Plant-based meat analogue (PBMA) as a sustainable food: a concise review

Protein blend extrusion: Crafting meat analogues with varied textural structures and characteristics

With an increasing emphasis on health and environmental consciousness, there is a growing inclination toward plant protein-based meat substitutes as viable alternatives to animal meat. In the pursuit of creating diverse and functional plant protein-based substitutes, innovative plant proteins have been introduced in conjunction with soy protein isolate (SPI), encompassing pea protein isolate (PPI), rice bran protein (RBP), fava bean protein isolate (FPI), and spirulina protein isolate (SPPI). Notably, SPI-WG extrudates and SPI-PPI extrudates exhibited superior fiber structures (fiber degrees were 1.72 and 1.88, respectively), with coarse fibers in SPI-WG extrudates and fine, dense fibers in SPI-PPI extrudates. The addition of RBP, FPI and SPPI had minimal effect on fiber structure. Fresh SPI-FPI displayed the slowest rate of water loss, losing about 7.11% of their total weight in 5 h. Different plant proteins can be selected for the preparation of plant protein-based meat substitutes according to practical needs.

Extraction and characterization of mung bean proteins using different alkaline solutions

This study investigated the effects of alkaline solutions on the production and characteristics of mung bean proteins (MBPs). MBPs were prepared using alkaline solutions of NaOH, NaHCO3, and Na2CO3 and designated MPN, MPH, and MPC, respectively. The yield, protein recovery, and crude protein content of MBP were not significantly different at different alkali concentrations (0.01-0.1%). Although there was no significant difference in MBP yield between alkali types, protein recovery and crude protein content increased in the following order: MPN > MPC > MPH. The essential and branched-chain amino acid contents, molecular weight distribution, and ζ-potential did not differ between MBPs. Regarding MBP pH-dependent solubility, MPN solubility was lower at pH 6-8 than that of MPH and MPC. This pattern was commonly observed for other physical properties. Overall, MBP was prepared using NaHCO3, and Na2CO3 and its functional properties were better when Na2CO3 was used than when NaOH was used.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-024-01624-x.

Development and characterization of adhesives constructed by soy protein isolate and tea polyphenols for enhanced tensile strength in plant-protein meat applications

The study aimed to evaluate a food adhesive developed using tea polyphenols (TPs) with soybean protein isolate (SPI) to create a cohesive bond between soy protein gel and simulated fat. Upon the addition of 5.0 % TPs, significant increases in viscosity, thermal stability, and crystallinity were noted in adhesives, suggesting the formation of a cohesive network. Furthermore, TPs effectively enhanced adhesion strength, with the optimal addition being 5.0 %. This enhancement can be attributed to hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions between TPs and SPI molecules. TPs induced a greater expansion of the protein structure, exposing numerous buried hydrophobic groups to a more hydrophilic and polar environment. However, excessive TPs were found to diminish adhesion strength. This can be attributed to enhanced reactions between TPs and SPI, where high molecular weight SPI-TPs cooperatively aggregate to form agglomerates that eventually precipitated, rendering the adhesive network inhomogeneous, less stable, and more prone to disruption.

Encapsulation of roast beef flavor by soy protein isolate/chitosan complex Pickering emulsions to improve its releasing properties during the processing of plant-based meat analogues

During the production of plant-based meat analogues (PBMA), a significant loss of flavor characteristic compounds in meat-flavor essences could be observed. Pickering emulsion-based encapsulation is an effective method to improve their stability. Therefore, a soy protein isolate (SPI)/chitosan (CS) complex Pickering emulsion was fabricated to encapsulate roast beef flavor (RBF) and further applied in the processing of PBMA. Our results indicated that the network structure of emulsions was dominated by elasticity, while hydrogen and covalent bonding interactions played important roles in the encapsulation process. The release rate of flavor compounds gradually increased with the increase of pH value, glutamine transaminase, NaCl content, heating temperature or heating time, while encapsulation significantly reduced the loss of characteristic aroma compounds. In addition, the releasing characteristics of aroma compounds and textural properties of PBMA were greatly improved by treating with RBF-loaded emulsions. Consequently, the emulsions were promising to improve the flavor quality of PBMA.

Leveraging microalgae as a sustainable ingredient for meat analogues

As the world's population and income levels continue to rise, there is a substantial increase in the demand for meat, which poses significant environmental challenges due to large-scale livestock production. This review explores the potential of microalgae as a sustainable protein source for meat analogues. The nutritional composition, functional properties, and environmental advantages of microalgae are analyzed. Additionally, current obstacles to large-scale microalgal food production are addressed, such as strain development, contamination risks, water usage, and downstream processing. The challenges associated with creating meat-like textures and flavors using techniques like extrusion and emulsion formation with microalgae are also examined. Lastly, considerations related to consumer acceptance, marketing, and regulation are summarized. By focusing on improvements in cultivation, structure, sensory attributes, and affordability, microalgae demonstrate promise as a transformative and eco-friendly protein source to enhance the next generation of meat alternatives.

Plant-Based Meat Analogues and Consumer Interest in 3D-Printed Products: A Mini-Review

The markets for plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) are growing worldwide, showing the increasing consumer demand for and acceptance of these new products. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is a new technology with huge potential for printing products customised to suit consumers' wants and needs. There is a broad acceptance from consumers regarding the safety and desirability of consuming food products that are produced using 3D printing. As this is a new technology, consumers must be provided with relevant information from a trusted source, with further research needing to be conducted within the context of the identified market and culture. By embracing the strength of customisation of 3D printing and coupling this with the global demand for plant-based products, 3D printed PBMAs could be a future challenger to the currently popular production method of extrusion. Therefore, this article reviews consumer interests in PBMAs and summarises opportunities for using 3D printing technology to produce plant-based meat analogues.

Advanced detection tools in food fraud: A systematic review for holistic and rational detection method based on research and patents

Modern food chain supply management necessitates the dire need for mitigating food fraud and adulterations. This holistic review addresses different advanced detection technologies coupled with chemometrics to identify various types of adulterated foods. The data on research, patent and systematic review analyses (2018-2023) revealed both destructive and non-destructive methods to demarcate a rational approach for food fraud detection in various countries. These intricate hygiene standards and AI-based technology are also summarized for further prospective research. Chemometrics or AI-based techniques for extensive food fraud detection are demanded. A systematic assessment reveals that various methods to detect food fraud involving multiple substances need to be simple, expeditious, precise, cost-effective, eco-friendly and non-intrusive. The scrutiny resulted in 39 relevant experimental data sets answering key questions. However, additional research is necessitated for an affirmative conclusion in food fraud detection system with modern AI and machine learning approaches.

In vitro digestion of beef and vegan burgers cooked by microwave technology: Effects on protein and lipid fractions

Commercial beef burgers and vegan analogues were purchased and, after a microwave treatment, they were submitted to an in vitro digestion (INFOGEST). Vegan cooked burgers showed similar protein content (16-17 %) but lower amounts of total peptides than beef burgers. The protein digestibility was higher in beef burgers. Peptide amounts increased during in vitro digestion, reaching similar amounts in both types of products in the micellar phase (bioaccessible fraction). The fat content in cooked vegan burgers was significantly lower than in beef burgers (16.7 and 21.2 %, respectively), with a higher amount of PUFAs and being the lipolysis activity, measure by FFA, less intense both after cooking and after the gastrointestinal process. Both types of cooked samples showed high carbonyl amounts (34.18 and 25.51 nmol/mg protein in beef and vegan samples, respectively), that decreased during in vitro digestion. On the contrary, lipid oxidation increased during gastrointestinal digestion, particularly in vegan samples. The antioxidant capacity (ABTS and DPPH) showed higher values for vegan products in cooked samples, but significantly decreased during digestion, reaching similar values for both types of products.

Technological challenges and future perspectives of plant-based meat analogues: From the viewpoint of proteins

The global demand for high-quality animal protein faces challenges, prompting a surge in interest in plant-based meat analogues (PBMA). PBMA have emerged as a promising solution, although they encounter technological obstacles. This review discusses the technological challenges faced by PBMA from the viewpoint of plant proteins, emphasizing textural, flavor, color, and nutritional aspects. Texturally, PBMA confront issues, such as deficient fibrous structure, chewiness, and juiciness. Addressing meat flavor and mitigating beany flavor in plant protein are imperative. Furthermore, achieving a distinctive red or pink meat color remains a challenge. Plant proteins exhibit a lower content of essential amino acids. Future research directions encompass (1) shaping myofibril fibrous structures through innovative processing; (2) effectively eliminating the beany flavor; (3) developing biotechnological methodologies for leghemoglobin and plant-derived pigments; (4) optimizing amino acid composition to augment the nutritional profiles. These advancements are crucial for utilization of plant proteins in development of high-quality PBMA.

Plant-Based Meat Analogs and Their Effects on Cardiometabolic Health: An 8-Week Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Plant-Based Meat Analogs With Their Corresponding Animal-Based Foods

BACKGROUND

With the growing popularity of plant-based meat analogs (PBMAs), an investigation of their effects on health is warranted in an Asian population.

OBJECTIVES

This research investigated the impact of consuming an omnivorous animal-based meat diet (ABMD) compared with a PBMAs diet (PBMD) on cardiometabolic health among adults with elevated risk of diabetes in Singapore.

METHODS

In an 8-wk parallel design randomized controlled trial, participants (n = 89) were instructed to substitute habitual protein-rich foods with fixed quantities of either PBMAs (n = 44) or their corresponding animal-based meats (n = 45; 2.5 servings/d), maintaining intake of other dietary components. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol served as primary outcome, whereas secondary outcomes included other cardiometabolic disease-related risk factors (e.g. glucose and fructosamine), dietary data, and within a subpopulation, ambulatory blood pressure measurements (n = 40) at baseline and postintervention, as well as a 14-d continuous glucose monitor (glucose homeostasis-related outcomes; n = 37).

RESULTS

Data from 82 participants (ABMD: 42 and PBMD: 40) were examined. Using linear mixed-effects model, there were significant interaction (time × treatment) effects for dietary trans-fat (increased in ABMD), dietary fiber, sodium, and potassium (all increased in PBMD; P-interaction <0.001). There were no significant effects on the lipid-lipoprotein profile, including LDL cholesterol. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was lower in the PBMD group (P-interaction=0.041), although the nocturnal DBP dip markedly increased in ABMD (+3.2% mean) and was reduced in PBMD (-2.6%; P-interaction=0.017). Fructosamine (P time=0.035) and homeostatic model assessment for β-cell function were improved at week 8 (P time=0.006) in both groups. Glycemic homeostasis was better regulated in the ABMD than PBMD groups as evidenced by interstitial glucose time in range (ABMD median: 94.1% (Q1:87.2%, Q3:96.7%); PBMD: 86.5% (81.7%, 89.4%); P = 0.041). The intervention had no significant effect on the other outcomes examined.

CONCLUSIONS

An 8-wk PBMA diet did not show widespread cardiometabolic health benefits compared with a corresponding meat based diet. Nutritional quality is a key factor to be considered for next generation PBMAs. This trial was registered at https://clinicaltrials.gov/as NCT05446753.

pH-regulated Tannic acid and soybean protein isolate adhesive for enhanced performance in plant-based meat analogues

A food adhesive comprising tannic acid (TA) and soybean protein isolate (SPI) was developed to establish a cohesive bond between soy protein gel and simulated fat. The impact of varying TA concentrations and pH levels on the adhesive's rheology, thermal stability, chemical structure, and tensile strength were investigated. Rheological results revealed a gradual decrease in adhesive viscosity with increasing TA content. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermal gravimetric (TG) results indicated that the stability of the adhesive improved with higher TA concentrations, reaching its peak at 0.50% TA addition. The incorporation of TA resulted in the cross-linking of amino group in unfolded SPI molecules, forming a mesh structure. However, under alkaline conditions (pH 9), adhesive viscosity and stability increased compared to the original pH. This shift was due to the disruption of the SPI colloidal charge structure, an increase in the stretching of functional groups, further unfolding of the structure, and an enhanced binding of SPI to TA. Under the initial pH conditions, SPI reacted with TA's active site to form covalent crosslinked networks and hydrogen bonds. In alkaline condition, beyond hydrogen and ionic bonding, the catechol structure was oxidized, forming an ortho-quinone that crosslinked SPI and created a denser structure. Tensile strength measurements and freeze-thaw experiments revealed that the adhesive exhibited maximum tensile strength and optimal adhesion with 0.75% TA at pH 9, providing the best overall performance. This study provides a new formulation and approach for developing plant-based meat analogues adhesives.

Are novel plant-based meat alternatives the healthier choice?

The global market for plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) is expanding quickly. In this narrative review, analysis of the most recent scientific literature was achieved to understand the nutritional profile, health implications, and the challenges faced by PBMAs. On the positive side, most PBMAs are good sources of dietary fiber, contain phytochemicals, have comparable levels of iron, and are lower in calories, saturated fat, and cholesterol than meat. However, PBMAs frequently contain anti-nutrients, have less protein, iron, and vitamin B12, are lower in protein quality, and also have higher amounts of sodium. Substituting PBMAs for meats may cause iron, vitamin B12, and less likely protein deficiency for these vulnerable population such as women, older adults, and individuals with disorders. PBMAs fall into the category of ultra-processed foods, indicating a need to develop minimally processed, clean-label products. Replacing red meat with healthy plant-based foods is associated with lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and total mortality. There is a lack of robust, long-term evidence on the role of PBMAs consumption in health. As the nutrient contents of PBMAs can vary, consumers must read nutrition facts labels and ingredient lists to select a product that best fits their nutritional and health objectives.

Improving the Three-Dimensional Printability of Potato Starch Loaded onto Food Ink

This study focuses on improving the 3D printability of pea protein with the help of food inks designed for jet-type 3D printers. Initially, the food ink base was formulated using nanocellulose-alginate with a gradient of native potato starch and its 3D printability was evaluated. The 3D-printed structures using only candidates for the food ink base formulated with or without potato starch exhibited dimensional accuracy exceeding 95% on both the X and Y axes. However, the accuracy of stacking on the Z-axis was significantly affected by the ink composition. Food ink with 1% potato starch closely matched the CAD design, with an accuracy of approximately 99% on the Z-axis. Potato starch enhanced the stacking of 3D-printed structures by improving the electrostatic repulsion, viscoelasticity, and thixotropic behavior of the food ink base. The 3D printability of pea protein was evaluated using the selected food ink base, showing a 46% improvement in dimensional accuracy on the Z-axis compared to the control group printed with a food ink base lacking potato starch. These findings suggest that starch can serve as an additive support for high-resolution 3D jet-type printing of food ink material.

Exploring the Role and Functionality of Ingredients in Plant-Based Meat Analogue Burgers: A Comprehensive Review

The development of plant-based meat analogues has become a significant challenge for the food industry in recent years due to the increasing demand for sustainable and healthier proteins in the context of a global protein transition. Plant-based meat analogues imitate the visual, textural, and chemical properties of traditional meat products and are required to closely resemble meat to appeal to consumers. In addition, consumers demand natural, clean-label, and nutritional, and healthy products. To address these challenges, the food industry must develop highly healthy, nutritious, and E-number-free meat analogue products. Understanding the functionality of each ingredient and its role in the food matrix is crucial to being a key player in the innovation of the meat analogue market. This review provides updated information on the primary ingredients utilized for the development of plant-based burger meat alternatives and their functionality. The key components of meat analogue burgers are outlined, including plant proteins, binding agents, fats and oils, flavorings, colorings, preservatives, fortificants, and clean-label considerations.

Construction and Properties of Oil-Loaded Soybean Protein Isolate/Polysaccharide-Based Meat Analog Fibers

Rationally designing the fibrous structure of artificial meat is a challenge in enriching the organoleptic quality of meat analogs. High-quality meat analog fibers have been obtained by wet-spinning technique in our previous study, whereas introducing oil droplets will further achieve their fine design from the insight of microstructure. Herein, in this current work, oil was introduced to the soybean protein isolate/polysaccharide-based meat analog fibers by regulating the oil droplets' size and content, which, importantly, controlled the spinning solution characterization as well as structure-related properties of the meat analog fiber. Results showed that the oil dispersed in the matrix as small droplets with regular shapes, which grew in size as the oil content increased. Considering the effect of oil droplets' size and content on the spinnability of the spinning solution, the mechanical stirring treatment was chosen as the suitable treatment method. Importantly, increasing the oil content has the potential to enhance the juiciness of meat analog fibers through improvements in water-holding capacity and alterations in water mobility. Overall, the successful preparation of oil-loaded plant-based fiber not only mimicked animal muscle fiber more realistically but also provided a general platform for adding fat-soluble nutrients and flavor substances.

Dairy, Plant, and Novel Proteins: Scientific and Technological Aspects

Alternative proteins have gained popularity as consumers look for foods that are healthy, nutritious, and sustainable. Plant proteins, precision fermentation-derived proteins, cell-cultured proteins, algal proteins, and mycoproteins are the major types of alternative proteins that have emerged in recent years. This review addresses the major alternative-protein categories and reviews their definitions, current market statuses, production methods, and regulations in different countries, safety assessments, nutrition statuses, functionalities and applications, and, finally, sensory properties and consumer perception. Knowledge relative to traditional dairy proteins is also addressed. Opportunities and challenges associated with these proteins are also discussed. Future research directions are proposed to better understand these technologies and to develop consumer-acceptable final products.

Fermentation of Texturized Pea Protein in Combination with Proteases for Aroma Development in Meat Analogues

The potential use of texturized pea protein in meat analogues was investigated by comparing the effects of fermentation on pea and myofibrillar pork proteins in a model system including additives, microbial starters, and proteases. Model fermentation was controlled for 15 days by a pH decrease and microbial count and free amino acid increase. Besides, volatile production and sensory properties were evaluated at the end of fermentation. Protein type affected free amino acid generation and volatile profile. Models supplemented with proteases showed an increase in amino-acid-derived compounds (branched aldehydes and alcohols) and fruity odor notes. During fermentation, protease addition significantly reduced the production of linear aldehydes (pentanal, hexanal, and octanal) in vegetal models, while pyrazine compounds were not affected. This changes in the volatile profile reduced the legume beany odor but increased the perception of toasted cereal-like notes generated by the texturization process.

Development of patty meat analogue using anchovy protein isolate (Stolephorus insularis) as a binding agent

The development of meat analogues focuses on sustainable production and requires attention to their nutritional, physicochemical, and sensory values. Anchovy protein isolate (API) is a novel and potential binding agent in the development of meat analogues. This study aimed to produce API and evaluate the physical, proximate, and sensory qualities of patty meat analogue (PMA) with the addition of API. The preparation method for API uses pH-shifting. The ratios of API added to the meat analogues were 0 % (F0), 4 % (F1), 8 % (F2), and 12 % (F3) per textured vegetable protein (TVP) weight. Furthermore, PMA was analysed for physical, proximate, and sensory properties. API had 87.23 % dry basis (db) protein content. The amino acid composition of API generally complied with the nutritional requirements of adults and children. The addition of API significantly affected the physical properties, proximate composition, and sensory (taste) qualities of PMA (p < 0.05). The protein content of PMA met Indonesian national standards (SNI) and was similar to both McDonald's and ground beef patty based on United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) standards. F3 was found to be the best based on its physical, proximate, and sensory properties.

Utilizing Haematococcus pluvialis to simulate animal meat color in high-moisture meat analogues: Texture quality and color stability

The effect of Haematococcus pluvialis (HP) (0.25∼1.25 %) as a colorant during high moisture extrusion (50 %) on the texture and microstructural properties of soy protein-based high moisture meat analogs (HMMA) was evaluated. Furthermore, the stability of HP-induced meat like color of the HMMA as a function of light exposure, freeze/thawing, frozen storage and cooking temperature and duration was investigated. The addition of HP reduced the elasticity of HMMA but enhanced its hardness, chewiness, and resilience. HP addition at low levels promoted the flexible and disordered regions within the protein secondary structure while excessive HP addition was unfavorable for protein cross-linking. The optimal degree of texturization was achieved with 0.75 % HP. Sensory evaluations revealed that HMMA with 1 %HP had a color similar to fresh beef sirloin, while HMMA with 0.25 % HP had a color closer to fresh pork loin. Light exposure induced the greatest color loss of the meat analogs compared with the cooking and frozen storage. The a* value of HMMA containing 1.25 % HP decreased by 30 % during the 14 days of light exposure. Frozen storage at darkness efficiently preserved the meat-like color of the extrudates. Overall, HP was found as promising colorant for HMMA production but the storage condition of the extrudates should be carefully optimized.

Sensory Evaluation of Plant-Based Meat: Bridging the Gap with Animal Meat, Challenges and Future Prospects

Globally, the demand for plant-based meat is increasing rapidly as these products are becoming quite popular among vegans and vegetarians. However, its development is still in the early stage and faces various technological challenges; the imitation of the sensory profile of meat is the most challenging part as these products are meant to be an alternative to animal meat. The development of a product similar to meat requires accurate selection of ingredients and processing techniques. An understanding of the relevant sensory profile can help in constructing products and technologies that are consumer-centric and sustainable. In this review, we focus on the comparative differences in the sensory profiles of animal meat and plant-based meat alternatives, particularly regarding the color, texture, and flavor, along with the methods used to compare them. This paper also explains the sensory evaluation and how it affects consumer preference and acceptability. Additionally, a direction for further research on developing better plant-based meat products is suggested.

Challenges and Prospects of Plant-Protein-Based 3D Printing

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a rapidly developing additive manufacturing technique consisting of the deposition of materials layer-by-layer to produce physical 3D structures. The technique offers unique opportunities to design and produce new products that cater to consumer experience and nutritional requirements. In the past two decades, a wide range of materials, especially plant-protein-based materials, have been documented for the development of personalized food owing to their nutritional and environmental benefits. Despite these benefits, 3D printing with plant-protein-based materials present significant challenges because there is a lack of a comprehensive study that takes into account the most relevant aspects of the processes involved in producing plant-protein-based printable items. This review takes into account the multi-dimensional aspects of processes that lead to the formulation of successful printable products which includes an understanding of rheological characteristics of plant proteins and 3D-printing parameters, as well as elucidating the appropriate concentration and structural hierarchy that are required to maintain stability of the substrate after printing. This review also highlighted the significant and most recent research on 3D food printing with a wide range of plant proteins. This review also suggests a future research direction of 3D printing with plant proteins.

Effect of Ultrasound and Salt on Structural and Physical Properties of Sodium Alginate/Soy Protein Isolates Composite Fiber

Recently, there has been a growing interest in advancing plant-based or cultured meat substitutes as environmentally and ethically superior alternatives to traditional animal-derived meat. In pursuit of simulating the authentic meat structure, a composite fiber composed primarily of soy protein isolates (SPIs) was fashioned, employing a fiber-based plant-based analog meat construct. To refine the spinning process and enhance fiber quality, we employed ultrasound treatment, a physical modification technique, to scrutinize its influence on SPI protein structure. This inquiry extended to the examination of the interplay between sodium alginate (SA) and SPI, as well as the impact of salt ions on the SA and ultrasound soy protein isolates (USPI) interaction. A comprehensive exploration encompassing ultrasound treatments and salt concentrations within the composite solution, along with their repercussions on composite fiber characterization, with a rise in negative zeta potential value, states the ultrasound treatment fosters protein aggregation. Moreover, the introduction of salt augments protein aggregation as salt content escalates, ultimately resulting in a reduced structural viscosity index and improved spinnability. The presence of Ca2+ ions during the coagulation process leads to interactions with SA. The involvement of ultrasound prompts the exposure of hydrophilic amino acid segments in the protein to water, leading to the development of a more porous structure. Solely under the influence of ultrasound, the fiber exhibits 5% higher water-holding capacity and superior mechanical properties while maintaining comparable thermal stability.

An Overview of Ingredients Used for Plant-Based Meat Analogue Production and Their Influence on Structural and Textural Properties of the Final Product

Plant-based meat analogues are food products made from vegetarian or vegan ingredients that are intended to mimic taste, texture and appearance of meat. They are becoming increasingly popular as people look for more sustainable and healthy protein sources. Furthermore, plant-based foods are marketed as foods with a low carbon footprint and represent a contribution of the consumers and the food industry to a cleaner and a climate-change-free Earth. Production processes of plant-based meat analogues often include technologies such as 3D printing, extrusion or shear cell where the ingredients have to be carefully picked because of their influence on structural and textural properties of the final product, and, in consequence, consumer perception and acceptance of the plant-based product. This review paper gives an extensive overview of meat analogue components, which affect the texture and the structure of the final product, discusses the complex interaction of those ingredients and reflects on numerous studies that have been performed in that area, but also emphasizes the need for future research and optimization of the mixture used in plant-based meat analogue production, as well as for optimization of the production process.

Plant-Based Meat Proteins: Processing, Nutrition Composition, and Future Prospects

The growing need for plant-based meat alternatives promotes the rapid progress of the food industry. Processing methods employed in plant-based meat production are critical to preserving and enhancing their nutritional content and health benefits, directly impacting consumer acceptance. Unlike animal-based food processing, the efficiency of protein extraction and processing methods plays a crucial role in preserving and enriching the nutritional content and properties. To better understand the factors and mechanisms affecting nutrient composition during plant-based meat processing and identify key processing steps and control points, this work describes methods for extracting proteins from plants and processing techniques for plant-based products. We investigate the role of nutrients and changes in the nutrients during plant protein product processing. This article discusses current challenges and prospects.

Plant-based alternative proteins-are they nutritionally more advantageous?

BACKGROUND

The transition towards sustainable nutrition as well as the exploration of alternative sources of protein have been at the forefront of thinking in the 21st century. However, further research is required to ascertain if a diet composed of alternative plant-based proteins has similar nutritional advantages to a plant-based diet. This study aims to model the replacement of a diet consisting of animal-based proteins with plant-based alternatives (PBA), in a group of Asians.

METHODS

A 4-day food record was collected from 50 individuals residing in Singapore and nutrient profiles were generated for each individual. Food records were analysed, and meat, dairy, and seafood ingredients were substituted gram-for-gram with their PBA. The original and replaced nutrient profiles were compared against each other and the differences in macro and micronutrients were analysed.

RESULTS

A significant increase in carbohydrates, dietary fibre, as well as in micronutrients such as sodium and calcium was observed. Conversely, there was a significant decreased intake in overall energy, protein and fat (p < 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

The significant nutritional impact of substituting animal-based proteins for PBA may present benefits for bone health and individuals on a caloric restriction diet. However, higher sodium levels may be undesirable for individuals with cardiovascular conditions and hypertension, and the low bioavailability of iron in plant-based sources may present issues for iron deficient populations. Bearing some of these key findings in mind, researchers and manufacturers need to consider these when developing alternative protein products to meet consumer demands for palatable and nutritious plant-based products.

A glimpse into plant-based fermented products alternative to animal based products: Formulation, processing, health benefits

Fermented foods and beverages are increasingly being included in the diets of people around the world, as they significantly contribute to flavor and interest in nutrition and food consumption. Plant sources, like cereals and pulses, are employed to produce vegan fermented foods that are either commercially available or the subject of ongoing scientific investigation. In addition, the inclination towards nutritionally healthy, natural, and clean-label products amongst consumers has encouraged the development of vegan fermented products alternative to animal-based products for industrial-scale production. However, as the vegan diet is more restrictive than the vegetarian diet, manufacturing food products for vegans presents a significant problem due to the limited availability of many raw materials. So further research is required on this topic. This paper aims to review the formulation, quality, microbial resources, health benefits, and safety of foods that can be categorised as vegan fermented foods and beverages.

Effect of Process Variables and Ingredients on Controlled Protein Network Creation in High-Moisture Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

The market has observed a rapid increase in the demand for plant-based foods as an alternative to animal meat products. Technologies such as high-moisture extrusion (HME) have the potential to develop anisotropic structures using alternative protein ingredients. This article discusses the different possible mechanisms responsible for structure formation and the effect of extrusion process parameters and outlines the recent advances in the long cooling dies (LCDs) used for meat alternative development. The role of different protein ingredients and the impact of combining them with other biopolymers were also evaluated. The underlying mechanism behind anisotropic structure formation during HME is a synergistic effect, with substantial dependence on the source of ingredients and their processing background. Formulation including proteins derived from plants, insects, animals, and microalgae with other biopolymers could pave the way to develop structured meat alternatives and fill nutritional interstices. Dynamic or rotating annular gap cooling dies operating at freely controllable shear and static annular gap dies are recent developments and assist to produce layered or fibrous structures. The complex chemical sites created during the HME of plant protein favour flavour and colour retention. This paper summarises the recent information published in the scientific literature and patents, which could further help researchers to fill the present knowledge gaps.

Algae as a potential source of protein meat alternatives

With the rise of plant-based meat alternatives, there is a growing need for sustainable and nutritious sources of protein. Alga is a rich protein source, and initial studies show that it can be a good component in developing protein meat alternatives. However, there are certain limitations in their use as the need for efficient and optimal technical process in large-scale protein extraction and purification, as well as overcoming certain negative effects such as potentially harmful compounds, allergenicity issues, or sensorial affections, especially in color but also in textural and flavor characteristics. This review offers a vision of the fledgling research about using alga protein in the development of meat alternatives or supplementing meat products.

Novel plant-based meat alternatives: future opportunities and health considerations

Present food systems threaten population and environmental health. Evidence suggests reduced meat and increased plant-based food consumption would align with climate change and health promotion priorities. Accelerating this transition requires greater understanding of determinants of plant-based food choice. A thriving plant-based food industry has emerged to meet consumer demand and support dietary shift towards plant-based eating. 'Traditional' plant-based diets are low-energy density, nutrient dense, low in saturated fat and purportedly associated with health benefits. However, fast-paced contemporary lifestyles continue to fuel growing demand for meat-mimicking plant-based convenience foods which are typically ultra-processed. Processing can improve product safety and palatability and enable fortification and enrichment. However, deleterious health consequences have been associated with ultra-processing, though there is a paucity of equivocal evidence regarding the health value of novel plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) and their capacity to replicate the nutritional profile of meat-equivalents. Thus, despite the health halo often associated with plant-based eating, there is a strong rationale to improve consumer literacy of PBMAs. Understanding the impact of extensive processing on health effects may help to justify the use of innovative methods designed to maintain health benefits associated with particular foods and ingredients. Furthering knowledge regarding the nutritional value of novel PBMAs will increase consumer awareness and thus support informed choice. Finally, knowledge of factors influencing engagement of target consumer subgroups with such products may facilitate production of desirable, healthier PBMAs. Such evidence-based food manufacturing practice has the potential to positively influence future individual and planetary health.

Plant-based foods as meat and fat substitutes

Animal proteins have in the past been used in food production due to their functional properties that range from gelation and emulsification to foaming ability and stability. However, animal husbandry has been shown to be a major contributor to global warming and climate change. Consequently, there has been a drive toward the use of alternative proteins, for example, proteins from plant sources which are perceived to be cheaper, healthier, and sustainable. The use of trans and saturated fatty acids in the food industry has been associated with various health issues that include an increased risk of metabolic disorders. This has resulted in an increased search for fat substitutes that are healthier and sustainable. To contribute toward a reduction in the consumption of meats from animal sources and the consumption of trans and saturated fatty acids, the formulation of plant-based meat and fat analogs/substitutes has been carried out. However, there has been a lower acceptance of these meat or fat substitutes which was attributed to their sensorial and textural properties that fail to mimic or resemble real fat or meat. Therefore, this review aims to discuss the advances that have been made when it comes to plant-based meat and fat substitutes. Additionally, consumer perception and acceptance of these products will be reviewed as well as future markets will be discussed and the opportunities and challenges that exist in the formulation of these products will be explored.

Microwave treatment on structure and digestibility characteristics of Spirulina platensis protein

As a novel protein resource, the low digestibility of Spirulina platensis protein (SPP) limits its large-scale application. From the perspective of food processing methods, different heating treatments were explored to improve the structure and digestibility of SPP. In this study, SPP was heated by water bath and microwave at the same heating rate and heating temperature. Microwave accelerated protein denaturation and structure unfolded as the heating intensity increases, causing more exposed hydrophobic residues and enhancing surface hydrophobicity. The data of free sulfhydryl group, particle size, and gel electrophoresis, showed that microwave treatment promoted the formation of protein aggregates. The structural changes can potentially improve the accessibility of digestive enzymes, promote the in vitro digestibility rate, and further accelerate the production of small molecular peptides and the release of free amino acids. This study provided an innovative approach to improve the digestibility and therefore the utilization efficiency of SPP.

Significance of Fermentation in Plant-Based Meat Analogs: A Critical Review of Nutrition, and Safety-Related Aspects

Plant-based meat analogs have been shown to cause less harm for both human health and the environment compared to real meat, especially processed meat. However, the intense pressure to enhance the sensory qualities of plant-based meat alternatives has caused their nutritional and safety aspects to be overlooked. This paper reviews our current understanding of the nutrition and safety behind plant-based meat alternatives, proposing fermentation as a potential way of overcoming limitations in these aspects. Plant protein blends, fortification, and preservatives have been the main methods for enhancing the nutritional content and stability of plant-based meat alternatives, but concerns that include safety, nutrient deficiencies, low digestibility, high allergenicity, and high costs have been raised in their use. Fermentation with microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, Neurospora intermedia, and Rhizopus oryzae improves digestibility and reduces allergenicity and antinutritive factors more effectively. At the same time, microbial metabolites can boost the final product's safety, nutrition, and sensory quality, although some concerns regarding their toxicity remain. Designing a single starter culture or microbial consortium for plant-based meat alternatives can be a novel solution for advancing the health benefits of the final product while still fulfilling the demands of an expanding and sustainable economy.

Plant-based meat analogue of soy proteins by the multi-strain solid-state mixing fermentation

In order to mitigate or reduce global environmental concerns, health issues, sustainability and animal welfare issues, artificial meat presents a potential solution to consumers' demand for meat. In this study, strains such as Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and Monascus purpureus that can produce meat-like pigments were first identified and used in soy protein plant-base fermentation, where fermentation parameters as well as inoculum size were determined to simulate plant-base meat analogue (PBMA). Meanwhile, the resemblance between the fermented soy products and the fresh meat was examined in terms of color, texture, and flavor characteristics. Furthermore, the addition of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum can perform reassortment and fermentation simultaneously to improve the quality of soy fermentation products in terms of texture and flavor. The results offer a novel way to produce PBMA and also shed light on future research into plant-based meat-like products with the appropriate meat characteristics.

Comprehensive Review on the Role of Plant Protein As a Possible Meat Analogue: Framing the Future of Meat

Animal proteins from meat and goods derived from meat have recently been one of the primary concerns in the quest for sustainable food production. According to this perspective, there are exciting opportunities to reformulate more sustainably produced meat products that may also have health benefits by partially replacing meat with nonmeat substances high in protein. Considering these pre-existing conditions, this review critically summarizes recent findings on extenders from a variety of sources, including pulses, plant-based ingredients, plant byproducts, and unconventional sources. It views these findings as a valuable opportunity to improve the technological profile and functional quality of meat, with a focus on their ability to affect the sustainability of meat products. As a result, meat substitutes like plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs), meat made from fungi, and cultured meat are being offered to encourage sustainability.

Insects as food - Changes in consumers' acceptance of entomophagy in Hungary between 2016 and 2021

Public interest in entomophagy (consumption of insects) has developed significantly over the past several years. Possible nutritional benefits are perceived by consumers according to several recent studies, as well as sustainability and food security. However, most European communities, including the Hungarian, do not embrace entomophagy, despite the widespread practice elsewhere globally. This study aims to evaluate the changes in the perception of entomophagy among the Hungarian population between 2016 and 2021, together with the factors differentiating between acceptive and dismissive consumers. The results of the two representative quantitative surveys indicate that more than 70% of Hungarian consumers are not willing to try entomophagy, which had not changed significantly in the observed period, despite the high media coverage of this topic in recent years. Some groups open to insect consumption can still be identified. According to the socioeconomic segmentation of the data collected in 2021, consumers who accept insect-based foods can be found in high numbers among men between 18 and 39 years old (49.3%). Positive attitudes are less likely to be observed among females; however, 27.6% of highly educated women between 18 and 59 years demonstrated a certain level of interest. Those consumers willing to consume insects are driven mainly by curiosity, and also value high protein content and sustainability, and perceive insect-based food as nutritious. Consumers who prefer local and national food tend to refuse to eat insects in a higher ratio.

Transforming practice chains through ideological objects: How plant-based meats impact consumers' everyday food practices

This research investigates the impact of the introduction of plant-based meats (PBMs) on consumers' food practices. Based on the results of 21 in-depth interviews with consumers who use PBMs, this research uses practice theory to explore how the adoption of PBMs affects linked food practices and the meanings associated with these practices. We find that consumers adopt PBMs due to either a desire for meaning coherence or for practicality. Subsequently there are social and embodied ripple consequences associated with this adoption, with consumers revising their social food practices, reconfiguring their understandings of health, and re-orienting their relationship to their body. Our findings extend the research on practice theory by examining how the adoption of a new category of ideological objects shapes other linked consumption practices. Practically, our findings provide important insights for dietary, marketing and health practitioners to understand the overall impact of PBM adoption on consumers' dietary patterns and practices, and their perception about health and body.

Comparative Assessment of the Nutritional Profile of Meat Products and Their Plant-Based Analogues

Vegetarian and vegan diets are increasingly being adopted in Spain, a trend mainly driven by ethical concerns for animal welfare and the environment. This has resulted in a growing market for plant-based substitutes of meat products. However, available data on the nutritional value of such meat analogues in Mediterranean countries are still limited. In this study, the labelling information of four categories of plant-based meat analogues (n = 100) and the corresponding conventional meat products (n = 48) available on the Spanish market was surveyed and compared. The nutrient content of plant-based meat analogues varied significantly, due to the wide range of ingredients used in their formulation. Some of these products were found to have a low protein content, which in others was enhanced by the addition of cereals and legumes. Compared to the meat products, the plant-based analogues contained lower levels of total fat as well as saturated fat, which ranged from 30% of total fat in burgers to less than 15% in meatballs, sausages, and nuggets; in contrast, they contained higher amounts of fiber and complex carbohydrates. Overall, the meat analogues cannot be considered as nutritionally equivalent substitutes to conventional meat products due to a high variability of protein content and other nutrients.

Leguminous Seedborne Pathogens: Seed Health and Sustainable Crop Management

Pulses have gained popularity over the past few decades due to their use as a source of protein in food and their favorable impact on soil fertility. Despite being essential to modern agriculture, these species face a number of challenges, such as agronomic crop management and threats from plant seed pathogens. This review's goal is to gather information on the distribution, symptomatology, biology, and host range of seedborne pathogens. Important diagnostic techniques are also discussed as a part of a successful process of seed health certification. Additionally, strategies for sustainable control are provided. Altogether, the data collected are suggested as basic criteria to set up a conscious laboratory approach.

A narrative action on the battle against hunger using mushroom, peanut, and soybean-based wastes

Numerous generations have been affected by hunger, which still affects hundreds of millions of people worldwide. The hunger crisis is worsening although many efforts have been made to minimize it. Besides that, food waste is one of the critical problems faced by most countries worldwide. It has disrupted the food chain system due to inefficient waste management, while negatively impacting the environment. The majority of the waste is from the food production process, resulting in a net zero production for food manufacturers while also harnessing its potential. Most food production wastes are high in nutritional and functional values, yet most of them end up as low-cost animal feed and plant fertilizers. This review identified key emerging wastes from the production line of mushroom, peanut, and soybean (MPS). These wastes (MPS) provide a new source for food conversion due to their high nutritional content, which contributes to a circular economy in the post-pandemic era and ensures food security. In order to achieve carbon neutrality and effective waste management for the production of alternative foods, biotechnological processes such as digestive, fermentative, and enzymatic conversions are essential. The article provides a narrative action on the critical potential application and challenges of MPS as future foods in the battle against hunger.

A Plant-Based Animal Fat Analog Produced by an Emulsion Gel of Alginate and Pea Protein

As the market for plant-based meat analogs grows, the development of plant-based animal fat analogs has become increasingly important. In this study, we propose an approach by developing a gelled emulsion based on sodium alginate, soybean oil (SO), and pea protein isolate. Formulations containing 15% to 70% (w/w) SO were successfully produced without phase inversion. The addition of more SO resulted in pre-gelled emulsions with a more elastic behavior. After the emulsion was gelled in the presence of calcium, the color of the gelled emulsion changed to light yellow, and the formulation containing 70% SO exhibited a color most similar to actual beef fat trimming. The lightness and yellowness values were greatly influenced by the concentrations of both SO and pea protein. Microscopic images revealed that pea protein formed an interfacial film around the oil droplets, and the oil was more tightly packed at higher oil concentrations. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that lipid crystallization of the gelled SO was influenced by the confinement of the alginate gelation, but the melting behavior was like that of free SO. FTIR spectrum analysis indicated a potential interaction between alginate and pea protein, but the functional groups of SO were unchanged. Under mild heating conditions, gelled SO exhibited an oil loss similar to that observed in actual beef trims. The developed product has the potential to mimic the appearance and slow-rendering melting attribute of real animal fat.

Nutritional Quality and Biological Application of Mushroom Protein as a Novel Protein Alternative

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Global concerns about population growth, economic, and nutritional transitions and health have led to the search for a low-cost protein alternative to animal origins. This review provides an overview of the viability of exploring mushroom protein as a future protein alternative considering the nutritional value, quality, digestibility, and biological benefits.

RECENT FINDINGS

Plant proteins are commonly used as alternatives to animal proteins, but the majority of them are low in quality due to a lack of one or more essential amino acids. Edible mushroom proteins usually have a complete essential amino acid profile, meet dietary requirements, and provide economic advantages over animal and plant sources. Mushroom proteins may provide health advantages by eliciting antioxidant, antitumor, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), inhibitory and antimicrobial properties over animal proteins. Protein concentrates, hydrolysates, and peptides from mushrooms are being used to improve human health. Also, edible mushrooms can be used to fortify traditional food to increase protein value and functional qualities. These characteristics highlight mushroom proteins as inexpensive, high-quality proteins that can be used as a meat alternative, as pharmaceuticals, and as treatments to alleviate malnutrition. Edible mushroom proteins are high in quality, low in cost, widely available, and meet environmental and social requirements, making them suitable as sustainable alternative proteins.

Developments in Plant Proteins Production for Meat and Fish Analogues

In recent years, there have been significant developments in plant proteins production for meat and fish analogues. Some of the key developments include the use of new plant protein sources such as soy, legumes, grains, potatoes, and seaweed, as well as insect proteins, leaf proteins, mushrooms, and microbial proteins. Furthermore, to improve the technological and functional properties of plant proteins, they can be subjected to traditional and unconventional treatments such as chemical (glycosylation, deamidation, phosphorylation, and acylation), physical (pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure, dynamic high-pressure treatment, and cold plasma), and biological (fermentation and enzymatic modification). To obtain the high quality and the desired texture of the food product, other ingredients besides proteins, such as water, fat, flavors, binders, dyes, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, also have to be used. The final product can be significantly influenced by the matrix composition, variety of ingredients, and water content, with the type of ingredients playing a role in either enhancing or constraining the desired texture of the food. There are several types of technologies used for meat and fish analogues production, including extrusion, shear cell technology, spinning, 3D printing, and others. Overall, the technologies used for meat and fish analogues production are constantly evolving as new innovations are developed and existing methods are improved. These developments have led to the creation of plant-based products that have a similar texture, taste, and nutritional profile to meat and fish, making them more appealing to consumers seeking alternatives to animal-based products.

Peptidomics Study of Plant-Based Meat Analogs as a Source of Bioactive Peptides

The demand for plant-based meat analogs (PBMA) is on the rise as a strategy to sustain the food protein supply while mitigating environmental change. In addition to supplying essential amino acids and energy, food proteins are known sources of bioactive peptides. Whether protein in PBMA affords similar peptide profiles and bioactivities as real meat remains largely unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the gastrointestinal digestion fate of beef and PBMA proteins with a special focus on their potential as precursors of bioactive peptides. Results showed that PBMA protein showed inferior digestibility than that in beef. However, PBMA hydrolysates possessed a comparable amino acid profile to that of beef. A total of 37, 2420 and 2021 peptides were identified in the gastrointestinal digests of beef, Beyond Meat and Impossible Meat, respectively. The astonishingly fewer peptides identified from beef digest is probably due to the near-full digestion of beef proteins. Almost all peptides in Impossible Meat digest were from soy, whereas 81%, 14% and 5% of peptides in Beyond Meat digest were derived from pea, rice and mung proteins, respectively. Peptides in PBMA digests were predicted to exert a wide range of regulatory roles and were shown to have ACE inhibitory, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, supporting the potential of PBMA as a source of bioactive peptides.

Integrated design of micro-fibrous food with multi-materials fabricated by uniaxial 3D printing

Owing to the interest in sustainable foods, a new approach known as 3D food printing is being employed to make fibrous foods for meat and fish substitutes. In this study, we developed a filament structure with a multi-material ink comprising fish surimi-based ink (SI) and plant-based ink (PI), using single-nozzle printing and steaming. PI and an SI + PI mix collapsed after printing owing to their low shear modulus, although both PI and SI showed gel-like rheological behaviors. However, unlike the control, the objects printed with two and four columns per filament remained stable and fiberized after steaming. Each SI and PI sample gelatinized irreversibly at approximately 50 °C. The different rheological values of these inks after cooling resulted in relatively strong (PI) and weak (SI) fibers, which constructed a filament matrix. A cutting test demonstrated that the transverse strength of the fibrous structure of the printed objects was higher than the longitudinal strength, in contrast to that of the control. The degree of texturization increased with the fiber thickness based on the column number or nozzle size. Thus, we successfully designed a fibrous system using printing and post-processing and substantially broadened the application opportunities for creating fibril matrices for sustainable food analogs.

Scope, nutritional aspects, technology, and consumer preferences toward seafood alternatives

Sustainability, human health, and animal welfare are three broad areas that pose a greater impact on mankind. The increased consumption of animal-based foods such as fish or seafood has threatened the ecosystem due to rising greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, diseases, and consumption of toxic metals contained in fish by cause of water pollution. This has led to increased awareness among consumers to adopt seafood alternatives for a sustainable future. It is also not well known whether consumers are ready to switch from traditional seafood towards a safer and sustainable seafood alternative. This encourages the in-depth study of the scope of seafood alternatives in consumers' food choices. This study also highlights the nutritional perspectives and technologies involved in the development of seafood alternatives along with the future outlook for a greener planet.

Technological interventions in improving the functionality of proteins during processing of meat analogs

Meat analogs have opened a new horizon of opportunities for developing a sustainable alternative for meat and meat products. Proteins are an integral part of meat analogs and their functionalities have been extensively studied to mimic meat-like appearance and texture. Proteins have a vital role in imparting texture, nutritive value, and organoleptic attributes to meat analogs. Processing of suitable proteins from vegetable, mycoproteins, algal, and single-cell protein sources remains a challenge and several technological interventions ranging from the isolation of proteins to the processing of products are required. The present paper reviews and discusses in detail various proteins (soy proteins, wheat gluten, zein, algal proteins, mycoproteins, pulses, potato, oilseeds, pseudo-cereals, and grass) and their suitability for meat analog production. The review also discusses other associated aspects such as processing interventions that can be adapted to improve the functional and textural attributes of proteins in the processing of meat analogs (extrusion, spinning, Couette shear cell, additive manufacturing/3D printing, and freeze structuring). '.

Effect of the physical fibrillated sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) stem on the plant-based patty analogues

In this study, a dietary fiber extracted from sweet potato stems (Ipomoea batatas, PS) was evaluated for its ability to improve the quality of vegetable patty analogues. A patty analogues containing 0-50 wt% dietary fiber were prepared to analyze the utilized dietary fiber's performance. To evaluate the manufactured patty analogues, texture profile analysis, color analysis, emulsion stability, and microstructural analysis were conducted. As the PS increased, the hardness decreased, while the total expressible fluids tended to increase. The color analysis revealed that the a* value, which represents red, declined as the PS content increased, and heterogeneous colors showed at least 40 wt% of PS. According to the microstructural analysis, PS is a structure in which massive fiber bundles are integrated between textured vegetable protein networks, which is believed to have given the patty analogue soft characteristics. The findings of this study can serve as a foundation for future research into the application of carbohydrates to plant-based meat analogues.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01211-y.