (pomc) gene family, a family of pre-prohormones that each give rise to melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), adrenocorticotropic releasing hormone (ACTH), β-lipotropin hormone, and β-endorphin. Here we examine the structure, tissue expression profile, and pattern of cis transcriptional regulation of the three pomc paralogs (α1, α2, and β) in the model cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni and other cichlids, teleosts, and mammals. We found that the hormone-encoding regions of pomc α1, pomc α2 and pomc β are highly conserved, with a few notable exceptions. Surprisingly, the pomc β gene of cichlids and pomacentrids (damselfish) encodes a novel melanocortin peptide, ε-MSH, as a result of a tandem duplication of the segment encoding ACTH. All three genes are expressed in the brain and peripheral tissues, but pomc α1 and α2 show a more spatially restricted expression profile than pomc β. In addition, the promoters of each pomc gene have diverged in nucleotide sequence, which may have facilitated the diverse tissue-specific expression profiles of these paralogs across species. Increased understanding of the mechanisms regulating pomc gene expression will be invaluable to the study of pomc in the context of phenotypic evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayna M Harris
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States; Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Peter D Dijkstra
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Hans A Hofmann
- Department of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States; Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States.
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Abstract
Across animals, there is remarkable diversity in behavior. Modern genomic approaches have made it possible to identify the molecular underpinnings of varied behavioral phenotypes. By examining species with plastic phenotypes we have begun to understand the dynamic and flexible nature of neural transcriptomes and identified gene modules associated with variation in social and reproductive behaviors in diverse species. Importantly, it is becoming increasingly clear that some candidate genes and gene networks are involved in complex social behaviors across even divergent species, yet few comparative transcriptomics studies have been conducted that examine a specific behavior across species. We discuss the implications of a range of important and insightful studies that have increased our understanding of the neurogenomics of behavioral plasticity. Despite its successes, behavioral genomics has been criticized for its lack of hypotheses and causative insights. We propose here a novel avenue to overcome some of these short-comings by complementing "forward genomics" studies (i.e., from phenotype to behaviorally relevant gene modules) with a "reverse genomics" approach (i.e., manipulating novel gene modules to examine effects on behavior, hormones, and the genome itself) to examine the functional causes and consequences of differential gene expression patterns. We discuss how several established approaches (such as pharmacological manipulations of a novel candidate pathway, fine scale mapping of novel candidate gene expression in the brain, or identifying direct targets of a novel transcription factor of interest) can be used in combination with the analysis of the accompanying neurogenomic responses to reveal unexpected biological processes. The integration of forward and reverse genomics will move the field beyond statistical associations and yield great insights into the neural and molecular control of social behavior and its evolution.
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Manfredini F, Riba-Grognuz O, Wurm Y, Keller L, Shoemaker D, Grozinger CM. Sociogenomics of cooperation and conflict during colony founding in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003633. [PMID: 23950725 PMCID: PMC3738511 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the fundamental questions in biology is how cooperative and altruistic behaviors evolved. The majority of studies seeking to identify the genes regulating these behaviors have been performed in systems where behavioral and physiological differences are relatively fixed, such as in the honey bee. During colony founding in the monogyne (one queen per colony) social form of the fire ant Solenopsis invicta, newly-mated queens may start new colonies either individually (haplometrosis) or in groups (pleometrosis). However, only one queen (the “winner”) in pleometrotic associations survives and takes the lead of the young colony while the others (the “losers”) are executed. Thus, colony founding in fire ants provides an excellent system in which to examine the genes underpinning cooperative behavior and how the social environment shapes the expression of these genes. We developed a new whole genome microarray platform for S. invicta to characterize the gene expression patterns associated with colony founding behavior. First, we compared haplometrotic queens, pleometrotic winners and pleometrotic losers. Second, we manipulated pleometrotic couples in order to switch or maintain the social ranks of the two cofoundresses. Haplometrotic and pleometrotic queens differed in the expression of genes involved in stress response, aging, immunity, reproduction and lipid biosynthesis. Smaller sets of genes were differentially expressed between winners and losers. In the second experiment, switching social rank had a much greater impact on gene expression patterns than the initial/final rank. Expression differences for several candidate genes involved in key biological processes were confirmed using qRT-PCR. Our findings indicate that, in S. invicta, social environment plays a major role in the determination of the patterns of gene expression, while the queen's physiological state is secondary. These results highlight the powerful influence of social environment on regulation of the genomic state, physiology and ultimately, social behavior of animals. The characterization of the genomic basis for complex behaviors is one of the major goals of biological research. The genomic state of an individual results from the interplay between its internal condition (the “nature”) and the external environment (the “nurture”), which may include the social environment. Colony founding in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta is a complex process that serves as a useful model for investigating how the interplay between genes and social environment shapes social behavior. Unrelated, newly mated S. invicta queens may start a new colony as a group, but ultimately only one queen will survive and gain full reproductive dominance. By uncovering the genetic basis for founding behavior in fire ants we therefore provide useful insights into how cooperative behavior evolved in a context that might be considered primitively eusocial, because newly mated queens in a founding association are morphologically, physiologically and genetically very similar and display no evident division of labor. Our results suggest that social environment (founding singly or in pairs, switching dominance rank vs. maintaining rank) is a much greater driver of gene expression changes than social rank itself, suggesting that social environment, and not reproductive state, is a key regulator of gene expression, physiology and ultimately, behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Manfredini
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
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Kidd MR, Dijkstra PD, Alcott C, Lavee D, Ma J, O’Connell LA, Hofmann HA. Prostaglandin F2α facilitates female mating behavior based on male performance. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-013-1559-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Jensen P. Transgenerational epigenetic effects on animal behaviour. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 113:447-54. [PMID: 23369895 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade a shift in paradigm has occurred with respect to the interaction between environment and genes. It is now clear that animal genomes are regulated to a large extent as a result of input from environmental events and experiences, which cause short- and long-term modifications in epigenetic markings of DNA and histones. In this review, the evidence that such epigenetic modifications can affect the behaviour of animals is explored, and whether such acquired behaviour alterations can transfer across generation borders. First, the mechanisms by which experiences cause epigenetic modifications are examined. This includes, for example, methylation of cytosine in CpG positions and acetylation of histones, and studies showing that this can be modified by early experiences. Secondly, the evidence that specific modifications in the epigenome can be the cause of behaviour variation is reviewed. Thirdly, the extent to which this phenotypically active epigenetic variants can be inherited either through the germline or through reoccurring environmental conditions is examined. A particularly interesting observation is that epigenetic modifications are often linked to stress, and may possibly be mediated by steroid effects. Finally, the idea that transgenerationally stable epigenetic variants may serve as substrates for natural selection is explored, and it is speculated that they may even predispose for directed, non-random mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Jensen
- IFM Biology, AVIAN Behaviour Genomics and Physiology group, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden.
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Neurochemical profiling of dopaminergic neurons in the forebrain of a cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni. J Chem Neuroanat 2013; 47:106-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2012.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Revised: 12/27/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Kidd MR, O'Connell LA, Kidd CE, Chen CW, Fontenot MR, Williams SJ, Hofmann HA. Female preference for males depends on reproductive physiology in the African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2013; 180:56-63. [PMID: 23168085 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2012.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 09/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Mate choice is fundamental to sexual selection, yet little is known about underlying physiological mechanisms that influence female mating decisions. We investigated the endocrine underpinnings of female mate choice in the African cichlid Astatotilapia burtoni, a non-seasonal breeder. In addition to profiling behavioral and hormonal changes across the female reproductive cycle, we tested two hypotheses regarding possible factors influencing female mate choice. We first asked whether female mate choice is influenced by male visual and/or chemical cues. A. burtoni females were housed for one full reproductive cycle in the center of a dichotomous choice apparatus with a large (attractive) or small (unattractive) conspecific male on either side. Females associated mostly with small, less attractive males, but on the day of spawning reversed their preference to large, attractive males, with whom they mated almost exclusively, although this choice depended on the relative amount of androgens released into the water by small males. We next asked whether male behavior or androgen levels change in relation to the stimulus females' reproductive state. We found that stimulus male aggression decreased and reproductive displays increased as the day of spawning approached. Moreover male testosterone levels changed throughout the females' reproductive cycle, with larger males releasing more testosterone into the water than small males. Our data suggest that female association in a dichotomous choice assay is only indicative of the actual mate choice on the day of spawning. Furthermore, we show that male behavior and hormone levels are dependent on the reproductive state of conspecific females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Kidd
- Section of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Huntingford FA. The physiology of fish behaviour: a selective review of developments over the past 40 years(§). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2012; 81:2103-2126. [PMID: 23252730 DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2012.03480.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
During the past 40 years many new techniques have emerged that have been pivotal in furthering understanding of the physiology of fish behaviour. Behavioural studies have been enhanced by video recording systems and software for computerized event recording analysis, fine scale anatomical studies by fluorescence confocal microscopy, neurophysiological studies by visualisation and neuroendocrinology with techniques for identifying, localizing and quantifying many neurochemicals within the central nervous system. This array of approaches has been complemented by developments in molecular biology that include the ability to monitor expression profiles for known genes in specific neural structures and within the whole transcriptome. This article explores how the deployment of new techniques during the last four decades has advanced the understanding of two extensively studied systems. The first of these is the fast-start escape response, concentrating on work on goldfish Carassius auratus and zebrafish Danio rerio. The second is the link between social experience and neuroendocrinology and how this relates to life-history traits in the cichlid Burton's mouthbrooder Astatotilapia burtoni. These two case studies are then used to explore the extent to which the behaviour of animals can be explained in terms of underlying physiological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- F A Huntingford
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
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45
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Fernald RD. How does Behavior Change the Brain? Multiple Methods to Answer Old Questions. Integr Comp Biol 2012; 43:771-9. [PMID: 21680475 DOI: 10.1093/icb/43.6.771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clearly the brain controls behavior but can behavior also "control" the brain? On an evolutionary time scale, selective ecological pressures shape the sensory and motor capacities as well as the body and behavior. Correspondingly, in development, behavior acts in concert with the environment to cause structural changes in the brain lasting a lifetime. Surprisingly, in "real time" social behavior can also cause changes, typically reversible, in the brain in adult animals. Changes caused by behavioral interactions can be dramatic, and in many instances, these interactions are directly related to reproductive behavior. Understanding how behavior sculpts the brain in the course of behavioral interactions is a major challenge. Analyzing such changes requires a model system allowing control of the biological and behavioral environment of many animals simultaneously yet allowing access to physiological, cellular and molecular processes being regulated. The mouthbrooding cichlid Haplochromis (Astatotilapia) burtoni (Günther) from Lake Tanganyika lends itself to the study of social influences on the brain. It has complex, though easily observable individual and social behaviors regulated by two distinct classes of males, those with territories and those without. Many features of the animals are shaped by social encounters including the maturation of juveniles, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, the growth rate, the basal stress level among others. How does social information effect change in the brain and body? Animals must attend to the social scene to identify their chances. Learning how social information is transduced into cellular changes in this species should help understand how this happens in other social animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell D Fernald
- Neuroscience Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-2130
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Microsatellites Cross-Species Amplification across Some African Cichlids. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY 2012; 2012:870935. [PMID: 22701809 PMCID: PMC3373121 DOI: 10.1155/2012/870935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The transfer of the genomic resources developed in the Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, to other Tilapiines sensu lato and African cichlid would provide new possibilities to study this amazing group from genetics, ecology, evolution, aquaculture, and conservation point of view. We tested the cross-species amplification of 32 O. niloticus microsatellite markers in a panel of 15 species from 5 different African cichlid tribes: Oreochromines (Oreochromis, Sarotherodon), Boreotilapiines (Tilapia), Chromidotilapines, Hemichromines, and Haplochromines. Amplification was successfully observed for 29 markers (91%), with a frequency of polymorphic (P95) loci per species around 70%. The mean number of alleles per locus and species was 3.2 but varied from 3.7 within Oreochromis species to 1.6 within the nontilapia species. The high level of cross-species amplification and polymorphism of the microsatellite markers tested in this study provides powerful tools for a wide range of molecular genetic studies within tilapia species as well as for other African cichlids.
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Distribution of nonapeptide systems in the forebrain of an African cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni. J Chem Neuroanat 2012; 44:86-97. [PMID: 22668656 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2012.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2012] [Revised: 05/23/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Nonapeptides and their receptors have important functions in mediating social behavior across vertebrates. Where these nonapeptides are synthesized in the brain has been studied extensively in most vertebrate lineages, yet we know relatively little about the neural distribution of nonapeptide receptors outside of mammals. As nonapeptides play influential roles in behavioral regulation in all vertebrates, including teleost fish, we mapped the distributions of the receptors for arginine vasotocin (AVT; homolog of arginine vasopressin) and isotocin (IST; homolog of oxytocin/mesotocin) throughout the forebrain of Astatotilapia burtoni, an African cichlid fish with behavioral phenotypes that are plastic and reversible based on the immediate social environment. We characterized the distribution of the AVT V1a2 receptor (V1aR) and the IST receptor (ITR) using both immunohistochemistry for protein detection and in situ hybridization for mRNA detection, as well as AVT and IST using immunohistochemistry. Expression of the neuropeptide receptors was widely distributed throughout the fore- and midbrain, including the proposed teleost homologs of the mammalian amygdala complex, striatum, hypothalamus, and ventral tegmental area. We conclude that although the location of nonapeptide synthesis is restricted compared to tetrapod vertebrates, the distribution of nonapeptide receptors is highly conserved across taxa. Our results significantly extend our knowledge of where nonapeptides act in the brains of teleosts to mediate social transitions and behavior.
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Renn SCP, Fraser EJ, Aubin-Horth N, Trainor BC, Hofmann HA. Females of an African cichlid fish display male-typical social dominance behavior and elevated androgens in the absence of males. Horm Behav 2012; 61:496-503. [PMID: 22285646 PMCID: PMC3319202 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 01/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Social environment can affect the expression of sex-typical behavior in both males and females. Males of the African cichlid species Astatotilapia burtoni have long served as a model system to study the neural, endocrine, and molecular basis of socially plastic dominance behavior. Here we show that in all-female communities of A. burtoni, some individuals acquire a male-typical dominance phenotype, including aggressive territorial defense, distinctive color patterns, and courtship behavior. Furthermore, dominant females have higher levels of circulating androgens than either subordinate females or females in mixed-sex communities. These male-typical traits do not involve sex change, nor do the social phenotypes in all-female communities differ in relative ovarian size, suggesting that factors other than gonadal physiology underlie much of the observed variation. In contrast to the well-studied situation in males, dominant and subordinate females do not differ in the rate of somatic growth. Dominant females are not any more likely than subordinates to spawn with an introduced male, although they do so sooner. These results extend the well known extraordinary behavioral plasticity of A. burtoni to the females of this species and provide a foundation for uncovering the neural and molecular basis of social dominance behavior while controlling for factors such as sex, gonadal state and growth.
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Huffman LS, Mitchell MM, O'Connell LA, Hofmann HA. Rising StARs: behavioral, hormonal, and molecular responses to social challenge and opportunity. Horm Behav 2012; 61:631-41. [PMID: 22373495 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2011] [Revised: 02/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Across taxa, individuals must respond to a dynamic social environment of challenges and opportunities on multiple biological levels, including behavior, hormone profiles, and gene expression. We investigated the response to a complex social environment including both territorial challenges and reproductive opportunities in the African cichlid fish Astatotilapia burtoni (Burton's mouthbrooder), a species well-known for its phenotypic plasticity. Male A. burtoni are either socially dominant or subordinate and can transition between the two phenotypes. We used this transition to simultaneously study changes in aggression, reproductive behavior, testosterone and estradiol levels, gonadal histology, and testes expression of three genes involved in testosterone synthesis. We have found that males immediately become aggressive and increase testosterone levels when they become dominant in this paradigm of challenge and opportunity. Reproductive behavior and estradiol increase slightly later but are also up-regulated within 24h. Increases in steroid hormone levels are accompanied by an increase in expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), the rate-limiting enzyme during testosterone synthesis, as well as an increase in testis maturation as measured by histological organization. Reproductive behavior was found to correlate with female gravidity, suggesting that males were able to perceive reproductive opportunity. Our study demonstrates the rapid plasticity at multiple levels of biological organization that animals can display in response to changes in their complex social environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin S Huffman
- Section of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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O'Connell LA, Hofmann HA. Social status predicts how sex steroid receptors regulate complex behavior across levels of biological organization. Endocrinology 2012; 153:1341-51. [PMID: 22166981 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Social status strongly affects behavior and physiology, in part mediated by gonadal hormones, although how each sex steroid acts across levels of biological organization is not well understood. We examine the role of sex steroids in modulating social behavior in dominant (DOM) and subordinate (SUB) males of a highly social fish, Astatotilapia burtoni. We first used agonists and antagonists to each sex steroid receptor and found that androgens and progestins modulate courtship behavior only in DOM, whereas estrogens modulate aggressive behavior independent of social status. We then examined the hormonal and physiological responses to sex steroid receptor antagonist treatment and uncovered substantial changes in circulating steroid hormone levels and gonad size only in SUB, not in DOM. Consistent with status-based physiological sensitivities to drug manipulation, we found that neuropeptide and steroid receptor gene expression in the preoptic area was sensitive only in SUB. However, when we compared the transcriptomes of males that received either vehicle or an estrogen receptor antagonist, 8.25% of all genes examined changed expression in DOM in comparison with only 0.56% in SUB. Finally, we integrate behavior, physiology, and brain gene expression to infer functional modules that underlie steroid receptor regulation of behavior. Our work suggests that environmentally induced changes at one level of biological organization do not simply affect changes of similar magnitude at other levels, but that instead very few key pathways likely serve as conduits for executing plastic responses across multiple levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A O'Connell
- Section of Integrative Biology, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station C0930, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
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