Creatine kinase in the dog: a review

Evaluation of pharmacological alternatives to reduce the pain and discomfort produced by electroejaculation in rams

Electroejaculation (EE) represents the main technique for semen collection from domestic and wild animals independently of libido. However, the technique is associated with intense involuntary muscle contractions, vocalization, ataxia and lying down, caused by the electric stimulation of the nerves in the caudal epigastric region. These clinical manifestations represent important indicators of discomfort. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate two protocols of local anaesthetic blockade and two anatomical access for pharmacological desensitization of the caudal epigastric innervation as alternatives to promote comfort and reduce stress associated with EE in rams. For the study, four clinically healthy Dorper rams were selected. All animals were subjected to a design consisting of five semen collection treatments (n = 3 collections per treatment): T1-control, conventional EE without local anaesthetic blockade; T2, EE with ventral blockade (VB) of epigastric innervation using lidocaine hydrochloride 2%; T3, EE with VB of epigastric innervation using a combination of lidocaine hydrochloride 2% and fentanyl citrate; T4, EE with blockade of epigastric innervation through the perineal access using lidocaine hydrochloride 2%; T5, EE with blockade of epigastric innervation through the perineal access using a combination of lidocaine hydrochloride and fentanyl citrate. Seminal samples resulting from EE were subjectively evaluated for sperm motility and concentration, vigour and volume. Additionally, blood serum samples were collected for quantification of cortisol and creatine kinase (CK) enzyme. Assessments of stress and discomfort were conducted by measuring blood pressure, heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR), as well as observing involuntary muscle contractions, ataxia and animal vocalization. No variations in blood pressure, sperm motility, vigour, CK, and cortisol were observed among the treatments. Individual variations were observed for the occurrence of vocalization (p = .0066), but there were no differences between the groups. Anaesthetic blockades conducted using the combination of lidocaine and fentanyl resulted in a lower incidence of ataxia during EE (p < .0001). It is concluded that the combination of fentanyl citrate and lidocaine hydrochloride results in less discomfort for animals undergoing EE, regardless of the anatomical access used for local anaesthetic blockades.

Physiological changes in captive elephants in Northern Thailand as a result of the COVID-19 tourism ban - muscle, liver, metabolic function, and body condition

The international travel ban initiated in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected how captive elephants were managed in Thailand. A lack of tourists and associated income meant elephants were chained longer with reduced food provisions, had fewer mahouts, and limited exercise like riding, which likely affected health and welfare. Fifty-eight elephants from six tourist camps were assigned a body condition score (BCS) and blood samples were collected monthly for 2 years during the travel ban to measure: (1) muscle enzymes [creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST)]; (2) liver enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)]; (3) lipids [total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low (LDL) and high (HDL) density lipoproteins]; and metabolic function [glucose, insulin, fructosamine]. Serum CK concentrations were lower at the end of the study, possibly due to no tourist activities like riding. Changes in liver function included increased AST and ALP, also possibly due to physical inactivity. Feeding less bananas and sugar cane was associated with fewer elephants in the obese category and lower TG concentrations. However, increases in glucose, insulin and fructosamine were observed as local people returned to feed elephants after lifting travel restrictions. In sum, changes in several health biomarkers were observed in association with restricted activities and food resources. Camps need better plans to meet the health and welfare needs of elephants during any future disruptions to the tourism industry, although reduced feeding of sweet treats appeared to have positive effects on body condition and metabolic function.

Blood-Based Biomarkers for Managing Workload in Athletes: Considerations and Recommendations for Evidence-Based Use of Established Biomarkers

Blood-based biomarkers can provide an objective individualized measure of training load, recovery, and health status in order to reduce injury risk and maximize performance. Despite enormous potentials, especially owing to currently evolving technology, such as point-of-care testing, and advantages, in terms of objectivity and non-interference with the training process, there are several pitfalls in the use and interpretation of biomarkers. Confounding variables such as preanalytical conditions, inter-individual differences, or an individual chronic workload can lead to variance in resting levels. In addition, statistical considerations such as the detection of meaningful minimal changes are often neglected. The lack of generally applicable and individual reference levels further complicates the interpretation of level changes and thus load management via biomarkers. Here, the potentials and pitfalls of blood-based biomarkers are described, followed by an overview of established biomarkers currently used to support workload management. Creatine kinase is discussed in terms of its evidence for workload management to illustrate the limited applicability of established markers for workload management to date. We conclude with recommendations for best practices in the use and interpretation of biomarkers in a sport-specific context.

Serum Proteomic Profiles Reflect the Stages of Myxomatous Mitral Valve Disease in Dogs

Canine myxomatous mitral valve disease (MMVD) is similar to Barlow's form of MMVD in humans. These valvulopathies are complex, with varying speeds of progression. We hypothesized that the relative abundances of serum proteins would help identify the consecutive MMVD stages and discover new disease pathways on a systemic level. To identify distinction-contributing protein panels for disease onset and progression, we compared the proteomic profiles of serum from healthy dogs and dogs with different stages of naturally occurring MMVD. Dogs were divided into experimental groups on the basis of the left-atrium-to-aorta ratio and normalized left ventricular internal dimension in diastole values. Serum was collected from healthy (N = 12) dogs, dogs diagnosed with MMVD in stages B1 (N = 13) and B2 (N = 12) (asymptomatic), and dogs diagnosed with MMVD in chronic stage C (N = 13) (symptomatic). Serum biochemistry and selected ELISAs (galectin-3, suppression of tumorigenicity, and asymmetric dimethylarginine) were performed. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), tandem mass tag (TMT) quantitative proteomics, and statistical and bioinformatics analysis were employed. Most of the 21 serum proteins with significantly different abundances between experimental groups (p < 0.05, FDR ˂ 0.05) were classified as matrix metalloproteinases, protease inhibitors, scaffold/adaptor proteins, complement components, anticoagulants, cytokine, and chaperone. LC-MS TMT proteomics results obtained for haptoglobin, clusterin, and peptidase D were further validated analytically. Canine MMVD stages, including, for the first time, asymptomatic B1 and B2 stages, were successfully distinguished in dogs with the disease and healthy dogs on the basis of the relative abundances of a panel of specific serum proteins. Most proteins with significantly different abundances were involved in immune and inflammatory pathways. Their role in structural remodeling and progression of canine MMVD must be further investigated. Further research is needed to confirm the resemblance/difference with human MMVD. Proteomics data are available via ProteomeXchange with the unique dataset identifier PXD038475.

Determination of the effect of iatrogenic blood contamination on lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase activity in canine cerebrospinal fluid

BACKGROUND

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) have differential tissue activity and isoenzyme profiles. LDH and CK exist as 5 and 3 isoenzymes, respectively, in both serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Studies have demonstrated that measuring LDH, CK, and their isoenzymes in CSF has diagnostic and prognostic values for dogs and people with neurologic disorders.

OBJECTIVES

Iatrogenic blood contamination can distort the results of CSF analysis. The purpose of this study was to determine allowable thresholds of blood contamination (RBC/μL) for accurate measurement of LDH, CK, and their isoenzymes in canine CSF.

METHODS

Venous blood and CSF were collected from healthy dogs. Total LDH and CK activity were measured spectrophotometrically. Isoenzyme profiles were determined using gel electrophoresis and densitometric scanning. All samples were analyzed within 6 hours of collection. A nonlinear mixed effects regression model was used to estimate the allowable thresholds of blood contamination for accurate measurement of LDH, CK, and their isoenzymes in canine CSF.

RESULTS

The threshold of iatrogenic blood contamination for total LDH and total CK in healthy dogs are 6696 RBC/μL (95% CI 3879-11 187) and 5961 RBC/μL (95% CI 2939-12 085), respectively. LDH-1 is the most sensitive isoenzyme to iatrogenic blood contamination, while LDH-4 is the least sensitive.

CONCLUSIONS

These results are important for the interpretation of LDH, CK, and their isoenzymes in canine CSF. Additionally, our methodology is translatable for determining thresholds of acceptable iatrogenic blood contamination in CSF for other diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of neurologic disease.

Military Working Dogs Operating in Afghanistan Theater: Comparison between Pre- and Post-Mission Blood Analyses to Monitor Physical Fitness and Training

Simple Summary

In modern conflicts, one of the greatest risks for military personnel is represented by explosive devices. For this reason, specifically trained dogs able to detect explosives have been more and more intensively used in humanitarian military operations. However, at present, literature regarding working problems reported by these animals is very limited. The a of this study was to evaluate the health status of military dogs participating in humanitarian missions to Afghanistan, comparing their pre- and post-mission blood work. Dogs were first considered together as a group and then divided in groups by age, sex, breed and mission length. The results of the study show that there are no particular differences between their blood work before and after the missions. This indicates that the recorded dogs were physically well prepared to face their tasks.

Abstract

The intergovernmental organization known as the United Nations (UN) was born “to maintain international peace and security” through different operations and tasks, including “mine action” and “explosive detection”. Explosives are the most frequent cause of injuries in military personnel and an enormous danger for civilians. The role of explosive detection dogs (EDDs) and mine detection dogs has gained great consideration over time, leading to their intense use in military operations. Literature regarding working injuries reported by EDDs during missions is limited. The aim of the present study is to investigate the hematological changes that occurred between pre- and post-mission blood analyses in military working dogs deployed to Afghanistan in order to evaluate signs of health problems or physical adjustments. Examining the clinical records, only three dogs reported a medical issue, one with gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV), and two with lameness episodes. Lack of health issues occurring during the missions was reflected by the absence of significant differences between pre- and post-mission blood analyses. Blood results were also examined by dividing the EDDs into groups considering age at departure, sex, breed and mission length. A few categories demonstrated significant changes in some parameters; however, the mean values were always included in the ranges of normality, indicating that their physical fitness and training were adequate for the required tasks.

Electrocardiographic, echocardiographic and heart biomarker parameters in sheep experimentally poisoned by Palicourea marcgravii (Rubiaceae)

ABSTRACT: The present study aimed to identify and describe cardiac alterations in sheep experimentally poisoned with Palicourea marcgravii through analysis of serum cardiac biomarkers (serum troponin I and creatine kinase - CK-MB) and electro and echocardiographic assessments to contribute to a better understanding of the poisoning pathophysiology. P. marcgravii is the main plant within a group of 22 species that cause sudden death in Brazil; its toxic principle is sodium monofluoroacetate. Eight healthy crossbreed male sheep, aged between five and twelve months, weighing 14 to 27kg, were evaluated. The animals received 1g kg-1 of P. marcgravii plants orally. The sheep were evaluated before administering the plant (T0) through electro and echocardiography and blood collection to assess cardiac biomarkers (CK-MB and cTnI). Collections and analyses were repeated every four hours until the animal’s death. During the study, there was the presence of extravasation of serum troponin I carried out in a qualitative test, with positive values at time T4, and the serum CK-MB biomarker had a peak at T4 and slightly decreased at T8. The electro and echocardiographic examinations showed that the cause of death in these animals was due to acute heart failure characterized by arrhythmias, tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation, drop in cardiac output, left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction by the progressive decrease in the LV ejection fraction (EF), decrease in LV fractional shortening (FS), and decrease in aortic flow velocity and aortic flow gradient. This study seems to be the first to evaluate cardiac alterations in sheep poisoned by P. marcgravii through cardiac biomarkers and electro and echocardiographic exams.

Comparison of serum creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase activity in dogs with Neospora meningoencephalitis and noninfectious meningoencephalitis

Background

Creatine kinase (CK) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity can be increased with myositis associated with Toxoplasma and Neospora infection in dogs.

Hypothesis/Objectives

Serum activity of CK and AST can be used as a rapid screen for predicting positive serology in meningoencephalitis caused by Toxoplasma gondii or Neospora caninum in dogs compared to dogs with noninfectious meningoencephalitis.

Animals

Eighty dogs with meningoencephalitis based on magnetic resonance imaging and cerebrospinal fluid analysis.

Methods

Retrospective case‐control study. Serological cutoffs (≥1:800 immunofluorescence for Neospora and ≥1:400 IgG or ≥1:64 IgM or both for Toxoplasma) categorized dogs as infected (n = 21, all neosporosis) or noninfected (n = 59). Activities of CK and AST between infected and noninfected groups were compared using a Mann‐Whitney U test and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis.

Results

No dogs were diagnosed with toxoplasmosis. Serum CK and AST activities were significantly increased (P < .001) in dogs with positive serology for Neospora (CK: median, 1334 U/L; range, 281‐3633 U/L and AST: median, 124 U/L; range, 59‐333 U/L) compared to noninfectious cases (CK: median, 215 U/L; range, 69‐683 U/L and AST: median, 36 U/L; range, 19‐139 U/L). A CK cutoff of 485 U/L had 95.24% sensitivity and 96.61% specificity with a negative predicative value of >99%. An AST cutoff of 57 U/L had 94.44% sensitivity and 85.71% specificity with an estimated negative predicative value of 99%.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

High serum CK and AST activity can increase suspicion for neosporosis while awaiting serological tests for dogs with meningoencephalitis.

The Effects of 7000 Meter Race on Hematological and Biochemical Parameters in Racing Greyhounds

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of 7000 meter race on hematological and biochemical profiles in racing greyhounds. Thirty-two male racing greyhounds were enrolled in this study. Blood samples were collected from the greyhounds at rest 24 hours prior to the race (T0), within 2 hours of the completion of the race (T1) and 24 hours after the race (T2). None of the hematological parameters differed significantly among T0, T1 and T2 time points. The serum activity of aspartate aminotransferase increased significantly after race compared to values before race. However, the serum activity of aspartate aminotransferase dropped 24 hours after race to a value comparatively similar to that before race. The serum activity of creatine kinase increased also sharply after race compared to values before race. The serum activity of creatine kinase dramatically dropped 24 hours after race to a value of comparable to values at T0. In a similar pattern, the serum activity of alkaline phosphatase increased significantly after race compared to values before race. The serum activity of alkaline phosphatase decreased 24 hours after race. The serum concentration of lactate increased sharply after race compared to values before race and dropped 24 hours after race to a mean value comparatively similar to that before race. Other biochemical variables that included total protein, albumin, globulin, blood urea nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium did not differ significantly among T0, T1 and T2 values. It can be concluded that racing 7 km distance in greyhound dogs did not significantly change the hematological parameters but significantly increases the serum activity of musculoskeletal enzymes and concentration of lactate. The full recovery occurred 24 hours after the race, as the musculoskeletal enzymes and lactate level returned to the normal limits.

Serum C-reactive protein in dogs with paraplegia secondary to acute intervertebral disc extrusion

BACKGROUND

Apart from the absence of nociception, there is no readily available prognostic test for dogs presenting with paraplegia secondary to acute intervertebral disc extrusion (IVDE).

OBJECTIVE

To assess if serum C-reactive protein (CRP) can predict the postoperative outcome in paraplegic dogs undergoing surgery for IVDE and to assess the association between serum CRP and presence/absence of nociception on admission, and serum CRP and presence/absence of intramedullary changes seen on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

ANIMALS

One hundred dogs that underwent surgery at our hospital between 2018 and 2020 because of acute paraplegia secondary to IVDE and in which serum CRP was measured.

METHODS

Retrospective observational cohort study. Dogs were classified as 4 or 5 according to the modified Frankel score (MFS) depending on presence/absence of nociception, respectively. MRI images were reviewed and the T2-weighted hyperintensity: L2 vertebral body length was measured. Postoperative outcome was defined as positive if nociception, ambulation or both returned after decompressive surgery.

RESULTS

The median (95% CI) serum CRP was 4 (4-5) and 6 (4-7) mg/L in MSF4 and MSF5, respectively (P = .03). A weak linear relationship (R²  = 0.049, P = .03) was found between CRP and the T2-weighted hyperintensity: L2 vertebral length. Outcome data was available for 85 dogs: CRP was 4 (4-5) and 5 (4-10) mg/L in positive and negative outcome dogs, respectively (P = .32).

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Serum CRP did not predict outcome after surgery in dogs with paraplegia secondary to IVDE.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Snake Envenomation in Dogs in Queensland, Australia

Australia has some of the most venous snakes in the world, and envenomations of domestic dogs are common, but clinical signs as well as the diagnostic procedures and treatments of snake envenomations are poorly described. Therefore, we invited veterinary clinics in the state of Queensland, Australia, to provide detailed data on snake envenomation cases in dogs. A total of 230 cases were reported from 19 veterinary hospitals, with an average of 12.1 dogs per clinic, per year. Detailed case data were provided from 20 dogs-of these, 65.0% (13/20) were envenomated during the daytime, with collapse and paresis being the most common signs reported by owners. The median time between the onset of clinical signs and admission to the veterinary hospital was 60 min. Clinical signs were the sole diagnostic modality utilised by veterinarians in 30.0% (6/20) of cases. Activated clotting time was the most common diagnostic procedure conducted, while snake venom detection kits (SVDK) were only used in 15.0% (3/20) of cases. Of the dogs that received antivenom (85.0%, 17/20), the tiger/multibrown combination (3000 units tiger/4000 units brown) was predominately (13/17) provided. Three of the 17 dogs that received antivenom (17.6%) died or were euthanised. About 82.4% (14/17) of the dogs treated with antivenom, but only 33.3% (1/3) of the dogs not treated with antivenom, recovered (p = 0.140). Overall, veterinarians relied frequently on medical history, clinical signs, and diagnostic tests other than the SVDK and, thus, most likely, administered snake envenomation treatment based on their clinical experience.

Biomarcadores sanguíneos e no líquido peritoneal de bovinos acometidos com enfermidades intestinais e reticulites traumáticas

Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar simultaneamente biomarcadores no sangue e no líquido peritoneal (LP) de bovinos com enfermidades intestinais (GI n=14) e reticulites traumáticas (GII n=13). O exame clínico e a coleta de sangue e de LP foram realizadas e, posteriormente, análise física e citológica do LP, bem como as determinações bioquímicas no sangue e no LP. Empregou-se a análise de variância ao nível de 5% de probabilidade comparando os grupos e comparando o sangue e o LP. Em ambos os grupos foram evidenciados sinais de apatia, desidratação e hipomotilidade reticuloruminal, porém os animais do GI apresentaram alterações clínicas mais expressivas. À análise citológica do LP No sangue as concentrações de PT, globulina, colesterol e GGT foram superiores no GII (P<0,05), e a relação A/G foi maior no GI (P<0,05). No LP a albumina e a CK foram superiores no GI (P<0,05). Na comparação entre o sangue e LP, destacou-se o aumento significativo do lactato L no LP de ambos os grupos (P<0,05), caracterizando a gravidade das alterações presentes na cavidade abdominal. Recomendase a avaliação simultânea no sangue e no LP do lactato L como informação de auxílio diagnóstico e prognóstico das enfermidades digestivas dos bovinos.

Shoulder Lameness in Dogs: Preliminary Investigation on Ultrasonography, Signalment and Hemato-Biochemical Findings Correlation

Forelimb lameness in medium and large breed dogs is frequently caused by traumatic or degenerative injuries of the shoulder. Patient history, physical examination, x-rays, blood, and chemical work are routinely used to achieve diagnosis, and may be associated with ultrasonography or magnetic resonance imaging. Ultrasonography is increasingly popular in small animal practice due to its low cost, ease of repetition, and the fact that it is non-invasive and can be performed in conscious patients. It is also widely accepted that muscular stress or injuries can induce detectable variations in blood and chemical work. The aim of this preliminary study is to search for correlation between measurements of selected hematobiochemical parameters and ultrasound diagnosis in dogs affected by shoulder injuries. A retrospective study was conducted on orthopedic clinical records of dogs presented to our Veterinary Teaching Hospital for lameness caused by shoulder problems over a period of 5 years. Dogs with both hematobiochemical and ultrasound examinations were selected. Patients were classified into 5 groups according to ultrasound diagnosis: (1) mild/moderate tendinopathy, (2) severe tendinopathy, (3) articular damage, (4) chronic myopathy, and (5) neoplastic injury. Statistical analysis was performed to detect possible correlations between group and hematobiochemical parameters. Forty-four dogs met the inclusion criteria and forty-nine shoulders were diagnosed as injured. Significant differences were found between the age, sex, body weight, neutrophil count, and AST levels. In particular, statistically significant increases were found for neutrophil count and AST concentration in case of ultrasonographically diagnosed severe tendinopathy, articular damage, and neoplastic pathology. Further and wider studies are suggested to determine whether these biomarkers can become a useful diagnostic aid.

Benefits of dietary supplements on the physical fitness of German Shepherd dogs during a drug detection training course

A high standard of physical fitness is an essential characteristic of drug detection dogs because it affects not only their ability to sustain high activity levels but also their attention and olfaction efficiency. Nutritional supplements could improve physical fitness by modulating energy metabolism, oxidative processes, and perceived fatigue. The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological and biochemical changes induced by submaximal exercise on drug detection dogs (German Shepherd breed) and to assess whether a dietary supplement improves their physical fitness. During a drug detection dog training course, seven dogs were fed with a basal diet (Control Group) for three-month period, while a further seven dogs were fed with a basal diet as well as a daily nutritional supplement containing branched-chain and limiting amino acids, carnitine, vitamins, and octacosanol (Treatment Group). At the end of this period, individual physical fitness was assessed by making each subject take a graded treadmill exercise test. A human heart rate monitor system was used to record the dog's heart rate (HR) during the treadmill exercise and the subsequent recovery period. The parameters related to HR were analysed using nonparametric statistics. Blood samples were collected before starting the nutritional supplement treatment, before and after the treadmill exercise and following recovery. Linear mixed models were used. The dietary supplements accelerated HR recovery, as demonstrated by the lower HR after recovery (P<0.05) and Time constants of HR decay (P<0.05), and by the higher Absolute HR Recovered (P<0.05) recorded in the Treatment group compared with the Control dogs. The supplemented dogs showed the lowest concentrations of creatine kinase (CK; P<0.001), aspartate aminotransferase (AST, P<0.05) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA; P<0.01) suggesting a reduction in muscle damage and improvement of energy metabolism. These data suggest that this combined supplement can significantly enhance the physical fitness of drug detection dogs.

Sperm collection by electroejaculation in small ruminants: A review on welfare problems and alternative techniques

There are different perspectives on whether there should be use of electroejaculation (EE) for semen collection because it can be stressful and painful for the males when this technique is imposed. In the present review it is examined 1) the effects of EE on animal welfare and semen quality in domestic and wild small ruminants, 2) benefits and limitations of administering anaesthetics and sedatives prior to EE, 3) advantages/disadvantages of transrectal ultrasonic-guided massage of the accessory sex glands (TUMASG) as an alternative to EE, and 4) benefits of administering hormones, such as oxytocin or PGF2α analogues (which stimulate the contractility of the male accessory sex glands), prior to EE and TUMASG. In general, the administration of anaesthetics, sedatives or hormones reduces the pain and stress caused by EE, and can improve sperm quality, but results may vary depending on the species. The use of anaesthetics is, however, not devoid of risks and pre-EE administration of sedatives, or oxytocin or PGF2α analogues, can aid sperm collection mitigate risks. The TUMASG is less stressful than EE, but its effectiveness varies greatly among species, and it can only be performed by trained personnel. Prior administration of the hormones may also result in a reduction in the period needed to induce ejaculation with use of TUMASG procedures.

Low-field magnetic resonance changes in the paravertebral musculature of dogs with acute intervertebral disc extrusion

OBJECTIVES

To describe the MRI features and prevalence of paravertebral muscle signal intensity changes in dogs with acute intervertebral disc extrusion and to search for associations between the signal changes and clinical history, signalment, neurological examination, serum creatine kinase activity and MRI characteristics of the disc herniation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Medical records and MRI examinations from 688 dogs with surgically confirmed acute intervertebral disc extrusion were reviewed retrospectively. T2-weighted and STIR MRI sequences were available for 276 cases and were examined for paravertebral muscle signal intensity changes. When present, extension, lateralisation and signal characteristics of these changes were recorded. Exclusion criteria were muscle injections 24 hours before MRI scan, trauma and previous spinal surgery.

RESULTS

Nineteen dogs met the inclusion criteria. There were signal changes in the multifidus muscle, mostly in the thoracolumbar region and often extending caudally from the level of the intervertebral disc herniation. Two cases had paravertebral muscle signal intensity changes in the cervical region. MRI signal changes were seen more frequently in the muscles of non-ambulatory dogs. Clinical history and neuro-examination did not allow differentiation between dogs with and without paravertebral muscle signal intensity changes.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Paravertebral muscle signal intensity changes were observed infrequently in the epaxial musculature of 6.9% dogs with acute intervertebral disc extrusion in both the thoracolumbar and cervical regions. The pathophysiological processes responsible for these MRI changes remain unknown.

Intense exercise and endurance-training program influence serum kinetics of muscle and cardiac biomarkers in dogs

Few data exist on the physiological consequences of an incremental exercise test (IET) and training in dogs. Here we evaluated the effect of an endurance-training program (ETP) on the kinetics of the serum biomarkers: creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), myoglobin, cardiac troponin I (cTnI), and creatine kinase isoenzyme MB (CK-MB). Eighteen Beagle dogs were assigned to three groups: sedentary (S), untrained (U), and trained (T). The dogs from the groups T and U underwent IET, and their lactate threshold (LT) was determined. The LT and velocity corresponding to the LT (VLT) was determined by visual inspection. The VLT was utilized to determine the training intensity level. Thus, the dogs from group T underwent an eight-week aerobic conditioning program with the intensity training set to 70-80% of the VLT. Next, dogs from the groups T and U have submitted to IET again. The group S did not undergo IETs or training. The maximal velocity (Vmax) at which the dog achieves in the IET and heart rate were determined. For biomarkers, venous blood samples were collected before the experimental procedure (baseline) and before and 1, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h after the IETs. VLT and Vmax increased in group T (P < .05), indicating an improvement in dogs' aerobic and anaerobic fitness. CK and AST rose (P < .05), peaking 6 h after both IETs and returning to baseline levels after 12-24 h. Levels of cTnI and myoglobin were unaltered. CK-MB peaked 1 h after the IETs and returned to baseline levels after 12 h (P < .05). We concluded that ETP improved the aerobic capacity of the dogs without any skeletal or cardiac muscle injury.

Serum Biochemistry and Inflammatory Cytokines in Racing Endurance Sled Dogs With and Without Rhabdomyolysis

Serum muscle enzymes in endurance sled dogs peak within 2–4 days of racing. The object of this study was to compare mid-race serum chemistry profiles, select hormones, markers of inflammation, and the acute phase response in dogs that successfully completed half of the 2015 Yukon Quest sled dog race to their pre-racing samples (n = 14), as well as mid-race samples of successful dogs to those who developed clinical exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) (n = 5). Concentrations of serum phosphorus in ER dogs were significantly elevated compared to healthy dogs (median 5.5 vs. 4.25 mg/dL, P < 0.01) at mid race. ALT, AST, and CK show a significant increase from pre-race baseline to mid-race chemistries (P < 0.01), with more pronounced increases in dogs with ER compared to healthy racing dogs (CK- median 46,125 vs. 1,743 U/L; P < 0.01). Potassium concentrations were significantly decreased from pre-race baselines in all dogs (median 5.1 vs. 4.5 mEq/L; P < 0.01), and even lower in dogs with ER (median 3.5 mEq/L; P < 0.01) mid-race. No changes in serum pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations were noted in any groups of dogs. C-reactive protein was elevated in both groups of dogs, but significantly higher in those with ER compared with healthy dogs mid-race (median 308 vs. 164 ug/mL; P < 0.01). Healthy dogs may have CK elevations over 10,000 U/L, and dogs with ER were over 30,000 U/L. Although potassium decreases in healthy endurance sled dogs during racing, it remains in the normal laboratory reference range; however ER dog potassium levels drop further to the point of hypokalemia. Lastly increases in CRP may be reflective of a physiological response to exercise over the course of a race; however high CRP in ER dogs may be capturing an early acute phase response.

Cardiac disorders in dogs infected with Babesia canis

The aim of this study was to assess cardiac disorders in dogs infected with B. canis. The study included 50 dogs with babesiosis and 20 healthy control animals. All the animals had haematological tests, ECG, echocardiography and serum troponin I and CK-MB levels checked. The haematology in the group of dogs with babesiosis confirmed thrombocytopaenia in 100% of dogs, decreased haematocrit in 52% and anaemia in 46%. The most common abnormalities in ECG and echocardiography in dogs infected with protozoa included: change in appearance and/or amplitude of the T-wave (34%), increased fractional shortening (24%), an increased sinus rhythm (14%) and heart axis deviation (10%). In 19 of the 50 dogs with babesiosis, the level of serum troponin I was elevated. In 2 dogs that died from babesiosis, the troponin level I was very high. The ECG confirmed sinus tachycardia and interpolated ventricular beat in these animals. In all dogs with babesiosis that were used in the study, the serum CK-MB was high or very high and was within limits of 23.17 U/L - 369.62 U/L. The highest kinase concentration (367.33 U/L and 369.62 U/L) was observed in dogs that died due to the disease. The presented results prove that cardiac changes are common in canine babesiosis, but that most changes are nonspecific and appear to have little clinical significance. Cardiovascular assessment should be based on the assessment of the level of troponin I and CK-MB in the serum of sick animals. High concentrations of these factors might be indicators of poor prognosis.

Measurement of Creatine kinase and Aspartate aminotransferase in saliva of dogs: a pilot study

Background

Muscle enzymes in saliva have been reported to be possible markers of heart and muscle damage in humans. The aim of this study was to assess if Creatine kinase (CK) and Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities could be measured in canine saliva, and to evaluate their possible changes in situations of muscle damage.

Results

The spectrophotometric assays for CK and AST measurement in saliva of dogs showed intra- and inter-assay imprecision lower than 1 and 16% and coefficients of correlation close to 1 in linearity under dilution tests. Healthy dogs showed activities in saliva of CK between 27 and 121 U/L and AST between 46 and 144 U/L, whereas in saliva of dogs with muscle damage CK ranged between 132 and 3862 U/L and AST between 154 and 4340 U/L. Positive moderate correlations were found between saliva and serum activities of the two enzymes (CK, r = 0.579; P = 0.001; AST, r = 0.674; P = 0.001).

Conclusions

CK and AST activities can be measured in canine saliva with commercially available spectrophotometric assays. In addition these enzymes show higher values in saliva of dogs with muscle damage and their values are moderately correlated with those of serum.

Extraneuronal pathology in a canine model of CLN2 neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis after intracerebroventricular gene therapy that delays neurological disease progression

CLN2 neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is a hereditary lysosomal storage disease with primarily neurological signs that results from mutations in TPP1, which encodes the lysosomal enzyme tripeptidyl peptidase-1 (TPP1). Studies using a canine model for this disorder demonstrated that delivery of TPP1 enzyme to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by intracerebroventricular administration of an AAV-TPP1 vector resulted in substantial delays in the onset and progression of neurological signs and prolongation of life span. We hypothesized that the treatment may not deliver therapeutic levels of this protein to tissues outside the central nervous system that also require TPP1 for normal lysosomal function. To test this hypothesis, dogs treated with CSF administration of AAV-TPP1 were evaluated for the development of non-neuronal pathology. Affected treated dogs exhibited progressive cardiac pathology reflected by elevated plasma cardiac troponin-1, impaired cardiac function and development of histopathological myocardial lesions. Progressive increases in the plasma activity levels of alanine aminotransferase and creatine kinase indicated development of pathology in the liver and muscles. The treatment also did not prevent disease-related accumulation of lysosomal storage bodies in the heart or liver. These studies indicate that optimal treatment outcomes for CLN2 disease may require delivery of TPP1 systemically as well as directly to the central nervous system.

Ejaculation does not contribute to the stress response to electroejaculation in sheep

Electroejaculation procedures (EEPs) provoke stress; nevertheless, ejaculation produces physiological changes similar as those usually used to measure stress responses. The application of EEP to animals that cannot ejaculate-as ewes-may be useful to discriminate the responses induced by ejaculation from those provoked by EEP. The aim was to determine the stress response to EEP in rams and ewes. The EEPs were applied to 10 rams and 10 ewes during the non-breeding season, and the number of vocalizations, the heart rate, rectal temperature, serum cortisol concentration, biochemical and haematological parameters were measured. Overall, EEP provoked increases in cortisol concentration, glycaemia, rectal temperature and concentration of creatine kinase (all them: p < .0001) as well as relative concentration of granulocytes (p = .003) and absolute granulocyte concentration (p = .0002) in both, rams and ewes. Heart rate, relative concentration of lymphocytes (p = .001), haematocrit (p = .02) and haemoglobin (p = .045) decreased in animals from both genders after EEP. Besides, cortisol (p < .0001), rectal temperature (p = .002) and glycaemia (p = .001) were greater in ewes than rams, and creatine kinase also tended to be greater in ewes than rams (p = .054). On the other hand, the number of animals that vocalized (p = .006), white blood cells (p = .02) and absolute lymphocytes (p = .02) were greater in rams than ewes. The general trends show a similar pattern of stress responses in animals from both genders. Therefore, we concluded that ejaculation does not contribute to the stress response provoked by the EEP. This procedure also provokes muscular damage and probably pain.

Serum creatine kinase isoenzymes and macroenzymes in dogs with different neurologic diseases

BACKGROUND

Increased serum activity of CK isoenzymes and macroenzymes, and in particular of the brain isoenzyme (CK-BB) has been reported in dogs with central nervous system (CNS) disorders. However, no studies on the possible differences in serum activities of CK iso- or macroenzymes (Macro-CK1 and Macro-CK2) in different neurologic diseases are available.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to describe the electrophoretic distribution of CK iso- and macroenzymes in dogs with CNS disorders in order to assess whether this distribution depends on a specific neurologic disease.

METHODS

This study was done on sera from 45 dogs with neurologic diseases (degenerative, n = 7; idiopathic epilepsy [IE], n = 14; inflammatory, n = 16; space occupying lesions [SOL], n = 8) and from 10 clinically healthy dogs. The separation of serum CK isoenzymes and macroenzymes was performed using an automated electrophoretic method already validated in dogs.

RESULTS

Compared with healthy dogs, dogs with CNS disorders had significantly higher total CK and CK-BB activities, and a significantly lower Macro-CK2 activity (P < .001). Comparison of pathologic subgroups and healthy dogs revealed significant differences (P < .01) in dogs with IE and inflammatory disorders for total CK activity, in all the subgroups for CK-BB (P < .01), and in dogs with IE and SOL for Macro-CK2 (P < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that CK-BB is released by neurons damaged by inflammatory or degenerative conditions or due to compressive effects of SOL. However, the neurologic diseases cannot be differentiated based on CK-BB or Macro-CK2 activities, unless further studies allow the definition of diagnostic thresholds.

Changes in cardiovascular performance, biochemistry, gastric motility and muscle temperature induced by acute exercise on a treadmill in healthy military dogs

Changes in physiological parameters that are induced by acute exercise on a treadmill in healthy military dogs have not been thoroughly investigated, especially with regard to age. This study investigated the effects of acute exercise on a treadmill on cardiovascular function, biochemical parameters and gastric antral motility in military dogs. Thermography was used to assess variations in superficial hindlimb muscle temperature. Nine healthy dogs were distributed into three groups according to their age (Group I: 25 ± 7 months; Group II: 51 ± 12 months; Group III: 95 ± 10 months) and sequentially subjected to running exercise on a treadmill for 12 min (3.2 km/h at 0° incline for 4 min, 6.4 km/h at 0° incline for 4 min and 6.4 km/h at 10° incline for 4 min). Heart rate, systolic and diastolic arterial pressure (DAP), gastric motility, haematocrit and biochemical analyses were performed at rest and after each session of treadmill exercise. Infrared thermographic images of muscles in the pelvic member were taken. Exercise decreased DAP in Group I, increased systolic arterial pressure in Groups II and III and increased mean arterial pressure in Group III (all p < 0.05). After the exercise protocol, plasma creatine kinase and aspartate aminotransferase levels increased only in Group I (p < 0.05). Exercise increased heart rate and decreased the gastric motility of a solid meal at 180 min in all groups (all p < 0.05). Exercise also elevated temperature in the femoral biceps muscles in Group I compared with the older dogs. The results indicate that acute exercise decreased gastric motility in dogs, regardless of age, and caused more pronounced cardiovascular changes in older dogs than in younger dogs. Acute exercise also altered biochemical parameters and superficial hindlimb muscle temperature in younger military dogs.

Congenital diseases of feline muscle and neuromuscular junction

Although muscle diseases occur relatively rarely in cats, a number of congenital feline myopathies have been described over the last 20 years and are reviewed in this paper. Some of them have been reported exclusively in specific breeds, including the hypokalaemic myopathy of Burmese cats, type IV glycogen storage disease in Norwegian Forest cats, or the myopathy of Devon Rex. Other congenital disorders of muscle and neuromuscular junction such as myotonia congenita, dystrophin-deficient hypertrophic feline muscular dystrophy, laminin α2 deficiency, or congenital myasthenia gravis may occur in any cat. A systematic approach is essential in order to efficiently obtain a timely diagnosis in cats showing signs of muscle disease. After a thorough clinical examination, this approach includes blood analyses (eg, serum concentration of muscle enzymes), electrophysiology where available (electromyography, nerve conduction studies), and sampling of muscle biopsies for histological, histochemical and immunohistochemical evaluation. When available, detection of healthy carriers of these genetic disorders is important to eliminate the gene mutations from breeding families. Clinicians regularly receiving feline patients must have a good knowledge of congenital feline myopathies and the features which enable a diagnosis to be made and prognosis given. Besides preserving or restoring the well-being of the myopathic patient, rapid and efficient information and counselling of the breeders are of central importance in order to prevent the recurrence of the problem in specific breeding lines.

Effect of exercise on serum markers of muscle inflammation in Spanish Greyhounds

OBJECTIVE

To investigate effects of exercise on hematologic and biochemical values (especially markers of inflammation and muscle damage) in Spanish Greyhounds used for hunting without previous training.

ANIMALS

32 Spanish Greyhounds and 31 dogs of other breeds.

PROCEDURES

Hematologic variables and concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) and other biochemical markers were compared in samples obtained from Spanish Greyhounds 24 hours after exercise (eg, a hunting race) and 2 months after exercise (ie, at rest) and from non-Spanish Greyhounds at rest. All dogs were healthy. Hematologic and biochemical analyses were performed within 24 hours after samples were obtained, and results were compared by means of a Student t test.

RESULTS

CRP concentration and muscle enzyme (creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and aspartate aminotransferase) activities were significantly higher and serum iron concentration was significantly lower for Spanish Greyhounds after exercise than at rest. The WBC and neutrophil counts were significantly higher after exercise then at rest. Plasma alanine transaminase activity and total protein, calcium, and phosphorus concentrations were significantly higher after exercise than at rest. Spanish Greyhounds at rest had higher RBC counts, PCVs, and hemoglobin concentrations and lower WBC, neutrophil, and lymphocyte counts, compared with values for non-Spanish Greyhounds at rest.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Exercise of Spanish Greyhounds without prior training activated an acute-phase response represented by an increase in serum CRP concentration and decrease in serum albumin and iron concentrations. These changes, along with leukocytosis and neutrophilia, were indicative of a subclinical inflammatory state in Spanish Greyhounds.

CREATINAFOSFOQUINASE-ISOENZIMA MB MASSA (CK-MB MASSA) E TROPONINA I (cTnI) EM CÃES (<italic>Canis familiaris</italic>)

<title>Resumo</title><p>Os marcadores cardíacos, sobretudo a CK-MB massa e a cTnI, tem demonstrado um papel essencial seja em cardiologia clínica ou cirúrgica veterinária e humana, permitindo um diagnóstico mais preciso e acurado nas lesões miocárdicas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi mensurar os marcadores cardíacos em tela na Medicina Veterinária, aprimorar sua utilização e obter informações sobre estes métodos laboratoriais não invasivos que permitem o monitoramento da integridade da célula miocárdica. A quantificação dos parâmetros foi feita do soro de cães saudáveis atendidos na rotina do setor de Clínica Médica de Pequenos Animais do Hospital Veterinário da Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro. O kit de ensaio imunométrico por quimioluminescência turbo (IMMULITE Turbo, Siemens®) humano mostrou-se eficaz na avaliação na espécie canina, tanto para CK-MB massa quanto cTnI. Além disso, os valores encontrados para CK-MB massa e cTnI contribuirão significativamente para a rotina clínica ou para os trabalhos experimentais em cães.</p>

Cardiac Dysregulation and Myocardial Injury in a 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Rat Model of Sympathetic Denervation

BACKGROUND

Cardiac sympathetic denervation is found in various cardiac pathologies; however, its relationship with myocardial injury has not been thoroughly investigated.

METHODS

Twenty-four rats were assigned to the normal control group (NC), sympathectomy control group (SC), and a sympathectomy plus mecobalamin group (SM). Sympathectomy was induced by injection of 6-OHDA, after which, the destruction and distribution of sympathetic and vagal nerve in the left ventricle (LV) myocardial tissue were determined by immunofluorescence and ELISA. Heart rate variability (HRV), ECG and echocardiography, and assays for myocardial enzymes in serum before and after sympathectomy were examined. Morphologic changes in the LV by HE staining and transmission electron microscope were used to estimate levels of myocardial injury and concentrations of inflammatory cytokines were used to reflect the inflammatory reaction.

RESULTS

Injection of 6-OHDA decreased NE (933.1 ± 179 ng/L for SC vs. 3418.1± 443.6 ng/L for NC, P < 0.01) and increased NGF (479.4± 56.5 ng/mL for SC vs. 315.85 ± 28.6 ng/mL for NC, P < 0.01) concentrations. TH expression was reduced, while ChAT expression showed no change. Sympathectomy caused decreased HRV and abnormal ECG and echocardiography results, and histopathologic examinations showed myocardial injury and increased collagen deposition as well as inflammatory cell infiltration in the cardiac tissue of rats in the SC and SM groups. However, all pathologic changes in the SM group were less severe compared to those in the SC group.

CONCLUSIONS

Chemical sympathectomy with administration of 6-OHDA caused dysregulation of the cardiac autonomic nervous system and myocardial injuries. Mecobalamin alleviated inflammatory and myocardial damage by protecting myocardial sympathetic nerves.

Serum dosage of CPK-MB in dogs with ST deviation by chemiluminescence

Abstract: Although frequently in humans, hypoxic and ischemic heart diseases are poorly documented in dogs, with only few reports of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in this species. Some electrocardiographic findings might suggest myocardium hypoxia/ischemia, like ST segment elevation or depression, but there are no studies showing whether deviations in ST segment are associated to myocardial injury and serum increase of creatine phosphokinase (CPK-MB). In order to investigate possible myocardial cells injury in poor perfusion conditions, 38 dogs were studied, 20 with normal electrocardiogram and 18 with ST segment elevation or depression, recorded in lead II, at a paper speed of 50 mm/sec and N sensibility (1mV=1cm). Serum measurement of creatine phosphokinase isoenzyme MB (CPK-MB) in normal dogs (group 1) determined control values (in ng/mL), which were compared to those obtained from dogs with deviation (group 2), which allowed confirmation or not of myocardial injury. CPK-MB mean values obtained from dogs in groups 1 and 2 were 0.540ng/ml (SD±0.890)ng/mL and 0.440ng/mL (SD±1.106), respectively. At a significance level of 5%, the relation of CPK-MB with age, mass and total creatine phosphokinase (CPK-T) was not significant in groups 1 and 2. CPK-MB showed no difference, at 5% level, between groups 1 and 2. In conclusion, it is possible to use the human chemiluminescent immunometric assay kit in canine species and that hypoxia/ischemia revealed by ST segment deviation does not mean significant myocardium injury.

Revision of the Troponin T Release Mechanism from Damaged Human Myocardium

BACKGROUND

Cardiac troponin T (cTnT) is released from damaged heart tissue in patients with acute myocardial infarction. It is presumed that most cTnT is tightly bound and released following the degradation of myofibrils in necrotic cardiomyocytes, resulting in sustained increases in circulating cTnT. Evidence of a large irreversibly bound fraction is based on the inability to extract most cTnT from cardiac tissue in cold low-salt extraction buffers.

METHODS

Here we examined in vitro extraction of cTnT from human cardiac tissue in serum at 37 °C.

RESULTS

We found that over 80% of the cTnT can be extracted from human cardiac tissue in 90 min using large volumes of human serum at 37 °C. The release ratio was highly dependent on the extraction volume and was only 3% if an equal volume of serum and heart tissue was used. In contrast, extraction of the cytoplasmic cardiac damage markers myoglobin and creatinine kinase was much less affected by changing these conditions. Purified cTnT was poorly soluble in a low-salt extraction buffer at 0 °C, previously used to define the free cTnT fraction.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that the diffusible fraction of cTnT is likely substantially larger in vivo than previously reported and likely is not fixed but dependent on local plasma flow. It is therefore possible that the sustained increase in circulating cTnT after myocardial infarction is at least in part due to a slow washout of cTnT that interacts reversibly with tropomyosin in myofibrils.

Haematology and serum biochemistry of adult free-ranging mountain brushtail possums (Trichosurus cunninghami), including correlations with season, sex, age, habitat type and disease status

For many wildlife species only limited data are available on haematology and blood biochemistry for free-ranging populations because these are often difficult to obtain. We collected blood samples from wild adult mountain brushtail possums (Trichosurus cunninghami) in the Strathbogie Ranges, Victoria (Australia), over two years, to provide reference values for haematological and some serum biochemical parameters (serum protein, sodium, chloride, potassium, urea, creatinine, creatine kinase and cortisol) for free-ranging animals. We also investigated patterns associated with sex, season, age, habitat type and disease status, including a form of skin disease (rumpwear – one of the major diseases of brushtail possums) and parasite loads. Values for several blood parameters correlated with sex, and most also changed significantly with season. Eosinophil counts increased significantly with the number of strongyle eggs in faeces, and packed cell volume decreased significantly with increasing numbers of ticks. Surprisingly, there was a significant negative relationship between mean population serum cortisol concentrations and the prevalence of rumpwear. Serum sodium and chloride concentrations were significantly lower in possums with moderate to severe rumpwear; however, the biological significance of this is unclear. While there is a growing body of data on the blood parameters of marsupials, these are mainly derived from captive animals, or single sample sets from wild populations, thus are unlikely to accurately reflect the changing status of wild animals/populations across seasons and under varying environmental conditions and parasite loads. More comprehensive, longer-term data from free-ranging marsupial populations, such as those presented here, provide extremely important reference data to aid in determining the health status of wild populations and interpreting data collected from individuals.

The stress response of frequently electroejaculated rams to electroejaculation: hormonal, physiological, biochemical, haematological and behavioural parameters

Electroejaculation (EE) is a technique widely used to collect semen in ruminants, which produces a stress response with negative effects on animal welfare. The aim of this paper was to characterize the stress response during conventional EE in rams that have been frequently electroejaculated. Blood samples were collected since 20 min before and until 120 min after electroejaculating 10 rams. Electroejaculation affected hormone concentration, as cortisol increased, and testosterone decreased after EE. Heart and respiratory rate increased 10 min after EE. Several blood parameters, such as glycaemia, an increase in total protein and creatine kinase concentrations and a decrease in haematocrit, haemoglobin, red blood cell and alkaline phosphatase concentrations. The rams vocalized 13.8 ± 2.4 times, and the largest length of vocalizations during EE was associated with the numbers of pulses in which the rams ejaculated. In this paper, we provide a complete characterization of the stress response to EE in rams. We showed that although rams have been frequently electroejaculated, an important stress response including changes in respiratory rate, testosterone concentrations, haematological and biochemical parameters were observed, besides the changes in cortisol concentrations and heart rate, suggesting that rams were not habituated to EE. In addition, we described the main parameters of vocalizations and its relation with the moment of EE. The information displayed on the frequent use of EE in the rams should be considered in relation to the welfare implications.

Clinical and clinicopathological features of non-suppurative meningoencephalitis in young greyhounds in Ireland

The clinical and clinicopathological features of non-suppurative meningoencephalitis in 30 greyhounds were reviewed. The dogs were from 21 separate litters, comprised both sexes (16 males and 14 females) and ranged in age from five to 18 months. In 14 (66.7 per cent) litters, more than one case was suspected or confirmed, and the number of siblings affected within individual litters ranged from one to seven. Clinical signs were progressive and varied from five days to 12 months in duration; 12 dogs had signs of two weeks' duration or less. The rate of progression of signs was variable. Common features included dullness or lethargy (22), altered behaviour (21), proprioceptive and postural reaction deficits (18), circling (17), ataxia (17), decreased appetite (15) and weight loss (13). No consistent haematological or biochemical abnormalities were identified and serology failed to implicate Toxoplasma gondii or Neospora caninum. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis revealed mild or moderate mononuclear pleocytosis in 12 (70.6 per cent) of 17 dogs. No definitive antemortem diagnosis could be made in any affected dog.

Electrophoretic fractionation of creatine kinase isoenzymes and macroenzymes in clinically healthy dogs and cats and preliminary evaluation in central neurologic disease

Background: Information about the electrophoretic distribution of CK‐MM, CK‐MB, and CK‐BB, serum creatine kinase (CK) isoenzymes that are indicators of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and brain lesions, respectively, and CK macroenzymes (macro‐CK1 and macro‐CK2) in dogs and cats with and without central neurologic disease is scant and equivocal.

Objectives: The objectives of this study were to describe the electrophoretic distribution of CK isoenzymes and macroenzymes in healthy dogs and cats and to provide a preliminary assessment of the utility of CK enzymatic electrophoresis in dogs and cats with central neurologic disease.

Methods: Electrophoretic separation of serum CK isoenzymes and macroenzymes was performed on freeze‐thawed serum samples from 20 healthy dogs and 3 dogs with central neurologic disease and from 14 healthy cats and 6 cats with neurologic feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). Electrophoretic separation was also performed on supernatants of homogenized brain, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle from both species, to assess the tissue distribution of isoenyzmes in dogs and cats.

Results: CK‐MM was the predominant isoenzyme in the serum of healthy dogs and cats, followed by macro‐CK2 and CK‐BB in dogs and by both macroenzymes in cats. In dogs, CK‐MB was essentially absent from both serum and homogenized hearts. CK‐BB increased in dogs with neurologic disease. In cats, CK‐BB was essentially absent from serum, but was present in brain homogenates. Two of 6 cats with FIP had increased macro‐CK1 and increased CK‐BB activity.

Conclusions: This study identified the electophoretic distribution of CK isoenzymes and macroenzymes of dogs and cats and provided encouraging data about the possible use of CK‐BB as a biomarker for canine neurologic disorders, but not for FIP.

Haematological and biochemical responses of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) to different capture methods and shooting

This paper sought to determine whether common haematology and blood biochemistry values might assist in determining the relative welfare outcomes arising from the capture of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) by treadle-snares, Victor Soft Catch® (VSC) #3 traps, cage traps, netting and sampling by shooting. Compared to all other capture methods and shooting, treadle-snared foxes had significantly higher mean albumin (ALB), creatine kinase (CK), red cell count (RCC), neutrophil to lymphocyte (N:L) ratio, sodium (Na), total protein (TP), white cell counts (WCC) and lower glucose (Gl). Treadle-snares were also associated with higher chloride (Cl), haemoglobin (Hb) and packed cell volume (PCV) than cage trapping and netting. Treadle-snares produced indicators of possible muscle damage, exertion and dehydration compared to cage and VSC traps. Cage trapping and netting produced lower indications of exertion, possible muscle damage and dehydration compared to both treadle-snares and VSC traps. These data do not support previous conclusions that due to similar injury scores, treadle-snares and VSC traps produced equivalent welfare outcomes. In restraining traps, injury and death sustained during capture are end-points of poor trapping welfare. Monitoring stress using physiological indicators allows the comparison of the relative potential for different capture techniques to cause pathological and pre-pathological states. As the response of physiological indicators to stress is not independent of time, accurate data on the duration of captivity and the relative intensity of struggling behaviour should be routinely collected when assessing the comparative humaneness of different trap devices.

Hematological and biochemical profiles and histopathological evaluation of experimental intoxication by sodium fluoroacetate in cats

Sodium fluoroacetate (SFAC) is a potent rodenticide, largely used for rodent and domestic pest control. The toxic effects of SFAC are caused by fluoroacetate, a toxic metabolite, whose toxic action blocks the Krebs cycle and also induces the accumulation of citrate in the body, which is a serum calcium chelator. The most common clinical signs of this intoxication are the cardiac and neurological effects. However, the hematological, biochemical and histopathological findings occurring in intoxication are still unknown in different species. In the present study, 16 domestic cats were experimentally intoxicated with oral doses of fluoroacetate (0.45 mg/kg). The hematological and biochemical profiles and histopathological findings were made to look for auxiliary diagnosis methods in SFAC intoxications. The hematological profile showed transitory leucopenia and thrombocytopenia; in the biochemical profiles were detected hyperglycemia, increase of creatinequinase enzyme (CK) and creatinequinase cardiac isoenzyme (CK-MB), hypokalemia and hypophosfatemia. In the macroscopic and histopathological findings were observed lesions characteristic of degenerative and ischemic processes in heart, kidneys, liver, brain and lungs. These changes may be auxiliary to the diagnosis of intoxication by SFAC in cats, when associated with clinical signs described for the species. Thus, the complete blood count with platelet count, serum glucose, enzymes CK and CK-MB isoenzyme, as well as the electrolytes potassium and phosphorus, can facilitate the laboratory diagnosis during intoxication by SFAC, associated with the pathological findings in the case of death of the intoxicated animal.

Assessment of serum enzymatic markers of cardiomyocytes injury in female dogs submitted to ketamine S(+), atropin and xylazine association

PURPOSE

To assessment of the aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK) and creatine kinase isoenzyme fraction MB (CK-MB) serum activity in female dogs anesthetized with ketamine S (+), atropine and xylazine in several associations.

METHODS

Twenty three healthy female dogs randomly distributed in four groups named as GI (n=6), GII (n=6), GIII (n=6) and GIV (n=5) were treated respectively with atropine and ketamine S(+) (0.04 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg); ketamine S(+) (10 mg/kg); atropine, xylazine and ketamine S(+) (0.04 mg/kg; 1.1 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg) and xylazine and ketamine S(+) (1.1 mg/kg; 10 mg/kg). AST, CK and CK-MB serum activity measurement before pre-medication (M0) and one, two, three, six, 12, 24, 36 hours after.

RESULTS

There was no significant change in AST, CK e CK-MB serum activity among groups. However, CK serum activity in relation to moments within the groups was increased in all groups over the time in spite of treatment, except GI. In relation to CK-MB activity, in the moments within the group, it was observed an increase compared to baseline in all groups.

CONCLUSION

Creatine kinase and creatine kinase fraction MB isoenzyme showed changes in their mean values remained higher than baseline for a longer time in GIII and GIV.

Changes in serum and exudate creatine phosphokinase concentrations as an indicator of deep tissue injury: a pilot study

Deep tissue injury (DTI) is difficult to detect in the early phase. Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) as a muscle enzyme could represent a promising indicator of DTI. However, serum CPK levels reflect the systemic condition rather than the local wound environment. Wound exudates can be indicative of the local wound environment. This study aimed to investigate the usefulness of CPK levels in wound exudates as an indicator of DTI. Rats were divided into control, 6 hours 10-kg and 6 hours 20-kg loading groups. Serum samples were obtained before wounding, and at 8 and 12 hours, and 1, 2 and 3 days after wounding, while exudate samples were obtained on days 2 and 3. Serum CPK levels were markedly increased in the 10-kg and 20-kg groups at 8 and 12 hours after loading compared with the baseline value and control group, but decreased to the normal level on day 1. In both loading groups, exudate CPK levels were high on day 2 and decreased on day 3. Muscle necrosis was more severe in the 20-kg group than in the 10-kg group by histological examination. This is the first study to indicate the potential of CPK in wound exudates as an indicator of DTI.

Minimizing creatine kinase variability in rats for neuromuscular research purposes

Rat serum or plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity is widely used to evaluate myopathic processes, to test the myotoxicity of different drugs, or to analyse the benefits of emerging gene therapies in some neuromuscular disorders. However, great variability is found in this determination. The aim of this study has been to control some factors of variation in order to reduce variability and increase the reproducibility of analytical data. 8-10-week-old Wistar-Han rats were used. The study consisted of four sequential phases. Phase I aimed to analyse the effect of ether and isoflurane as anaesthetic drugs. The objective of Phase II was to evaluate bleeding rats via retro-orbital sinus vs. tail vein. Phases III and IV were designed as two separate, repeated measure experiments on two factors: habituation to laboratory handling procedures in Phase III and gender in Phase IV. The repeated factor was the storage temperature of blood sample prior to centrifugation. Ether did not significantly increased the CK value. Using isoflurane, getting rats accustomed to laboratory handling procedures and whole blood refrigeration prior to centrifugation and serum separation resulted in statistically significant reduction in CK value and variability. Male rats showed significantly higher values than female rats. In the light of our findings, CK value and variability in rats may be minimized by choosing tail vein as site of bleeding, getting rats accustomed to laboratory handling procedures and maintaining whole blood refrigerated until centrifugation and serum separation.

The Guinea pig as a preclinical model for demonstrating the efficacy and safety of statins

Statins, because of their excellent efficacy and manageable safety profile, represent a key component in the current armamentarium for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia. Nonetheless, myopathy remains a safety concern for this important drug class. Cerivastatin was withdrawn from the market for myotoxicity safety concerns. BMS-423526 [{(3R,5S)-7-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-6,7-dihydro-2-(1-methylethyl)-5H-benzo[6,7]cyclohepta[1,2-b]pyridin-3-yl]-3,5-dihydroxy-heptenoic acid} sodium salt], similar to cerivastatin in potency and lipophilicity, was terminated in early clinical development due to an unacceptable myotoxicity profile. In this report, we describe the guinea pig as a model of statin-induced cholesterol lowering and myotoxicity and show that this model can distinguish statins with unacceptable myotoxicity profiles from statins with acceptable safety profiles. In our guinea pig model, both cerivastatin and BMS-423526 induced myotoxicity at doses near the ED(50) for total cholesterol (TC) lowering in plasma. In contrast, wide differences between myotoxic and TC-lowering doses were established for the currently marketed, more hydrophilic statins, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and atorvastatin. This in vivo model compared favorably to an in vitro model, which used statin inhibition of cholesterol synthesis in rat hepatocytes and L6 myoblasts as surrogates of potential efficacy and toxicity, respectively. Our conclusion is that the guinea pig is a useful preclinical in vivo model for demonstrating whether a statin is likely to have an acceptable therapeutic safety margin.