A 20-year review of trends in deliberate self-harm in a British town, 1981-2000

Suicide risk among young people who use drugs in Hanoi, Vietnam: Prevalence and related factors

AIM

Adolescents and young adults are vulnerable to suicidality, especially those at high risk such as young people who use drugs (YPUD). This study aimed to assess the prevalence and related factors of suicide risk among this population.

METHODS

We conducted a descriptive, cross-sectional study on YPUD aged 16-24 in the community in Hanoi, Vietnam. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, drug use, and adverse childhood experiences were collected using face-to-face questionnaires by research assistants. YPUD were screened by psychiatrists for depression, psychotic symptoms, and suicide risk, using the MINI questionnaire.

RESULTS

Three hundred-seven YPUD (250 males, 57 females) participated in the study; of those, 86 (28.0%) were at risk of suicide. Gender (female), adverse childhood experiences, depression, and psychosis were relevant factors.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of suicide risk among young people using drugs was high. Therefore, suicide risk should be screened and monitored in the clinical assessment of this population. In addition, the intervention efforts to detect and intervene in adverse events during childhood may be one way to prevent mental health and suicide in later life.

Suicidality in the Arab World: Results from an Online Screener

Suicide in the Arab World is grossly understudied. This study sought to understand suicidality among Arabic-speaking individuals visiting an online depression screener. A large sample (N = 23,201) from the Arab World was recruited online. 78.9% (n = 17,042) reported suicidality (thoughts of death or suicide, or a suicide attempt) and 12.4% reported a suicide attempt in the past 2 weeks. Binary logistic regressions indicated that women tended to report more suicidality, and that suicidality tended to decline with age (all ps < 0.001), across all levels of suicidality. Comparing countries with n ≥ 1000 (Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia), several 3-way (gender * age * country) and 2-way interactions indicated that some countries departed from the usual pattern of responses. For instance, in Algeria, neither gender nor age differences were observed in reported attempts. Women and younger adults in the Arab World may be at higher risk of suicidality. Differences between and within countries warrant further exploration.

Dramatic increase of suicidality in children and adolescents after COVID-19 pandemic start: A two-year longitudinal study

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the mental health of the youngest, worsening their emotional well-being. The demand for care in psychiatric emergencies may indirectly reflect the mental health state of children and adolescents and the emotional consequences of the pandemic. Moreover, suicidality can be considered a marker of severity in this population group. Therefore, we have aimed to longitudinally describe the number of children and adolescents attended in the psychiatry emergency department due to suicidal ideation or attempts and, to explore differences in suicidality according to gender and age. A retrospective study was carried out in the University Hospital of San Juan, Alicante, Spain, from January 01, 2018 to December 31, 2021. A total of 138 participants under 18 years requesting psychiatric care due to suicidal ideation or attempts were included. The sample was composed by 35% of males and the mean age was 14.8 years old (SD = 2.2). The number of cases per year range from 10 in 2018 to 88 in 2021. Attendances were significantly higher between 2021 and the three previous years. Besides, the number of attentions registered in the last 9 months of 2021 equals those that occurred in the entire previous period. Most of the cases were girls and middle adolescents. Suicide ideation or attempts have skyrocketed in children and adolescents. This alarming increase presents a one-year lag peak from the COVID-19 outbreak and continues until the end of 2021. Girls and those over 12 years have been identified as risk groups to present suicidal ideation or attempts.

Assessing the impact of Instagram use and deliberate self-harm in adolescents: A scoping review

The use of Instagram by adolescents to access deliberate self-harm content is a growing concern among scholars, mental health professionals and families, with many adolescents (10-19-year-olds) imitating offline what they have seen online. This scoping review aims to investigate the extent to which Instagram use impacts the mental health of its adolescent users, identifying whether there is a relationship between time spent on Instagram and engagement in deliberate self-harm. The databases, PubMed, Web of Science, Google scholar, APA PsycInfo, CINAHL and child development and adolescent studies were explored, and after applying the inclusion/exclusion criteria, 15 papers were included in this review. Thematic analysis indicated that there was a relationship between time spent on Instagram and deliberate self-harm; desensitization of deliberate self-harm resulting in normalization; social contagion and that Instagram provided a sense of belonging to its users who engaged in deliberate self-harm. Implications of this research is that it is quickly outdated as new social media platforms are developed and that the reliance on self-reports does not have high validity or reliability.

Suicidality in psychiatric emergency department situations during the first and the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic

Psychiatric patients are prone to mental health deterioration during the Covid-19 pandemic. Little is known about suicidality in psychiatric patients during the Covid-19 pandemic. This study is a retrospective chart review of psychiatric emergency department (pED) presentations with present or absent suicidality (5634 pED attendances, 4110 patients) in an academic pED in Berlin, Germany. Poisson regression analysis was performed on the effect of Covid-19 period on suicidality (suicidal ideation (SI), suicide plans (SP) or suicide attempt (SA)) during the first (3/2/2020-5/24/2020 "first-wave") and second (9/15/2020-3/1/2021 "second-wave") wave of the Covid-19 pandemic compared to the same periods one year earlier. During the first-wave the number of pED visits per person with SI, SP and SA was higher compared to one year earlier (SI RR = 1.614; p = 0.016; SP RR = 2.900; p = 0.004; SA RR = 9.862; p = 0.003). SI and SP were predicted by interaction between substance use disorder (SUD) and second-wave (SI RR = 1.305, p = 0.043; SP RR = 1.645, p = 0.018), SA was predicted by interaction between borderline personality disorder (BPD) and second-wave (RR = 7.128; p = 0.012). Suicidality increased during the first-wave of Covid-19 pandemic in our sample. In the second-wave this was found in patients with SUD and BPD. These patients may be at particular risk of suicidality during the Covid-19 pandemic.

Suicidal Ideation among University Students: A Moderated Mediation Model Considering Attachment, Personality, and Sex

The present study aimed to examine the link between attachment, personality traits, and suicidal ideation with consideration of the potential moderating role of age and sex. The Suicidal History Self-Rating Screening Scale, the Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form, and the Attachment Style Questionnaire were administered to 183 students. There was a significant indirect effect of need for approval on suicidal ideation via detachment. Moreover, the moderated mediation models of need for approval and preoccupation with relationships on suicidality via negative affectivity were significant in men, but not women, whereas the moderated mediation model of need for approval on suicidality via detachment was significant in women, but not men. Young men and women seem at risk for increased suicidal ideation based on specific attachment and personality characteristics, which should be considered for the development of prevention and therapeutic interventions.

Prevalencia y caracterización de cutting en población pediátrica (0-14 años) en un servicio de urgencias de Bogotá D.C., Colombia

Introducción. El cutting es un comportamiento de autolesión no suicida cada vez más frecuente en menores de 15 años; sin embargo, en Colombia aún no se han realizado estudios que reporten la prevalencia de esta conducta en población pediátrica.Objetivo. Describir las características sociodemográficas y clínicas, y los factores de riesgo de la población pediátrica (0 a 14 años) con diagnóstico de cutting atendida en el servicio de urgencias de una clínica de cuarto nivel en Bogotá D.C., Colombia.Materiales y métodos. Estudio observacional descriptivo de corte transversal en el que se revisaron las historias clínicas de los pacientes menores de 15 años atendidos entre los años 2011 y 2017 con los códigos diagnósticos CIE 10 Z91.5, F32, F33, F99, F19, F41, F43, T742 y X60, con el fin de identificar aquellos casos que cumplieran con los criterios diagnósticos de cutting.Resultados. Se incluyeron 85 historias clínicas de niños entre 10 y 14 años. La prevalencia de cutting fue de 0.15% en el total de la muestra y de 26.7% en el subgrupo con antecedentes de trastorno psiquiátrico. Se encontró una relación mujer a hombre de 3:1. El 62% no tenía un núcleo familiar unificado, el 30.6% presentó un rendimiento escolar bajo y el 80% se lesionó el antebrazo. Respecto a su salud mental, el 22.3% reportó reducción de ansiedad con la lesión y el 72.9% no presentó ideas suicidas. Los factores de riesgo más frecuentes fueron presentar antecedente de enfermedad mental (52.9%), ser víctima de violencia psicológica (25.8%) y, en el caso de los varones, consumir sustancias psicoactivas (22.7%).Conclusiones. La prevalencia de cutting fue inferior en comparación con lo reportado en otros países. Este comportamiento fue tres veces más frecuente en niñas y el antecedente personal psiquiátrico podría aumentar el riesgo de presentarlo. A pesar que las características aquí descritas permitirán identificar fácilmente esta condición en población pediátrica colombiana, es necesario realizar nuevos estudios que determinen la efectividad de medidas terapéuticas dirigidas a esta población.

Gender Differences in Suicide and Self-Directed Violence Risk Among Veterans With Post-traumatic Stress and Substance Use Disorders

BACKGROUND

Veterans have a high prevalence of both post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorders (SUDs), which are related to suicide risk. Exploring gender-related differences in suicidal behavior risk among this subgroup of veterans is important to improve prevention and treatment strategies. To date, few studies have explored these differences.

METHODS

The sample included 352,476 men and women veterans from the Women Veterans Cohort Study with a diagnosis of PTSD. First, we conducted analyses to assess gender-related differences in sociodemographic and clinical variables at baseline, as well as by suicidal behavior. Then, we conducted a series of Cox proportional hazards regression models to estimate the hazard ratios of engaging in self-directed violence (SDV) and dying by suicide by SUD status and gender, controlling for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Adjusted analyses showed that, among veterans with PTSD, the presence of a SUD significantly increased the risk of SDV and death by suicide. Women with PTSD had a decreased risk of dying by suicide compared with men. No gender-related difference was observed for SDV. SUD increased the risk of SDV behavior in both women and men but increased the risk of dying by suicide only among men.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings revealed gender-related differences in SDV and suicide among veterans with a PTSD diagnosis with or without a SUD. Our study, along with the increasing numbers of women serving in the military, stresses the need to conduct gender-based analyses to help improve prevention and treatment strategies.

Mortality and suicide rates in patients discharged from forensic psychiatric wards in Japan

BACKGROUND

Japanese forensic mental health services for patients with psychiatric disorders under the Medical Treatment and Supervision Act was initiated in 2005; however, the prognosis of those patients is not well-known, particularly regarding mortality and suicide. This study aimed to evaluate the all-cause mortality and suicide rate in forensic psychiatric outpatients who had been discharged from forensic psychiatric wards in Japan.

METHODS

Participants included 966 patients who had been discharged from forensic psychiatric wards. Data were collected from July 15, 2005 to July 15, 2018 at 29 of the 33 forensic psychiatric wards in Japan. Only the patients who provided written informed consent were included. We and collaborators at each forensic psychiatric ward identified demographic data of participants from the medical records for the inpatient treatment period. The reintegration coordinators, who belonged to the Ministry of Justice, investigated the prognosis of the participants during the outpatient treatment order period. We then connected demographic data and participants' prognosis for analysis. The crude rates (CRs) and standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) were calculated to analyze all-cause mortality and suicide rates. Univariate analysis was performed to examine the factors associated with all-cause mortality and suicide rates using the Cox proportional hazards ratio model.

RESULTS

The participants included 3.3 times as many men (n=739) compared to women (n=227), and their combined mean age was 47.3 (SD=12.9). The most common primary psychiatric diagnosis was psychotic disorders (81.3%). The mean follow-up period was 790.2 days (SD=369.6). The total observation period was 2091.2 person-years. The CR for all-cause death was 812.9 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI [426.5, 1199.4]), while the SMR for all-cause death was 2.2 (95% CI [1.3, 3.5]). The CR for completed suicide was 478.2 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI [181.8, 774.6]). The suicide SMR was 17.9 (95% CI [8.6, 32.9]) overall, 7.7 (95% CI [2.5, 18.0]) for men, and 79.4 (95% CI [25.8, 185.2]) for women. Univariate analysis showed that women had higher completed suicide risk than men (hazard ratio=3.599, 95% CI [1.041, 12.445]).

CONCLUSION

The all-cause mortality and completed suicide rates were higher in participants than observed in the general population consistent with the results of previous international studies.

Suicide and Microglia: Recent Findings and Future Perspectives Based on Human Studies

Suicide is one of the most disastrous outcomes for psychiatric disorders. Recent advances in biological psychiatry have suggested a positive relationship between some specific brain abnormalities and specific symptoms in psychiatric disorders whose organic bases were previously completely unknown. Microglia, immune cells in the brain, are regarded to play crucial roles in brain inflammation by releasing inflammatory mediators and are suggested to contribute to various psychiatric disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. Recently, activated microglia have been suggested to be one of the possible contributing cells to suicide and suicidal behaviors via various mechanisms especially including the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway. Animal model research focusing on psychiatric disorders has a long history, however, there are only limited animal models that can properly express psychiatric symptoms. In particular, to our knowledge, animal models of human suicidal behaviors have not been established. Suicide is believed to be limited to humans, therefore human subjects should be the targets of research despite various ethical and technical limitations. From this perspective, we introduce human biological studies focusing on suicide and microglia. We first present neuropathological studies using the human postmortem brain of suicide victims. Second, we show recent findings based on positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and peripheral blood biomarker analysis on living subjects with suicidal ideation and/or suicide-related behaviors especially focusing on the tryptophan-kynurenine pathway. Finally, we propose future perspectives and tasks to clarify the role of microglia in suicide using multi-dimensional analytical methods focusing on human subjects with suicidal ideation, suicide-related behaviors and suicide victims.

A cross-national study on gender differences in suicide intent

BACKGROUND

Suicide accounts for over 58,000 deaths in Europe per annum, where suicide attempts are estimated to be 20 times higher. Males have been found to have a disproportionately lower rate of suicide attempts and an excessively higher rate of suicides compared to females. The gender difference in suicide intent is postulated to contribute towards this gender imbalance. The aim of this study is to explore gender differences in suicide intent in a cross-national study of suicide attempts. The secondary aims are to investigate the gender differences in suicide attempt across age and country.

METHODS

Data on suicide attempts (acquired from the EU-funded OSPI-Europe project) was obtained from eight regions in Germany, Hungary, Ireland and Portugal. Suicide intent data was categorized into 'Non-habitual Deliberate Self-Harm' (DSH), 'Parasuicidal Pause' (SP), 'Parasuicidal Gesture' (SG), and 'Serious Suicide Attempt' (SSA), applying the Feuerlein scale. Gender differences in intent were explored for significance by using χ²-tests, odds ratios, and regression analyses.

RESULTS

Suicide intent data from 5212 participants was included in the analysis. A significant association between suicide intent and gender was found, where 'Serious Suicide Attempts' (SSA) were rated significantly more frequently in males than females (p < .001). There was a statistically significant gender difference in intent and age groups (p < .001) and between countries (p < .001). Furthermore, within the most utilised method, intentional drug overdose, 'Serious Suicide Attempt' (SSA) was rated significantly more often for males than females (p < .005).

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the differences in suicidal intent between males and females highlighted by the current study, gender targeted prevention and intervention strategies would be recommended.

The Associations Between Children's and Adolescents' Suicidal and Self-Harming Behaviors, and Related Behaviors Within Their Social Networks: A Systematic Review

Social influences-including the suicidal and self-harming behaviors of others-have been highlighted as a risk factor for suicidal and self-harming behavior in young people, but synthesis of the evidence is lacking. A systematic review of 86 relevant papers was conducted. Considerable published evidence was obtained for positive associations between young people's suicidal and self-harming behavior and that of people they know, with those reporting knowing people who had engaged in suicidal or self-harming behaviors more likely to report engaging in similar behaviors themselves. Findings are discussed in relation to a number of methodological and measurement issues-including the role of normative perceptions-and implications for the prevention of suicidal and self-harming behavior are considered.

The Social Norms of Suicidal and Self-Harming Behaviours in Scottish Adolescents

Although the suicidal and self-harming behaviour of individuals is often associated with similar behaviours in people they know, little is known about the impact of perceived social norms on those behaviours. In a range of other behavioural domains (e.g., alcohol consumption, smoking, eating behaviours) perceived social norms have been found to strongly predict individuals' engagement in those behaviours, although discrepancies often exist between perceived and reported norms. Interventions which align perceived norms more closely with reported norms have been effective in reducing damaging behaviours. The current study aimed to explore whether the Social Norms Approach is applicable to suicidal and self-harming behaviours in adolescents. Participants were 456 pupils from five Scottish high-schools (53% female, mean age = 14.98 years), who completed anonymous, cross-sectional surveys examining reported and perceived norms around suicidal and self-harming behaviour. Friedman's ANOVA with post-hoc Wilcoxen signed-ranks tests indicated that proximal groups were perceived as less likely to engage in or be permissive of suicidal and self-harming behaviours than participants' reported themselves, whilst distal groups tended towards being perceived as more likely to do so. Binary logistic regression analyses identified a number of perceived norms associated with reported norms, with close friends' norms positively associated with all outcome variables. The Social Norms Approach may be applicable to suicidal and self-harming behaviour, but associations between perceived and reported norms and predictors of reported norms differ to those found in other behavioural domains. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are considered.

Is there a difference between hospital-verified and self-reported self-harm? Implications for repetition

OBJECTIVE

Repeated intentional self-harm (SH) is associated with economic costs and increased risk of suicide. Estimates of repetition vary according to method of data capture and are limited by short periods of follow-up observation. Some sources use hospital records and others self-reported SH (SRSH). Our aim was to examine the relationship between SRSH and hospital-verified SH (HVSH) and later repetition of SH (predictive validity). We also aimed to examine whether rates of SH repetition differ between first-time presenters and non-first-time presenters using either definition of SH.

METHOD

We conducted a large prospective study tracking SH attempts through an Accident and Emergency (A&E) department within the United Kingdom. We took a representative sample of 774 patients (30% of total who reported SH) and followed them for 5.6 years on average. The index episode of SH was recorded at the time of referral to staff in A&E. Prior episodes of SH were determined from an electronic search of A&E patient database, and in addition, recollection of prior SH as reported by the patient to their clinician at the time of index presentation was recorded.

RESULTS

Across the whole sample 32.0% of patients repeated SH within 1 year, which rose to 54.1% at completion of follow-up. Repetition rates were considerably higher in patients with a prior SH history than those presenting with a first SH episode after 1 year (47.9% vs. 19.6%) and by the end of follow-up (73.8% vs. 39.4%) (P<.001). Of 411 with self-reported first presentations, 45.2% repeated over the study period. In terms of predictive validity, 65.2% of those with previous SRSH repeated vs. 73.8% with previous HVSH (P<.001). There was low agreement between SRSH and HVSH (Kappa=0.353, 95% confidence interval 0.287-0.419, low).

CONCLUSIONS

We found relatively poor agreement between hospital-defined and self-reported SH. A total of 62.8% of those who denied SH actually had a hospital-verified previous episode. Patients with recorded prior SH and those who recall previous SH have significantly higher rates of repetition, but the two samples imprecisely overlap and predictive validity is stronger for HVSH.

Why Do Adolescents Self-Harm?

BACKGROUND

Given the high rates of self-harm among adolescents, recent research has focused on a better understanding of the motives for the behavior.

AIMS

The present study had three aims: to investigate (a) which motives are most frequently endorsed by adolescents who report self-harm; (b) whether motives reported at baseline predict repetition of self-harm over a 6-month period; and (c) whether self-harm motives differ between boys and girls.

METHOD

In all, 987 school pupils aged 14-16 years completed a lifestyle and coping questionnaire at two time points 6 months apart that recorded self-harm and the associated motives.

RESULTS

The motive "to get relief from a terrible state of mind" was the most commonly endorsed reason for self-harm (in boys and girls). Interpersonal reasons (e.g., "to frighten someone") were least commonly endorsed. Regression analyses showed that adolescents who endorsed wanting to get relief from a terrible state of mind at baseline were significantly more likely to repeat self-harm at follow-up than those adolescents who did not cite this motive.

CONCLUSION

The results highlight the complex nature of self-harm. They have implications for mental health provision in educational settings, especially in relation to encouraging regulation of emotions and help-seeking.

The Body as a Site of Gender-Related Distress: Ethical Considerations for Gender Variant Youth in Clinical Settings

The present article maps out understandings about embodied distress among gender-nonconforming youth. Feminist bioethics and queer-inflected clinical perspectives are used to inform thinking about ethical, nonpathologizing health care in the case of gender-related distress. Specific attention is directed at self-harming among gender variant and trans youth. This is contextualized in relation to the role that self-harm plays for some LGBT youth, where it may be seen as a rite of passage or as reasonable and inevitable way of coping. The particular complexities of self-harm among trans youth seeking clinical intervention are examined. Queer bioethics is proposed as potentially facilitating productive uncertainty with regard to the diverse imagined futures of gender variant and trans youth.

Young people who self-harm: a prospective 1-year follow-up study

PURPOSE

To explore repetition, service provision and service engagement following presentation of young people to emergency services with self-harm.

METHODS

969 patients who presented to accident and emergency services after self-harm were followed up prospectively for a period of 1 year. Data on rates, method, clinical history, initial service provision, engagement and repetition (defined as re-presenting to emergency services with further self-harm) were gathered from comprehensive electronic records.

RESULTS

Young people were less likely to repeat self-harm compared to those aged 25 and above. A psychiatric history and a history of childhood trauma were significant predictors of repetition. Young people were more likely to receive self-help as their initial service provision, and less likely to receive acute psychiatric care or a hospital admission. There were no differences in engagement with services between young people and those aged 25 and above.

CONCLUSION

Younger individuals may be less vulnerable to repetition, and are less likely to represent to services with repeated self-harm. All young people who present with self-harm should be screened for mental illness and asked about childhood trauma. Whilst young people are less likely to be referred to psychiatric services, they do attend when referred. This may indicate missed opportunity for intervention.

The mediating role of sleep disturbances in the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder and self-injurious behavior

Although posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with self-injurious behavior, it is currently unclear what mechanisms may account for this relationship. Sleep disturbances may be relevant as they are common among those with PTSD and are associated with emotion regulation difficulties, which may increase vulnerability to self-injurious behavior. As such, we investigated the relationship between PTSD and self-injurious behaviors, and the mediating roles of nightmares and insomnia. Hypotheses were tested cross-sectionally in a sample of psychology clinic outpatients (N=255). Participants completed a structured clinical interview assessing PTSD and self-report questionnaires measuring insomnia, nightmares, and self-injurious behaviors (i.e., Have you ever cut, burned, or scratched yourself on purpose?). PTSD was associated with self-injurious behavior after covarying for depression, and nightmare severity mediated the relationship between PTSD and self-injurious behavior. Findings are consistent with research indicating that sleep disturbances, specifically nightmares, are important predictors of poor outcomes among those with PTSD, and extend this research to suggest their role in self-injurious behaviors as well.

Conceptualizing the neurobiology of non-suicidal self-injury from the perspective of the Research Domain Criteria Project

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) commonly starts in adolescence and is associated with an array of negative outcomes. Neurobiological research investigating NSSI is in its early stages and most studies have examined this behavior within the context of specific diagnoses. However, the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative encourages researchers to examine brain-behavior relationships across diagnoses. This review on the neurobiology associated with NSSI is organized using the domains proposed by RDoC: Negative Valence, Positive Valence, Cognitive, Social Processes, and Arousal/Regulatory Systems. Evidence of neurobiological anomalies is found in each of these domains. We also propose future research directions, especially in regard to human development. Future NSSI studies should address this behavior independent of diagnosis, examine relevant constructs across multiple units of analysis, and assess how systems change across development and course of illness. These advances will be essential for guiding neurobiologically informed intervention and prevention strategies to target NSSI. In doing so, we may prevent the associated negative outcomes across the lifespan.

Adolescent self-harm: a school-based study in Northern Ireland

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of adolescent self-harm in Northern Ireland (NI) and its associated factors are unknown. Given the established relationship between conflict and mental health, and NI׳s recent history of conflict, it is important to investigate the factors associated with self-harm in NI. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of self-harm in NI adolescents and the factors associated with it, including exposure to the NI conflict.

METHODS

Observational study of 3596 school pupils employing an anonymous self-report survey. Information was obtained on demographic characteristics, lifestyle, life events and problems, exposure to the NI conflict, social and internet influences, and psychological variables.

RESULTS

Self-harm was reported by 10% of respondents. In univariate analyses, exposure to the NI conflict was associated with self-harm alongside established risk factors. In multivariate analyses, bullying and exposure to self-harm were associated with lifetime self-harm in both girls and boys. Alcohol use, drug use, physical and sexual abuse, and self-esteem were also associated with self-harm in girls. In boys, absence of exercise, sexual orientation concerns, anxiety and impulsivity were additional risk factors. The internet/social media and the self-harm of others were also key influences.

LIMITATIONS

This is a cross-sectional study.

CONCLUSIONS

The rate of self-harm was lower than elsewhere in the UK/Ireland. The study highlights the factors which should be considered in terms of risk assessment. In addition to established risk factors, the findings suggest that more research on the legacy of the NI conflict as well as the influence of new technologies warrant urgent attention.

Factors associated with self-cutting as a method of self-harm: findings from the Irish National Registry of Deliberate Self-Harm

BACKGROUND

Research suggests that patients presenting to hospital with self-cutting differ from those with intentional overdose in demographic and clinical characteristics. However, large-scale national studies comparing self-cutting patients with those using other self-harm methods are lacking. We aimed to compare hospital-treated self-cutting and intentional overdose, to examine the role of gender in moderating these differences, and examine the characteristics and outcomes of those patients presenting with combined self-cutting and overdose.

METHODS

Between 2003 and 2010, the Irish National Registry of Deliberate Self-Harm recorded 42,585 self-harm presentations to Irish hospital emergency departments meeting the study inclusion criteria. Data were obtained on demographic and clinical characteristics by independent data registration officers.

RESULTS

Compared with overdose only, involvement of self-cutting (with or without overdose) was significantly more common in males than females, with an overrepresentation of males aged <35 years. Independent of gender, involvement of self-cutting (with or without overdose) was significantly associated with younger age, city residence, repetition within 30 days and repetition within a year (females only). Factors associated with self-cutting as the sole method were no fixed abode/living in an institution, presenting outside 9 a.m. to 5 p.m., not consuming alcohol and repetition between 31 days and 1 year (males only).

CONCLUSION

The demographic and clinical differences between self-harm patients underline the presence of different subgroups with implications for service provision and prevention of repeated self-harm. Given the relationship between self-cutting and subsequent repetition, service providers need to ensure that adequate follow-up arrangements and supports are in place for the patient.

Evaluation of attempted suicide in emergency departments in Sanliurfa province, southeastern Turkey

AIM

Attempted suicide is one of the most important public health problems among preventable causes of mortality in the general population. Identifying risk factors for the prevention of suicide is a major public health goal. The aim of this study was to determine the annual rate of attempted suicide, related risk factors, and interventions, among referrals to emergency departments in the Sanliurfa province of southeastern Turkey.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Data were obtained from all emergency departments in the province based on the 'Suicide Attempt Registry' standardized records for the calendar year 2010. Sociodemographic characteristics, aetiology, psychiatric history, psychiatric consultations, and interventions were examined. The groups were analysed with the chi-square test; the significance level was set at p<0.05.

RESULTS

The annual rate of suicide attempts was 55.39 in 100,000 for the calendar year 2010. The rate was 3.47 times higher among women than men, and in particular 4.15 times higher for the 15-24 year age group among women than in men with the highest incidence of suicide attempts. The majority of cases were referred in April and May. Medication or toxic agent ingestions comprised 90.3 % of cases. The main reason for attempts was family problems or domestic violence among women, and economic hardships among men, and rates of physical and mental problems were similar for both sexes. Only 8.8 % of cases were subsequently referred for psychiatric consultation. Among cases with a prior suicide attempt history, 44.6 % had a reported psychiatric disorder.

CONCLUSION

The results of this investigation show that strengthening of surveillance and emergency healthcare systems, enhancement of mental health literacy, and inter-sector collaboration for development of community empowerment programmes are of vital importance for prevention of attempted suicide. The low rate of psychiatric referrals for subsequent intervention represented a major gap in urgent mental health services in the region.

Family environment, expressed emotion and adolescent self-harm: a review of conceptual, empirical, cross-cultural and clinical perspectives

Self-harm in young people is a complex and pervasive problem with a number of co-existing risk factors. Although research has implicated a range of family variables in understanding the onset, maintenance and prevention of adolescent self-harm, relatively little attention has been given to the expressed emotion (EE) construct. Based on a narrative review and synthesis of peer-reviewed literature up to and including 2011, this paper considers the conceptual background and empirical evidence for the role of family environment in the expression of adolescent self-harm, with a particular focus on EE. The clinical implications of this literature for working with young people and families from different cultures are also addressed. In summary, the surveyed research provides insufficient evidence for a direct causal link between family environment and adolescent self-harm, with questions raised about the temporal sequencing of measured variables, specificity of implicated family risk factors, and the nature and role of protective factors in families. Emerging evidence for an association between high EE and adolescent self-harm requires replication in well-controlled, prospective studies. There is also a lack of empirically-supported, family-based treatment modalities for adolescents who self-harm. Intervention strategies should be guided by personalised formulation, taking into account individual vulnerabilities, strengths and social contexts, as well as cultural norms for family environment.

Adolescents' self-reported suicide attempts, self-harm thoughts and their correlates across 17 European countries

BACKGROUND

  Suicide is a leading cause of death among adolescents in Europe. Self-harm thoughts and behaviours are documented precursors of completed suicide. It is therefore of great importance to investigate the prevalence of suicide thoughts and attempts and their correlates, with the aim of preventing this major life-threatening public health problem. This study provides cross-national European data on self-reported suicidal thoughts and attempts among adolescents.

METHODS

  Data were obtained from 45,806 high school students aged 15-16 years from 17 countries that participated in the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD) 2007 school survey. The standardised methods of the ESPAD survey ensure comparability across countries. Students completed an anonymous questionnaire in their classrooms. The prevalences of suicidal thoughts and attempts are reported as well as their sociodemographic and psychosocial correlates identified in logistic regression.

RESULTS

  The median prevalence of any lifetime self-reported suicide attempt was 10.5% across the participating countries (range 4.1%-23.5%). The median of frequent self-harm thoughts (at least five times) was 7.4% (range 2.1%-15.3%). Suicidal behaviour and thoughts had significant associations with gender, substance use, family integrity and socioeconomic status. Countries with higher prevalence of substance use tended to have a weaker association between substance use and self-reported suicide attempts.

CONCLUSION

  Although self-reported self-harm thoughts and suicide attempts vary in prevalence within Europe, there are common correlates across countries. These have an important impact on understanding the phenomenon of suicide among young people and in guiding prevention.

The Incidence of Hospital-Treated Attempted Suicide in Oviedo, Spain

Background: The incidence of hospital-treated attempted suicide has not been well established in Spain. Aims: To determine the incidence of suicide attempters presenting to a hospital in Oviedo, Spain, to describe the nature of the suicidal behavior, and to identify sociodemographic subgroups of the population with high rates. Methods: All admitted to the Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Oviedo, during the period 1 May 2008 to 30 April 2009 were examined and those meeting the internationally-recognized case definition were identified. Results: A total of 308 suicide attempt presentations (39% male, 61% female) were made by 279 individuals. Almost 90% of the suicide attempts involved a drug overdose. The age-adjusted total, male, and female attempted suicide rates were 83, 66, and 99 per 100,000, respectively. The highest rate was among 35–44-year-olds for men and women (141.1 and 191.8 per 100,000, respectively). Incidence rates varied widely by sociodemographic characteristics with especially high rates among separated/divorced men (2.4%) and women (1.1%). Conclusions: The reported incidence of hospital-treated attempted suicide is below average in the European context but higher than that reported by previous Spanish studies. Persons separated or divorced constitute a high-risk group.

Healthcare and social services resource use and costs of self-harm patients

BACKGROUND

Patients who have self-harmed have increased morbidity across a wide range of health outcomes, but there is no evidence on their pattern of health and social service use, and its relationship with repetition of self-harm. Previous studies have shown that resource use and costs in the short-term hospital management of self-harm is associated with certain patient and service characteristics but their impact in the longer term has not been demonstrated. The aim of this study is to test the association between changing levels of costs of health and social care with further episodes of self-harm and to identify the clinical and social factors associated with this.

METHOD

This was a cost-analysis incidence study of a sample of patients from a cohort of self-harm patients who remained within one region over the course of their follow-up. Resource use was retrospectively observed from their first episode of self-harm (dating back on some occasions to the 1970's), and costs applied. Panel data analyses were used to identify factors associated with observed costs over time.

RESULTS

Patients with five or more episodes of self-harm had the highest levels of resource costs. Health and social care costs reduced with time from last episode of self-harm. In the year following the first episode of self-harm, psychiatric care accounted for 69% and psychotropic drug prescriptions 1% of the mean resource costs.

CONCLUSIONS

The management of self-harm occurs within a complex system of health and social care. Major self-harm repeaters place the greatest cost burden on the system. Better understanding of the impact of risk assessment models and consequent service provision on clinical outcome may help in the design of effective services for this patient group.

The association between personality disorder and an act of deliberate self harm in the older person

BACKGROUND

Suicide rates are higher in the over 65s than in younger adults and there is a strong link between deliberate self harm (DSH) and suicide in older people. The association between personality disorder (PD) and DSH in older adults remains uncertain. Our objective was to describe this association.

METHODS

A case control study was conducted in which participants were: (i) those who had undertaken an act of DSH and (ii) a hospital-based control group drawn from a geographical contiguous population. PD was assessed using the Standardised Assessment of Personality (SAP).

RESULTS

Seventy-seven cases of DSH were identified; 61 (79.2%) of these participants were interviewed. There were 171 potential controls identified of whom 140 (81.9%) were included. An SAP was completed in 45/61 (73.8%) of cases and 100/140 (71.4%) of controls. The mean age was 79.8 years (SD = 9, range 65-103). The crude odds ratio for the association between PD and DSH was 5.91 [(95% CI 2.3, 14.9) p<0.0001]. There was a strong interaction with age stratified at 80 years. There was no association between PD and DSH after age 80. The adjusted odds ratio for PD in the group <80 years was 20.5 [(95% CI 3, 141) p = 0.002]. Borderline and impulsive PD traits tended to be associated with an episode of DSH more than other personality types.

CONCLUSIONS

PD appears to be a strong and independent risk for an act of DSH in people aged between 65 and 80 years and should be looked for as part of any risk assessment in this population. Access to specialist services may be required to optimally manage this problem and reduce the subsequent risk of suicide.

How adolescents who cut themselves differ from those who take overdoses

The aims of this study were to identify in what ways adolescents who cut themselves differ from those who take overdoses, and to investigate the role of contagion in these behaviours. Data from an anonymous self-report questionnaire survey of 6,020 adolescents in 41 schools were analysed. Comparison of 220 adolescents who reported self-cutting in the previous year with 86 who had taken overdoses in the previous year as the sole method of deliberate self-harm (DSH) showed that far more of those who cut themselves had friends who had also engaged in DSH in the same period (OR 2.84, 95% CI 1.5-5.3, P < 0.001), and fewer had sought help from friends before cutting (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3-0.9, P < 0.02). Self-cutting usually involved less premeditation. Analyses at both the individual and school level showed that the association between engaging in DSH and exposure to DSH amongst peers was largely confined to girls who cut themselves. There are important differences between adolescents who cut themselves and those who take overdoses. Contagion may be an important factor in DSH by adolescents, especially in girls who cut themselves. These findings are relevant to the design of prevention and treatment programmes.

Deliberate self-harm and suicide in adolescents

Deliberate self-harm (DSH) is a widespread yet often hidden problem in adolescents and young adults. Though most DSH can be classified as "non-suicidal self-cutting", some do go on to commit suicide. In this paper, deliberate self-harm is examined, including its prevalence, etiology, management, and future research directions using self-cutting and self-burning as examples. This article reviews recent literature to help understand what is known about self-cutting behavior and its potential relationship to suicide as well as provide direction for research. Research shows that different ecological factors at the individual, family, peer, and societal levels are related to deliberate self-harm. Although there is an association between some self-injurers and drug abuse (including alcohol abuse) as well as eating disorders, there are various subgroups of self-cutters and most are not at high risk for suicide. However, all acts of self-injury should be taken seriously by health care professionals and comprehensive therapy offered to any adolescent with a history of DSH. Future research directions on deliberate self-harm are also discussed.

Mental disorders and socioeconomic status: impact on population risk of attempted suicide in australia

The population attributable risk (PAR) of mental disorders compared to indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) for attempted suicide was estimated for Australia. For mental disorders, the highest PAR% for attempted suicide was for anxiety disorders (males 28%; females 36%). For SES, the highest PAR% for attempted suicide in males was for occupation (males 31%; females 16%) and education level (males 19%; females 8%), following adjustment for age and mental disorders. The study results suggest that one third of suicide attempts in both males and females are attributable to anxiety disorders, the same proportion attributable to low educational or occupational status.

Detecting and predicting self-harm behaviour in prisoners: a prospective psychometric analysis of three instruments

BACKGROUND

Research has revealed high levels of suicide and self-harm within young adult prisoners, but many studies have not considered the applicability and validity of its measurement for both male and female prisoners. Previous studies have focused on retrospective evaluations of instruments which are not useful evidence in informing clinical practice and decision making.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the validation and prediction of suicide and self-harm risk in young adult prisoners.

METHOD

The study was divided into two stages. Stage one used a cross-sectional design of 1,166 prisoners across six HM Prisons to validate the use of three questionnaires: the Beck Depression Inventory, the Beck Hopelessness Scale and a newly devised instrument (SCOPE tool). The second stage assessed the predictive validity of the three instruments using a 4-year-follow-up study of female prisoners across two HM Prisons in UK. Self-report and official records were used to measure suicide and self-harm risk. Logistic regression methodology, receiver operator characteristic curves and Youden's index were used to determine the range of thresholds for the three tools.

RESULTS

Self-report measurement of suicide and self-harm behaviour using the three instruments presented a range of sensitivity and specificity values (65.9-72.3% and 64.9-74.0%, respectively). Predictive measurement of suicide and self-harm behaviour in the follow-up study presented a range of sensitivity and specificity values (54.6-80% and 62.2-69.4%, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Screening for self-harm and suicidal behaviour in young prisoners has generated a range of cut off points for the identification of those at risk. These serve as a bench mark for service planners and practitioners.

Predicting deliberate self-harm in adolescents: a six month prospective study

Few studies have investigated the extent to which psychosocial/psychological factors are associated with the prediction of deliberate self-harm (DSH) among adolescents. In this study, 737 pupils aged 15-16 years completed a lifestyle and coping survey at time one and 500 were followed up six months later. Six point two percent of the respondents (n = 31) reported an act of DSH between Time 1 and Time 2. In multivariate analyses, worries about sexual orientation, history of sexual abuse, family DSH, anxiety, and self-esteem were associated with repeat DSH during the course of the study, but history of sexual abuse was the only factor predictive of first-time DSH. The findings suggest that school-based programs focused on how young people cope with psychosocial stressors may offer promise.

Limiting paracetamol pack size: has it worked in the UK?

INTRODUCTION

Paracetamol poisoning is a major health problem worldwide. Limitation of pack size is an approach increasingly advocated to reduce rates of suicide and serious self-harm from this agent. The United Kingdom adopted such a policy in 1998, restricting non-pharmacy sales to 8 g and pharmacy to pack sizes of 16 g.

METHODS

A literature review was conducted and commentary written on the impact of the change in the United Kingdom on a variety of indices of paracetamol overdose.

RESULTS

Potential markers of effect identified included paracetamol sales, poisons information data, laboratory results, liver unit referrals, and hospital activity and mortality data. Initial reports suggested effects associated with the legislation, but longer term suicide trend analysis has not confirmed these early findings, which were confounded by population trends in self-harm.

CONCLUSION

Paracetamol pack size limitation as applied in the United Kingdom has not reduced paracetamol-related death. Reasons postulated for this failure include patient avoidance of the legislation's intentions, patient confusion, and ineffectiveness of the regulations as conceived and implemented.

School performance and hospital admissions due to self-inflicted injury: a Swedish national cohort study

BACKGROUND

Self-inflicted injury in youth has increased in many Western countries during recent decades. Education is the most influential societal determinant of living conditions in young people after early childhood. This study tested the hypothesis that school performance predicts self-inflicted injury.

METHODS

A national cohort of 447 929 children born during 1973-77 was followed prospectively in the National Patient Discharge Register from the end of their ninth and last year of compulsory school until 2001. Multivariate Cox analyses of proportional hazards were used to test hypotheses regarding grades in ninth grade as predictors of hospital admission due to self-inflicted injury.

RESULTS

The risk of hospital admission because of self-inflicted injury increased steeply in a step-wise manner with decreasing grade point average. Hazard ratios were 6.2 (95% confidence interval 5.5-7.0) in those with the lowest level of grade point average compared with the highest. The risks were similar for women and men. Adjustment for potential socio-economic confounders in a multivariate proportional hazards regression analysis attenuated this strong gradient only marginally.

CONCLUSION

School performance is a strong factor for predicting future mental ill-health as expressed by self-inflicted injury.

Rates of non-suicidal self-injury in high school students across five years

It is believed that the rate of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) among high school students is increasing. However, no known research has examined the rates of NSSI among non-clinical, high school samples of adolescents across several years. The current study utilized archival data from five academic years [2001 to 2005 (N = 1393)] to address this limitation by examining the lifetime prevalence rates of NSSI in urban high school students within the Midwestern United States. Results indicate a significant difference in rates across years by gender. Females showed a significant increase in their rates of NSSI compared to males, who showed a significant decline, during the last 3 years of the study. Implications of these findings for school personnel and directions for future research discussed.

How often does deliberate self-harm occur relative to each suicide? A study of variations by gender and age

Deliberate self-harm (DSH; i.e., nonfatal self-poisoning or self-injury) occurs much more frequently than suicide, yet there has been little detailed investigation of the comparative rates of DSH and suicide. We conducted a study of how rates of DSH relate to suicide rates across the life cycle by gender and by method of estimation of DSH rates, using 10 years of data from a local system for monitoring DSH presentations to a general hospital and national and local suicide statistics. The rate-ratio of DSH to suicide was 36 (95% CI 34.9-37.1) based on annual person-based rates of DSH episodes and was nearly five times higher in females (87.9; 95% CI 84.4-91.6) than in males (18.7; 95% CI 17.9-19.6). The ratio varied markedly across the life cycle, decreasing from more than 200 in teenagers to less than 10 in persons aged 60 years and over. The difference in the ratio between females and males also decreased over the life cycle. There were very similar findings when local suicide rates were used. These patterns were replicated when the data were analyzed, first, on the basis of all episodes of DSH during the study period, but with expectedly larger DSH:suicide ratios (e.g., overall 52.7; 95% CI 51.4-54.1), and second, on the basis of individual persons only engaging in DSH during the study period, but with smaller ratios (e.g., overall 26.2; 95% CI 25.4-27.2). The DSH:suicide rate ratios for those with high and low suicidal intent were similar within age groups except for those aged 60 years and over, in whom there was a greater proportion of high intent acts. These findings illustrate how the nature of self-harming behavior may vary in intention across the life cycle and between the genders, and provide a basis for further comparative work of this kind.

Perspectives of mental health professionals and patients on self-injury in psychiatry: a literature review

Professionals in psychiatry often encounter patients who injure themselves. To explore the perspectives of mental health professionals and patients on self-injurious behavior and treatment, the authors carried out a literature review. The reviewers found little documented data that elucidated or discussed any shared understanding about self-injurious behavior between patients and professionals or between professionals themselves. Many of the problems experienced in relation to self-injury may be due to this lack of a common view. There were few evidence-based strategies for managing self-injury that received any attention in the literature. Future studies should focus on the development and testing of preventative interventions, putting particular emphasis on effective communication between professionals and patients.

Age-sex differences in medicinal self-poisonings: a population-based study of deliberate intent and medical severity

BACKGROUND

Deliberate self-harm (DSH) is related to suicide and DSH repetition is common. DSH hospital presentations are often self-poisonings with medicinal agents. While older age and male sex are known risk factors for suicide, it is unclear how these factors are related to the nature and severity of medicinal self-poisoning (SP). Such knowledge can guide prevention strategies emphasizing detecting and treating mental illness and controlling access to means.

METHODS

Medicinal SP presentations by 18,383 residents of Ontario, Canada, aged 12 years and older, who presented to a hospital emergency department in that province between April 1, 2001-March 31, 2002 were characterized by the agents taken, identification of deliberate intent and medical severity.

RESULTS

We found distinct age-sex differences in the nature and severity of medicinal SP. In youths, aged 12-17, about 40% of presentations involved analgesics, typically not prescribed and most often the acetaminophen agent-group. Females aged 12-64 were identified as deliberate more often than their male counterparts and this pattern occurred in most agent-groups, even among those who took antidepressants. The acetaminophen agent-group was most consistently associated with medical severity and this effect was strongest among female youths. Although medicinal SP was less frequent in the elderly, these presentations tended to be more medically serious and less often identified deliberate.

CONCLUSIONS

The high proportion of medicinal SP in youths involving agents typically not prescribed and the medical severity of the acetaminophen agent-group underscore how prevention strategies must extend beyond controlling access to antidepressants. Despite a higher risk for suicide, males and the elderly may not have their deliberate intent detected and therefore, may not receive appropriate treatment. The emergency department can serve as important link to mental health care and usage patterns can provide feedback about the need for system-level enhancements and DSH surveillance.

The Changing Gender Ratio in Occurrence of Deliberate Self-Harm Across the Lifecycle

Abstract. Background: Overall gender ratios are often quoted in studies of deliberate self-harm (DSH) patients, almost always with higher rates in females than males. Reporting a ratio across all ages may conceal important variations in the gender ratio across the life cycle. Method: Analysis was done of the gender ratio by age groups in rates of DSH in a consecutive sample of DSH patients presenting to a general hospital over a 10-year period. The patients were identified through a well-established monitoring system. Results: The study sample included 2,189 female and 1,439 male patients. While the overall gender rate ratio was 1.5 females to each male, the ratio varied considerably by age group: 8:1 in 10-14-year-olds, 3.1:1 in 15-19-year-olds, 1.6:1 in 20-24-year-olds, approximately 1.3:1 in 25-49-year-olds, and 0.8:1 in people aged 50 years and over. Conclusion: Statements about overall gender ratios for DSH conceal important changes in the ratio across the life cycle. These changes probably reflect differences in development and problems faced in adolescence, changes in motivation for DSH with age, and the closer resemblance of DSH to suicide in older age groups.

Self-harm in England: a tale of three cities. Multicentre study of self-harm

BACKGROUND

Self-harm is a major healthcare problem in the United Kingdom, but monitoring of hospital presentations has largely been done separately in single centres. Multicentre monitoring of self-harm has been established as a result of the National Suicide Prevention Strategy for England.

METHOD

Data on self-harm presentations to general hospitals in Oxford (one hospital), Manchester (three hospitals) and Leeds (two hospitals), collected through monitoring systems in each centre, were analysed for the 18-month period March 2000 to August 2001.

RESULTS

The findings were based on 7344 persons who presented following 10,498 episodes of self-harm. Gender and age patterns were similar in the three centres, 57.0% of patients being female and two-thirds (62.9%) under 35 years of age. The largest numbers by age groups were 15-19 year-old females and 20-24 year-old males. The female to male ratio decreased with age. Rates of self-harm were higher in Manchester than Oxford or Leeds, in keeping with local suicide rates. The proportion of patients receiving a specialist psychosocial assessment varied between centres and was strongly associated with admission to the general hospital. Approximately 80% of self-harm involved self-poisoning. Overdoses of paracetamol, the most frequent method, were more common in younger age groups, antidepressants in middle age groups, and benzodiazepines and sedatives in older age groups. Alcohol was involved in more than half (54.9%) of assessed episodes. The most common time of presentation to hospital was between 10 pm and 2 am.

CONCLUSIONS

Multicentre monitoring of self-harm in England has demonstrated similar overall patterns of self-harm in Oxford, Manchester and Leeds, with some differences reflecting local suicide rates. Diurnal variation in time of presentation to hospital and the need for assessment of non-admitted patients have implications for service provision.

Two generations of Slovenian suicidal adolescent inpatients

BACKGROUND

The political and socio-economic situation in Slovenia, a former Yugoslav republic, a country in transition and a country with a high suicide rate, which joined the European Union in 2004, has changed steadily since the beginning of the 1970s. Literature shows constancy in suicide statistics in Slovenia during these times.

AIM

The present study examines whether the suicidal adolescent inpatient population in Slovenia reflects recent social changes and upheavals.

METHOD

Data on two groups of patients admitted to a specialized adolescent psychiatry department after attempting suicide were collected. The first group (n = 74) were patients admitted from 1975 to 1977, the second group (n = 73) from 2002 to 2004. They were compared on general characteristics, family and living circumstances, risk behaviors, suicide attempts and diagnoses.

RESULTS

The comparison revealed statistically significant differences between groups on educational level, number of siblings, frequency of smoking and psychoactive medication misuse as well as number of previous suicide attempts. No differences were found in other family and living circumstances, methods used in the index suicide attempt, other risk behaviors or diagnoses.

CONCLUSIONS

The post-independence suicidal inpatient population in Slovenia shows a tendency towards higher morbidity, but has changed less than expected considering the vast changes in the society. These results suggest a certain constancy in adolescent suicidal behavior.