QuEChERS Approach for the Analysis of Three Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics in Wastewater: Concentration Profiles and Ecological Risk in Two Nigerian Hospital Wastewater Treatment Plants

From wastewater to clean water: Recent advances on the removal of metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole antibiotics from water through adsorption and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)

Antibiotics released into water sources pose significant risks to both human health and the environment. This comprehensive review meticulously examines the ecotoxicological impacts of three prevalent antibiotics-ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and sulfamethoxazole-on the ecosystems. Within this framework, our primary focus revolves around the key remediation technologies: adsorption and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). In this context, an array of adsorbents is explored, spanning diverse classes such as biomass-derived biosorbents, graphene-based adsorbents, MXene-based adsorbents, silica gels, carbon nanotubes, carbon-based adsorbents, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), carbon nanofibers, biochar, metal oxides, and nanocomposites. On the flip side, the review meticulously examines the main AOPs widely employed in water treatment. This includes a thorough analysis of ozonation (O3), the photo-Fenton process, UV/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2), TiO2 photocatalysis, ozone/UV (O3/UV), radiation-induced AOPs, and sonolysis. Furthermore, the review provides in-depth insights into equilibrium isotherm and kinetic models as well as prospects and challenges inherent in these cutting-edge processes. By doing so, this review aims to empower readers with a profound understanding, enabling them to determine research gaps and pioneer innovative treatment methodologies for water contaminated with antibiotics.

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceutical pollutants in wastewater: Insights on ecotoxicity, health risk, and state-of-the-art removal

Pharmaceutical active compound (PhAC) residues are considered an emerging micropollutant that enters the aquatic environment and causes harmful ecotoxicity. The significant sources of PhACs in the environment include the pharmaceutical industry, hospital streams, and agricultural wastes (animal husbandry). Recent investigations demonstrated that wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are an important source of PhACs discharging ecosystems. Several commonly reported that PhACs are detected in a range level from ng L-1 to μg L-1 concentration in WWTP effluents. These compounds can have acute and chronic adverse impacts on natural wildlife, including flora and fauna. The approaches for PhAC removals in WWTPs include bioremediation, adsorption (e.g., biochar, chitosan, and graphene), and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Overall, adsorption and AOPs can effectively remove PhACs from wastewater aided by oxidizing radicals. Heterogeneous photocatalysis has also proved to be a sustainable solution. Bioremediation approaches such as membrane bioreactors (MBRs), constructed wetlands (CWs), and microalgal-based systems were applied to minimize pharmaceutical pollution. Noteworthy, applying MBRs has illustrated high removal efficiencies of up to 99%, promising prospective future. However, WWTPs should be combined with advanced solutions, e.g., AOPs/photodegradation, microalgae-bacteria consortia, etc., to treat and minimize their accumulation. More effective and novel technologies (e.g., new generation bioremediation) for PhAC degradation must be investigated and specially designed for a low-cost and full-scale. Investigating green and eco-friendly PhACs with advantages, e.g., low persistence, no bioaccumulation, less or non-toxicity, and environmentally friendly, is also necessary.

Functionalities of electrochemical fluoroquinolone sensors and biosensors

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are a class of broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents that are used to treat variety of infectious diseases. This class of antibiotics was being used for patients exhibiting early symptoms of a human respiratory disease known as the COVID-19 virus. As a result, this outbreak causes an increase in drug-resistant strains and environmental pollution, both of which pose serious threats to biota and human health. Thus, to ensure public health and prevent antimicrobial resistance, it is crucial to develop effective detection methods for FQs determination in water bodies even at trace levels. Due to their characteristics like specificity, selectivity, sensitivity, and low detection limits, electrochemical biosensors are promising future platforms for quick and on-site monitoring of FQs residues in a variety of samples when compared to conventional detection techniques. Despite their excellent properties, biosensor stability continues to be a problem even today. However, the integration of nanomaterials (NMs) could improve biocompatibility, stability, sensitivity, and speed of response in biosensors. This review concentrated on recent developments and contemporary methods in FQs biosensors. Furthermore, a variety of modification materials on the electrode surface are discussed. We also pay more attention to the practical applications of electrochemical biosensors for FQs detection. In addition, the existing challenges, outlook, and promising future perspectives in this field have been proposed. We hope that this review can serve as a bedrock for future researchers and provide new ideas for the development of electrochemical biosensors for antibiotics detection in the future.

Pharmaceuticals in hospital wastewaters: an analysis of the UBA's pharmaceutical database

The presence of pharmaceuticals in hospital wastewaters (HWW) has been a focus of interest for researchers in the last decades. Certain therapeutic classes, such as X-ray contrast media, broad-spectrum antimicrobials and cytotoxics among others, are mainly used in hospitals-health care facilities. This study is focused on available studies monitoring the presence of pharmaceuticals in HWW around the world. To that end, the last available version (v3. 2021) of the "Pharmaceuticals in the Environment" database published by the Federal German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt) has been used. Almost half of all studies included (107) have been conducted in Europe. Pharmaceuticals have been monitored in HWW in 38 different countries across all five continents. The country with the greatest number of studies is Brazil (11), followed by Spain (8), China (7), and France (6). Our analysis revealed that 271 different pharmaceuticals have been detected at least once in HWW. The five drugs with more studies showing a positive detection are ciprofloxacin (38), sulfamethoxazole (36), diclofenac (34), ibuprofen (29), and trimethoprim (27). A total of 47 out of 271 drugs are considered in the NIOSH "Hazardous drug" list. However, monitoring data for some widely used drugs in hospital settings such as muscle relaxants, anesthetics, and antidotes is lacking. In conclusion, this study provides the first large-scale metadata analysis for the pharmaceuticals in HWW worldwide.

Health risk assessment for uptake and accumulation of pharmaceuticals in jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius) irrigated with treated hospital wastewater

The use of reclaimed water for crop irrigation presents a route through which pharmaceuticals enter the agro-environment, raising concerns about their potential inclusion into the food chain and associated health risks. The main objective of this study was to determine the accumulation of six pharmaceuticals (paracetamol, diclofenac and ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, and sulfamethoxazole) in edible part of jute mallow (JM) (Corchorus olitorius) irrigated with treated hospital wastewater (THWW) and potential health risks associated with the consumption of the contaminated JM. In a greenhouse experiment, JM vegetable was grown in soils irrigated with groundwater and THWW. After 4 weeks of cultivation, the pharmaceutical concentrations in the soil and JM tissues were determined. The uptake and accumulation of the pharmaceuticals in the irrigated JM and the human health risks associated with their consumption were evaluated. Results showed that the THWW-irrigated and groundwater-irrigated soils accumulated all the studied pharmaceuticals except paracetamol and sulfamethoxazole, with the concentrations in the soil before and after irrigation ranging from 0.01 to 0.14 μg g-1 and 0.03 to 1.35 μg g-1, respectively. In JM leaves, the accumulation was in the order of tetracycline > ciprofloxacin > ibuprofen > diclofenac and tetracycline > ciprofloxacin > diclofenac > ibuprofen under THWW-irrigated and groundwater-irrigated treatments, respectively. Under both treatments, the uptake and accumulation of the studied pharmaceuticals were in the order of roots > stem > leaves. The health risk assessment indicated that the consumption of the studied pharmaceuticals through JM implies some risks to human health and the risks were in the order of tetracycline > diclofenac > ciprofloxacin > ibuprofen > paracetamol > sulfamethoxazole. This study has demonstrated that irrigation with reclaimed water is a major route of pharmaceuticals into the food chain and a key determinant of associated health risks.

Zinc (Ⅱ) functionalized magnetic geopolymer as sorbents for rapid extraction of Fluoroquinolones in food prior to quantification by UHPLC-MS/MS

A novel Zn@MGeo sorbent was easily constructed and can bind with FQs through the synergistic effect of electrostatic interaction and coordination. With the Zn@MGeo as sorbent, a MSPE-UHPLC-MS/MS method was established for simultaneous detection of FQs in complex matrices. The whole extraction process could be completed using 6.0 mg sorbent within 10 min under the optimal conditions. The established quantitative method obtained a wide linear range (0.01-200 μg/kg, R² > 0.9987), high sensitivity (LODs: 0.005-0.05 μg/kg) and negligible matrix effect. The method was applied for analysis of real samples, with recoveries between 75.6% and 103.7%. In addition, the sorbent could be reused at least 9 times without reducing the adsorption performance. In general, the established method not only proposes a novel sorbent for FQs extraction, but also provides a powerful tool for rapid and sensitive detection of FQs in food matrices with practical application value.

Occurrence of veterinary antibiotics in poultry manure from two farms in Ibadan, Nigeria: Ecotoxicological implications in manure-amended soil

Veterinary antibiotics are commonly used in poultry farming for preventing diseases and promoting growth. As a result of their incomplete metabolism in poultry birds, veterinary antibiotics are usually excreted and are frequently detected in poultry manures. Veterinary antibiotics in poultry manure applied onto soil may pose serious ecological effect to the terrestrial and aquatic environment. In the present work, the occurrence of three veterinary antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole, sulfadimidine and trimethoprim), categorized as veterinary antimicrobial agents of critical importance, was investigated in poultry manure from two poultry farms in Nigeria. The potential ecotoxicological risk of target veterinary antibiotics in poultry manure-amended soil was also assessed. A modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) extraction was adopted for the extraction of target veterinary antibiotics and instrumental analysis was achieved by high performance liquid chromatography. Sulfamethoxazole, sulfadimidine and trimethoprim were quantified in poultry manures from the poultry farms up to 12.7 μg g-1, 16.1 μg g-1 and 33.8 μg g-1, respectively. Sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim in poultry manure-amended soil presented low risk to Eisenia fetida (earthworm). The ecological effect of sulfamethoxazole for the root length of rice was high in Farm B and medium in Farm A. Sulfamethoxazole presented high risk to aquatic organisms while sulfadimidine and trimethoprim posed medium risk and low risk, respectively to aquatic organisms. The results indicated that residual veterinary antibiotics in poultry manures could have adverse effects on crops after application to agricultural soil. There is a need for effective enlightenment programs for poultry farmers in Nigeria to bring about awareness on the environmental and toxicological impact of the excessive and uncontrolled use of veterinary antibiotics in poultry farming and the adverse ecological implications of poultry manure application on farmlands.

Literature Review: Evaluation of Drug Removal Techniques in Municipal and Hospital Wastewater

There are several techniques for the removal of pharmaceuticals (drugs) from wastewater; however, strengths and weaknesses have been observed in their elimination processes that limit their applicability. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the best techniques for the removal of pharmaceuticals from municipal and hospital wastewater. For this, a non-experimental, descriptive, qualitative-quantitative design was used, corresponding to a systematic review without meta-analysis. Based on established inclusion and exclusion criteria, 31 open-access articles were selected from the Scopus, ProQuest, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases. The results showed that high concentrations of analgesics such as naproxen (1.37 mg/L) and antibiotics such as norfloxacin (0.561 mg/L) are frequently found in wastewater and that techniques such as reverse osmosis, ozonation, and activated sludge have the best removal efficiency, achieving values of 99%. It was concluded that reverse osmosis is one of the most efficient techniques for eliminating ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine, and diclofenac from municipal wastewater, with removal rates ranging from 96 to 99.9%, while for hospital wastewater the activated sludge technique proved to be efficient, eliminating analgesics and antibiotics in the range of 41-99%.

QuEChERS-based analysis and ecotoxicological risk of select antibiotics in dumpsite leachates, hospital wastewater and effluent receiving water in Ibadan, Nigeria

There is currently a dearth of information on the determination, occurrence and ecotoxicological risk of antibiotics in dumpsite leachates and hospital wastewater in Africa. A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) protocol which combines extraction and clean-up in one step was optimized for the determination of antibiotics sulfadoxine, sulfamethazine and trimethoprim in dumpsite leachates and hospital wastewater. The occurrence and ecotoxicological risk of target antibiotics were investigated in wastewater from two hospitals, effluent receiving water and leachates from three dumpsites in Ibadan, Nigeria. Recoveries in hospital wastewater ranged from 53 to 116% while recoveries ranged from 50 to 89% in leachates. Method limits of quantification ranged from 0.7 to 12.1 µg L^-1 in hospital wastewater and from 6.2 to 38.8 µg L^-1 in leachates. Intra-day precisions (% RSD) were ≤ 21%. High concentrations of target antibiotics were measured: up to 475 µg L^-1 for sulfamethazine in leachates, 118 µg L^-1 for trimethoprim in hospital wastewater and 117 µg L^-1 for sulfadoxine in effluent receiving water. Sulfadoxine presented high risk to algae, daphnid and fish in hospital wastewater, effluent receiving water and leachates. This work highlights the need for adequate and sound management of wastes containing pharmaceuticals in Nigeria.

An effervescence-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on three-component deep eutectic solvent for the determination of fluoroquinolones in foods

An effervescence-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction approach using three-component deep eutectic solvent based on short-chain and medium-chain carboxylic acids and terpenoid was developed for the first time. The microextraction procedure was applied to the determination of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in foods (milk and shrimp samples) by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorometric detection. In this microextraction procedure three-component deep eutectic solvent acted as a proton donor agent and an extractant. The carbon dioxide bubbles caused by the fast reaction between precursor of deep eutectic solvent (short-chain carboxylic acid) and effervescent agent (sodium carbonate) promoted the dispersion of the extractant in an aqueous sample phase. Various carboxylic acids were studied as hydrogen bond donors for the formation of deep eutectic solvents and proton donor agents for the generation of CO₂ bubbles. Two natural terpenoids (menthol and thymol) were studied as the hydrogen bond acceptors for the formation of three-component solvent. The extraction system based on heptanoic acid and thymol (1:2, mol/mol) containing formic acid (proton donor for generating CO₂ bubbles) provided maximum extraction recovery (86-99%) and a higher extraction efficiency of analytes compared to their extraction into individual hydrophobic precursors of the system. The LODs, calculated from the blank tests based on 3σ, were varied from 0.03 to 0.06 μg L^-1 and from 0.3 to 0.6 μg kg^-1 for fluoroquinolone antibiotics in milk and shrimp samples, respectively. The proposed approach provided effective dispersion of extractant speeding up the extraction process and fast separation of phases without any external energy assistance.

Progress in microalgal mediated bioremediation systems for the removal of antibiotics and pharmaceuticals from wastewater

Worldwide demand for antibiotics and pharmaceutical products is continuously increasing for the control of disease and improvement of human health. Poor management and partial metabolism of these compounds result in the pollution of aquatic systems, leading to hazardous effects on flora, fauna, and ecosystems. In the past decade, the importance of microalgae in micropollutant removal has been widely reported. Microalgal systems are advantageous as their cultivation does not require additional nutrients: they can recover resources from wastewater and degrade antibiotics and pharmaceutical pollutants simultaneously. Bioadsorption, degradation, and accumulation are the main mechanisms involved in pollutant removal by microalgae. Integration of microalgae-mediated pollutant removal with other technologies, such as biodiesel, biochemical, and bioelectricity production, can make this technology more economical and efficient. This article summarizes the current scenario of antibiotic and pharmaceutical removal from wastewater using microalgae-mediated technologies.

Toxicity of fluoroquinolones on the cladoceran Daphnia magna

This study evaluates the acute and chronic toxicological effects of six fluoroquinolones on the mortality and growth of Daphnia magna. The NOECs calculated with the multivariate Probit regression model for the chronic study were 56 μg/L ciprofloxacin, 63 μg/L enrofloxacin, 78 μg/L levofloxacin, 85 μg/L marbofloxacin, 69 μg/L norfloxacin, and 141 μg/L ofloxacin. The risk quotients were determined using the measure environmental concentrations reported in water sources from different countries. The risks were low and moderate in water samples from rivers and lakes, although concentrations of ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin reported in some countries can cause toxicological damage to D. magna. In addition, urban wastewater and hospital wastewater samples constitute a threat to D. magna (high and moderate risks), requiring the treatment of these wastewater. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The NOECs calculated with the multivariate Probit model for the six fluoroquinolonas are between 56 μg/L ciprofloxacin and 141 μg/L ofloxacin. The levels of ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ofloxacin in urban wastewater and hospital wastewater produce moderate and high risks for D. magna. Water and river samples from some countries containing ciprofloxacin, norlfoxacin, and ofloxacin present high risks for D. magna.

Diclofenac and Ibuprofen Determination in Sewage Sludge Using a QuEChERS Approach: Occurrence and Ecological Risk Assessment in Three Nigerian Wastewater Treatment Plants

A quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe (QuEChERS) method was optimized for the extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) diclofenac and ibuprofen from sewage sludge. Dispersive-solid phase extraction (d-SPE) was employed for sample clean-up. Instrumental analysis was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Ecological risk was assessed for four trophic levels: fish, daphnia, algae and bacteria. The method limits of quantification for diclofenac and ibuprofen were 0.43 µg g^- 1 and 0.45 µg g^- 1, respectively. Correlation coefficients were above 0.999. Extraction recoveries ranged from 70 to 118 % and satisfactory inter-day reproducibility (% RSD) of < 18 % was obtained. Diclofenac and ibuprofen were measured up to 1.02 µg g^- 1 and 6.6 µg g^- 1, respectively in sewage sludge from three Nigerian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Ibuprofen posed high risk to fish, daphnia, algae and bacteria. This work presents the first report on the ecological risk assessment of diclofenac and ibuprofen in sewage sludge from Nigerian WWTPs.