Chemical and enzymatic routes to dihydroxyacetone phosphate

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is a novel predictor of hepatic fibrosis in Latino adolescents with obesity

OBJECTIVES

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the most common pediatric liver disease and can progress to liver fibrosis. Latino adolescents have increased MASLD and fibrosis risk. While fibrosis is diagnosed by biopsy or imaging, more accessible, noninvasive, and economical screening methods are needed. We aimed to use plasma metabolomics/lipidomics to identify potential fibrosis biomarkers in Latino adolescents with obesity.

METHODS

Liver stiffness (LS) was measured in 93 Latino adolescents with obesity using magnetic resonance elastography. Metabolites and lipids were extracted from plasma and identified on Compound Discoverer. Associations between metabolites/lipids and fibrosis (LS > 2.73 kPa) were determined using linear regression models after covariate adjustment. False discovery rate (FDR) adjusted Pearson's correlations were performed. Analytes yielding significant FDR-adjusted correlations were examined further by receiver operator curve analysis.

RESULTS

Mean (±standard deviation) alanine transaminase (ALT) was 45.7(±65.2) IU/L, hepatic fat fraction was 12.7(±9.1)%, and LS was 2.4(±0.3) kPa. We identified 795 metabolites and 413 lipids in plasma, but only one single metabolite, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), a marker of triglyceride synthesis, was significantly associated with fibrosis after FDR adjustment (p < 0.05). In terms of predicting fibrosis, ALT had an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.79, and DHAP had an AUC of 0.79. When combined, ALT + DHAP had an AUC of 0.89.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of ALT + DHAP may have the potential as an accurate, noninvasive test for liver fibrosis. Our data are limited to Latino children with obesity, and a larger cohort should be examined to further validate this novel biomarker.

Advances in the biosynthesis of D-allulose

D-allulose is a rare monosaccharide and a C-3 epimer of D-fructose. It has physiological functions, such as antihyperglycemic, obesity-preventing, neuroprotective, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging effects, making it an ideal sugar substitute. The synthesis methods for D-allulose include chemical synthesis and biosynthesis. Chemical synthesis requires strict reaction conditions and tends to produce byproducts. Biosynthesis is mainly an enzymatic process. Enzymatic catalysis for the conversion of starch or glycerol to D-allulose is performed mainly by enzymes such as isoamylase (IA), glucose isomerase (GI), D-allulose 3-epimerase (DPE), D-allulose-6-phosphate 3-epimerase (A6PE), D-allulose 6-phosphate phosphatase (A6PP), ribitol 2-dehydrogenase (RDH), glycerophosphate kinase (GK), glycerophosphate oxidase (GPO), and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)-dependent aldolase. Biosynthesis is a more energy-efficient process, producing fewer harmful by-products and pollutants, and significantly reducing negative environmental impacts. Furthermore, the specific catalytic activity of enzymes facilitates the production of compounds of higher purity, thereby facilitating the isolation and purification of the products. It has thus become the main method for producing D-allulose. This article reviews the progress in research on the biosynthetic production of D-allulose, focusing on the enzymes involved and their enzymatic properties, and discusses the production prospects for D-allulose.

Biocatalytic approach for the synthesis of chiral alcohols for the development of pharmaceutical intermediates and other industrial applications: A review

Biocatalysis has emerged as a strong tool for the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). In the early twentieth century, whole cell biocatalysis was used to develop the first industrial biocatalytic processes, and the precise work of enzymes was unknown. Biocatalysis has evolved over the years into an essential tool for modern, cost-effective, and sustainable pharmaceutical manufacturing. Meanwhile, advances in directed evolution enable the rapid production of process-stable enzymes with broad substrate scope and high selectivity. Large-scale synthetic pathways incorporating biocatalytic critical steps towards >130 APIs of authorized pharmaceuticals and drug prospects are compared in terms of steps, reaction conditions, and scale with the corresponding chemical procedures. This review is designed on the functional group developed during the reaction forming alcohol functional groups. Some important biocatalyst sources, techniques, and challenges are described. A few APIs and their utilization in pharmaceutical drugs are explained here in this review. Biocatalysis has provided shorter, more efficient, and more sustainable alternative pathways toward existing small molecule APIs. Furthermore, non-pharmaceutical applications of biocatalysts are also mentioned and discussed. Finally, this review includes the future outlook and challenges of biocatalysis. In conclusion, Further research and development of promising enzymes are required before they can be used in industry.

Synthesis of Chiral Acyclic Pyrimidine Nucleoside Analogues from DHAP-Dependent Aldolases

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)-dependent aldolases catalyze the aldol addition of DHAP to a variety of aldehydes and generate compounds with two stereocenters. This reaction is useful to synthesize chiral acyclic nucleosides, which constitute a well-known class of antiviral drugs currently used. In such compounds, the chirality of the aliphatic chain, which mimics the open pentose residue, is crucial for activity. In this work, three DHAP-dependent aldolases: fructose-1,6-biphosphate aldolase from rabbit muscle, rhanmulose-1-phosphate aldolase from Thermotoga maritima, and fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase from Escherichia coli, were used as biocatalysts. Aldehyde derivatives of thymine and cytosine were used as acceptor substrates, generating new acyclic nucleoside analogues containing two new stereocenters with conversion yields between 70% and 90%. Moreover, structural analyses by molecular docking were carried out to gain insights into the diasteromeric excess observed.

Immobilization of Adenosine Derivatives onto Cellulose Nanocrystals via Click Chemistry for Biocatalysis Applications

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a central molecule of organisms and is involved in many biological processes. It is also widely used in biocatalytic processes, especially as a substrate and precursor of many cofactors─such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP(H)), coenzyme A (CoA), and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM). Despite its great scientific interest and pivotal role, its use in industrial processes is impeded by its prohibitory cost. To overcome this limitation, we developed a greener synthesis of adenosine derivatives and efficiently selectively grafted them onto organic nanoparticles. In this study, cellulose nanocrystals were used as a model combined with click chemistry via a copper-catalyzed azide/alkyne cycloaddition reaction (CuAAC). The grafted adenosine triphosphate derivative fully retains its biocatalytic capability, enabling heterobiocatalysis for modern biochemical processes.

S-lactoyl modification of KEAP1 by a reactive glycolytic metabolite activates NRF2 signaling

KEAP1 (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein), a cytoplasmic repressor of the oxidative stress responsive transcription factor Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2), senses the presence of electrophilic agents by modification of its sensor cysteine residues. In addition to xenobiotics, several reactive metabolites have been shown to covalently modify key cysteines on KEAP1, although the full repertoire of these molecules and their respective modifications remain undefined. Here, we report the discovery of sAKZ692, a small molecule identified by high-throughput screening that stimulates NRF2 transcriptional activity in cells by inhibiting the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. sAKZ692 treatment promotes the buildup of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, a metabolite which leads to S-lactate modification of cysteine sensor residues of KEAP1, resulting in NRF2-dependent transcription. This work identifies a posttranslational modification of cysteine derived from a reactive central carbon metabolite and helps further define the complex relationship between metabolism and the oxidative stress-sensing machinery of the cell.

Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis of the Response of Quinoa Seedlings to Low Temperatures

Quinoa, a cool-weather high-altitude crop, is susceptible to low-temperature stress throughout its reproductive phase. Herein, we performed broadly targeted metabolic profiling of quinoa seedlings to explore the metabolites’ dynamics in response to low-temperature stress and transcriptome analysis to determine the underlying genetic mechanisms. Two variants, namely, Dian Quinoa 2324 and Dian Quinoa 281, were exposed to temperatures of −2, 5, and 22 °C. A total of 794 metabolites were detected; 52,845 genes, including 6628 novel genes, were annotated using UPLC-MS/MS analysis and the Illumina HiSeq system. Combined with morphological indicators to resolve the mechanism underlying quinoa seedling response to low-temperature stress, the molecular mechanisms of quinoa changed considerably based on temperature exposure. Soluble sugars heavily accumulated in plants with cold damage and changes in regulatory networks under freeze damage, such as the upregulation of α-linolenic acid metabolism and a reduction in energy substrates, may explain the spatial patterns of biosynthesis and accumulation of these metabolites. Genes that are actively expressed during cold responses, as revealed by co-expression analyses, may be involved in the regulation thereof. These results provide insights into the metabolic factors in quinoa under low-temperature stress and provide a reference for the screening of quinoa varieties resistant to low temperature.

Recent Advances Regarding the Physiological Functions and Biosynthesis of D-Allulose

D-Allulose, a generally regarded as safe (GRAS) sugar, is rare in nature. It is among the most promising sweeteners for future use due to its low caloric content, sucrose-like taste, and unique functions. D-Allulose has many physiological effects, such as antiobesity, antihyperglycemia, antidiabetes, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects. Therefore, D-allulose has important application value in the food, pharmaceutical, and healthcare industries. However, the high cost of D-allulose production limits its large-scale application. Currently, biotransformation is very attractive for D-allulose synthesis, with the two main methods of biosynthesis being the Izumoring strategy and the DHAP-dependent aldolase strategy. This article reviews recent advances regarding the physiological functions and biosynthesis of D-allulose. In addition, future perspectives on the production of D-allulose are presented.

Color recycling: metabolization of apocarotenoid degradation products suggests carbon regeneration via primary metabolic pathways

Analysis of carotenoid-accumulating roots revealed that oxidative carotenoid degradation yields glyoxal and methylglyoxal. Our data suggest that these compounds are detoxified via the glyoxalase system and re-enter primary metabolic pathways. Carotenoid levels in plant tissues depend on the relative rates of synthesis and degradation. We recently identified redox enzymes previously known to be involved in the detoxification of fatty acid-derived reactive carbonyl species which were able to convert apocarotenoids into corresponding alcohols and carboxylic acids. However, their subsequent metabolization pathways remain unresolved. Interestingly, we found that carotenoid-accumulating roots have increased levels of glutathione, suggesting apocarotenoid glutathionylation to occur. In vitro and in planta investigations did not, however, support the occurrence of non-enzymatic or enzymatic glutathionylation of β-apocarotenoids. An alternative breakdown pathway is the continued oxidative degradation of primary apocarotenoids or their derivatives into the shortest possible oxidation products, namely glyoxal and methylglyoxal, which also accumulated in carotenoid-accumulating roots. In fact, combined transcriptome and metabolome analysis suggest that the high levels of glutathione are most probably required for detoxifying apocarotenoid-derived glyoxal and methylglyoxal via the glyoxalase pathway, yielding glycolate and D-lactate, respectively. Further transcriptome analysis suggested subsequent reactions involving activities associated with photorespiration and the peroxisome-specific glycolate/glyoxylate transporter. Finally, detoxified primary apocarotenoid degradation products might be converted into pyruvate which is possibly re-used for the synthesis of carotenoid biosynthesis precursors. Our findings allow to envision carbon recycling during carotenoid biosynthesis, degradation and re-synthesis which consumes energy, but partially maintains initially fixed carbon via re-introducing reactive carotenoid degradation products into primary metabolic pathways.

Structural characterization of an L-fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase from Klebsiella pneumoniae

Fuculose phosphate aldolases play an important role in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways. L-fuculose 1-phosphate aldolase catalyzes the reversible cleavage of L-fuculose 1-phosphate to DHAP and L-lactaldehyde. Class II aldolases found in bacteria are linked to pathogenesis of human pathogens, and have potential applications in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates and other chiral compounds. Here we report the structure of a putative L-fuculose 1-phosphate aldolase (KpFucA) from the nosocomial pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae to 1.85 Å resolution. The enzyme crystallizes in space group P422 with one monomer per asymmetric unit. Analytical ultracentrifugation analysis confirms that KpFucA is a tetramer in solution. A magnesium ion cofactor and sulfate ion were identified in the active pocket. Enzyme activity assays confirmed that KpFcuA has a strong preference for L-fuculose 1-phosphate as a substrate, but can also catalyze the cleavage of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate and glucose-6-phosphate. This work should provide a starting point for further investigation of the role of KpFucA in K. pneumoniae pathogenesis or in industrial applications.

Systems chemistry of peptide-assemblies for biochemical transformations

During the billions of years of the evolutionary journey, primitive polymers, involved in proto metabolic pathways with low catalytic activity, played critical roles in the emergence of modern enzymes with remarkable substrate specificity. The precise positioning of amino acid residues and the complex orchestrated interplay in the binding pockets of evolved enzymes promote covalent and non-covalent interactions to foster a diverse set of complex catalytic transformations. Recent efforts to emulate the structural and functional information of extant enzymes by minimal peptide based assemblies have attempted to provide a holistic approach that could help in discerning the prebiotic origins of catalytically active binding pockets of advanced proteins. In addition to the impressive sets of advanced biochemical transformations, catalytic promiscuity and cascade catalysis by such small molecule based dynamic systems can foreshadow the ancestral catalytic processes required for the onset of protometabolism. Looking beyond minimal systems that work close to equilibrium, catalytic systems and compartments under non-equilibrium conditions utilizing simple prebiotically relevant precursors have attempted to shed light on how bioenergetics played an essential role in chemical emergence of complex behaviour. Herein, we map out these recent works and progress where diverse sets of complex enzymatic transformations were demonstrated by utilizing minimal peptide based self-assembled systems. Further, we have attempted to cover the examples of peptide assemblies that could feature promiscuous activity and promote complex multistep cascade reaction networks. The review also covers a few recent examples of minimal transient catalytic assemblies under non-equilibrium conditions. This review attempts to provide a broad perspective for potentially programming functionality via rational selection of amino acid sequences leading towards minimal catalytic systems that resemble the traits of contemporary enzymes.

Production of Recombinant Horseradish Peroxidase in an Engineered Cell-free Protein Synthesis System

One of the main advantages of a cell-free synthesis system is that the synthetic machinery of cells can be modularized and re-assembled for desired purposes. In this study, we attempted to combine the translational activity of Escherichia coli extract with a heme synthesis pathway for the functional production of horseradish peroxidase (HRP). We first optimized the reaction conditions and the sequence of template DNA to enhance protein expression and folding. The reaction mixture was then supplemented with 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase to facilitate co-synthesis of the heme prosthetic group from glucose. Combining the different synthetic modules required for protein synthesis and cofactor generation led to successful production of functional HRP in a cell-free synthesis system.

Cascade synthesis of rare ketoses by whole cells based on L-rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)-dependent aldolases demonstrate important values in the production of rare ketoses due to their unique stereoselectivities. As a specific example, we developed an efficient Escherichia coli whole-cell biocatalytic cascade system in which rare ketoses were produced from abundant glycerol and catalyzed by four enzymes based on L-rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase (RhaD). For the semicontinuous bioconversion in which D-glyceraldehyde was continuously added, once D-glyceraldehyde was consumed, the final yields of D-sorbose and D-psicose were 15.30 g/L and 6.35 g/L, respectively. Moreover, the maximum conversion rate and productivity of D-sorbose and D-psicose were 99% and 1.11 g/L/h at 8 h, respectively. When L-glyceraldehyde was used instead of the D-isomer, the final yield of L-fructose was 16.80 g/L. Furthermore, the maximum conversion rate and productivity of L-fructose were 95% and 1.08 g/L/h at 8 h, respectively. This synthetic platform was also compatible with other various aldehydes, which allowed the production of many other high-value chemicals from glycerol.

Metabolic engineering pathways for rare sugars biosynthesis, physiological functionalities, and applications-a review

Biomolecules like rare sugars and their derivatives are referred to as monosaccharides particularly uncommon in nature. Remarkably, many of them have various known physiological functions and biotechnological applications in cosmetics, nutrition, and pharmaceutical industries. Also, they can be exploited as starting materials for synthesizing fascinating natural bioproducts with significant biological activities. Regrettably, most of the rare sugars are quite expensive, and their synthetic chemical routes are both limited and economically unfeasible due to expensive raw materials. On the other hand, their production by enzymatic means often suffers from low space-time yields and high catalyst costs due to hasty enzyme denaturation/degradation. In this context, biosynthesis of rare sugars with industrial importance is receiving renowned scientific attention, across the globe. Moreover, the utilization of renewable resources as energy sources via microbial fermentation or microbial metabolic engineering has appeared a new tool. This article presents a comprehensive review of physiological functions and biotechnological applications of rare ketohexoses and aldohexoses, including D-psicose, D-tagatose, L-tagatose, D-sorbose, L-fructose, D-allose, L-glucose, D-gulose, L-talose, L-galactose, and L-fucose. Novel in-vivo recombination pathways based on aldolase and phosphatase for the biosynthesis of rare sugars, particularly D-psicose and D-sorbose using robust microbial strains are also deliberated.

Sugar analog synthesis by in vitro biocatalytic cascade: A comparison of alternative enzyme complements for dihydroxyacetone phosphate production as a precursor to rare chiral sugar synthesis

Carbon-carbon bond formation is one of the most challenging reactions in synthetic organic chemistry, and aldol reactions catalysed by dihydroxyacetone phosphate-dependent aldolases provide a powerful biocatalytic tool for combining C-C bond formation with the generation of two new stereo-centres, with access to all four possible stereoisomers of a compound. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) is unstable so the provision of DHAP for DHAP-dependent aldolases in biocatalytic processes remains complicated. Our research has investigated the efficiency of several different enzymatic cascades for the conversion of glycerol to DHAP, including characterising new candidate enzymes for some of the reaction steps. The most efficient cascade for DHAP production, comprising a one-pot four-enzyme reaction with glycerol kinase, acetate kinase, glycerophosphate oxidase and catalase, was coupled with a DHAP-dependent fructose-1,6-biphosphate aldolase enzyme to demonstrate the production of several rare chiral sugars. The limitation of batch biocatalysis for these reactions and the potential for improvement using kinetic modelling and flow biocatalysis systems is discussed.

Recent advances in the synthesis of rare sugars using DHAP-dependent aldolases

The occurrence rates of non-communicable diseases like obesity, diabetes and hyperlipidemia have increased remarkably due to excessive consumption of a high-energy diet. Rare sugars therefore have become increasingly attractive owing to their unique nutritional properties. In the past two decades, various rare sugars have been successfully prepared guided by the "Izumoring strategy". As a valuable complement to the Izumoring approach, the controllable dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)-dependent aldolases have generally predictable regio- and stereoselectivity, which makes them powerful tools in C-C bond construction and rare sugar production. However, the main disadvantage for this group of aldolases is their strict substrate specificity toward the donor molecule DHAP, a very expensive and relatively unstable compound. Among the current methods involving DHAP, the one that couples DHAP production from inexpensive starting materials (for instance, glycerol, DL-glycerol 3-phosphate, dihydroxyacetone, and glucose) with aldol condensation appears to be the most promising. This review thus focuses on recent advances in the application of L-rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase (RhaD), L-fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase (FucA), and D-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (FruA) for rare sugar synthesis in vitro and in vivo, while illustrating strategies for supplying DHAP in efficient and economical ways.

Forward design of a complex enzyme cascade reaction

Enzymatic reaction networks are unique in that one can operate a large number of reactions under the same set of conditions concomitantly in one pot, but the nonlinear kinetics of the enzymes and the resulting system complexity have so far defeated rational design processes for the construction of such complex cascade reactions. Here we demonstrate the forward design of an in vitro 10-membered system using enzymes from highly regulated biological processes such as glycolysis. For this, we adapt the characterization of the biochemical system to the needs of classical engineering systems theory: we combine online mass spectrometry and continuous system operation to apply standard system theory input functions and to use the detailed dynamic system responses to parameterize a model of sufficient quality for forward design. This allows the facile optimization of a 10-enzyme cascade reaction for fine chemical production purposes.

Building multi-component enzymatic processes in one pot is challenged by the inherent complexity of each biochemical system. Here, the authors use online mass spectroscopy and engineering systems theory to achieve forward design of a ten-membered reaction cascade.

Synthetic Biology for Cell-Free Biosynthesis: Fundamentals of Designing Novel In Vitro Multi-Enzyme Reaction Networks

Cell-free biosynthesis in the form of in vitro multi-enzyme reaction networks or enzyme cascade reactions emerges as a promising tool to carry out complex catalysis in one-step, one-vessel settings. It combines the advantages of well-established in vitro biocatalysis with the power of multi-step in vivo pathways. Such cascades have been successfully applied to the synthesis of fine and bulk chemicals, monomers and complex polymers of chemical importance, and energy molecules from renewable resources as well as electricity. The scale of these initial attempts remains small, suggesting that more robust control of such systems and more efficient optimization are currently major bottlenecks. To this end, the very nature of enzyme cascade reactions as multi-membered systems requires novel approaches for implementation and optimization, some of which can be obtained from in vivo disciplines (such as pathway refactoring and DNA assembly), and some of which can be built on the unique, cell-free properties of cascade reactions (such as easy analytical access to all system intermediates to facilitate modeling).

Tuning the Phosphoryl Donor Specificity of Dihydroxyacetone Kinase from ATP to Inorganic Polyphosphate. An Insight from Computational Studies

Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) kinase from Citrobacter freundii provides an easy entry for the preparation of DHA phosphate; a very important C3 building block in nature. To modify the phosphoryl donor specificity of this enzyme from ATP to inorganic polyphosphate (poly-P); a directed evolution program has been initiated. In the first cycle of evolution, the native enzyme was subjected to one round of error-prone PCR (EP-PCR) followed directly (without selection) by a round of DNA shuffling. Although the wild-type DHAK did not show activity with poly-P, after screening, sixteen mutant clones showed an activity with poly-phosphate as phosphoryl donor statistically significant. The most active mutant presented a single mutation (Glu526Lys) located in a flexible loop near of the active center. Interestingly, our theoretical studies, based on molecular dynamics simulations and hybrid Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics (QM/MM) optimizations, suggest that this mutation has an effect on the binding of the poly-P favoring a more adequate position in the active center for the reaction to take place.

Biosynthesis of l-Sorbose and l-Psicose Based on C-C Bond Formation Catalyzed by Aldolases in an Engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum Strain

The property of loose stereochemical control at aldol products from aldolases helped to synthesize multiple polyhydroxylated compounds with nonnatural stereoconfiguration. In this study, we discovered for the first time that some fructose 1,6-diphosphate aldolases (FruA) and tagatose 1,6-diphosphate (TagA) aldolases lost their strict stereoselectivity when using l-glyceraldehyde and synthesized not only l-sorbose but also a high proportion of l-psicose. Among the aldolases tested, TagA from Bacillus licheniformis (BGatY) showed the highest enzyme activity with l-glyceraldehyde. Subsequently, a "one-pot" reaction based on BGatY and fructose-1-phosphatase (YqaB) generated 378 mg/liter l-psicose and 199 mg/liter l-sorbose from dihydroxyacetone-phosphate (DHAP) and l-glyceraldehyde. Because of the high cost and instability of DHAP, a microbial fermentation strategy was used further to produce l-sorbose/l-psicose from glucose and l-glyceraldehyde, in which DHAP was obtained from glucose through the glycolytic pathway, and some recombination pathways based on FruA or TagA and YqaB were constructed in Escherichia coli and Corynebacterium glutamicum strains. After evaluation of different host cells and combinations of FruA or TagA with YqaB and optimization of gene expression, recombinant C. glutamicum strain WT(pXFTY) was selected and produced 2.53 g/liter total ketoses, with a yield of 0.50 g/g l-glyceraldehyde. Moreover, deletion of gene cgl0331, encoding the Zn-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase in C. glutamicum, was confirmed for the first time to significantly decrease conversion of l-glyceraldehyde to glycerol and to increase yield of target products. Finally, fed-batch culture of strain SY14(pXFTY) produced 3.5 g/liter l-sorbose and 2.3 g/liter l-psicose, with a yield of 0.61 g/g l-glyceraldehyde. This microbial fermentation strategy also could be applied to efficiently synthesize other l-sugars.

Biosynthesis of rare ketoses through constructing a recombination pathway in an engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum

Rare sugars have various known biological functions and potential for applications in pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food industries. Here we designed and constructed a recombination pathway in Corynebacterium glutamicum, in which dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), an intermediate of the glycolytic pathway, and a variety of aldehydes were condensed to synthesize rare ketoses sequentially by rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase (RhaD) and fructose-1-phosphatase (YqaB) obtained from Escherichia coli. A wild-type strain harboring this artificial pathway had the ability to produce D-sorbose and D-psicose using D-glyceraldehyde and glucose as the substrates. The tpi gene, encoding triose phosphate isomerase was further deleted, and the concentration of DHAP increased to nearly 20-fold relative to that of the wild-type. After additional optimization of expression levels from rhaD and yqaB genes and of the fermentation conditions, the engineered strain SY6(pVRTY) exhibited preferable performance for rare ketoses production. Its yield increased to 0.59 mol/mol D-glyceraldehyde from 0.33 mol/mol D-glyceraldehyde and productivity to 2.35 g/L h from 0.58 g/L h. Moreover, this strain accumulated 19.5 g/L of D-sorbose and 13.4 g/L of D-psicose using a fed-batch culture mode under the optimal conditions. In addition, it was verified that the strain SY6(pVRTY) meanwhile had the ability to synthesize C4, C5, C6, and C7 rare ketoses when a range of representative achiral and homochiral aldehydes were applied as the substrates. Therefore, the platform strain exhibited the potential for microbial production of rare ketoses and deoxysugars.

The role of biocatalysis in the asymmetric synthesis of alkaloids

Alkaloids are not only one of the most intensively studied classes of natural products, their wide spectrum of pharmacological activities also makes them indispensable drug ingredients in both traditional and modern medicine. Among the methods for their production, biotechnological approaches are gaining importance, and biocatalysis has emerged as an essential tool in this context. A number of chemo-enzymatic strategies for alkaloid synthesis have been developed over the years, in which the biotransformations nowadays take an increasingly 'central' role. This review summarises different applications of biocatalysis in the asymmetric synthesis of alkaloids and discusses how recent developments and novel enzymes render innovative and efficient chemo-enzymatic production routes possible.

Synthesis of carbohydrates in a continuous flow reactor by immobilized phosphatase and aldolase

Herein, we report a new flow process with immobilized enzymes to synthesize complex chiral carbohydrate analogues from achiral inexpensive building blocks in a three-step cascade reaction. The first reactor contained immobilized acid phosphatase, which phosphorylated dihydroxyacetone to dihydroxyacetone phosphate using pyrophosphate as the phosphate donor. The second flow reactor contained fructose-1,6-diphosphate aldolase (RAMA, rabbit muscle aldolase) or rhamnulose-1-phosphate aldolase (RhuA from Thermotoga maritima) and acid phosphatase. The immobilized aldolases coupled the formed dihydroxyacetone phosphate to aldehydes, resulting in phosphorylated carbohydrates. A final reactor containing acid phosphatase that dephosphorylated the phosphorylated product yielded the final product. Different aldehydes were used to synthesize carbohydrates on a gram scale. To demonstrate the feasibility of the flow systems, we synthesized 0.6 g of the D-fagomine precursor. By using immobilized aldolase RhuA we were also able to obtain other stereoisomers of the D-fagomine precursor.

One-pot four-enzyme synthesis of ketoses with fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolases from Staphylococcus carnosus and rabbit muscle

By the action of D-fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolases (FruA) from rabbit muscle and Staphylococcus carnosus, various ketoses were synthesized from glyceraldehydes or other aliphatic aldehydes as acceptors in a one-pot four-enzyme system.

Continuous-flow reactor-based enzymatic synthesis of phosphorylated compounds on a large scale

Acid phosphatase, an enzyme that is able to catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from cheap pyrophosphate to alcoholic substrates, was covalently immobilized on polymethacrylate beads with an epoxy linker (Immobeads-150 or Sepabeads EC-EP). After immobilization 70% of the activity was retained and the immobilized enzyme was stable for many months. With the immobilized enzyme we were able to produce and prepare D-glucose-6-phosphate, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-6-phosphate, allyl phosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate, glycerol-1-phosphate, and inosine-5'-monophosphate from the corresponding primary alcohol on gram scale using either a fed-batch reactor or a continuous-flow packed-bed reactor.

In vitro glycation of human serum albumin by dihydroxyacetone and dihydroxyacetone phosphate

Amino groups in proteins can non-enzymatically react with reducing sugars to generate a structurally diverse group of compounds referred to as advanced glycation end products (AGEs). The in vivo formation of AGEs contributes to some of the complications of diabetes including atherosclerosis, cataract formation, and renal failure. The formation of AGEs is dependent on both sugar and protein concentrations. Increases in temperature, pH, and exposure time of sugars to the proteins also play a significant role in the rate of AGE formation. This study focuses on the use of a combination of analytical techniques to study the in vitro AGE formation of HSA with dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), a ketose generated during glycolysis, and its dephosphorylated analog, dihydroxy acetone (DHA), commonly used as a browning reagent in skin tanning preparations. The extent of AGE formation was affected by DHAP and DHA concentrations and by the duration of HSA exposure to these glycating agents. Increases in temperature and pH sped the glycation process and enhanced the formation of the AGEs of HSA. MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopic data provided a reliable result to evaluate the extent of the AGE formation.

Enzymatic synthesis of D-sorbose and D-psicose with aldolase RhaD: effect of acceptor configuration on enzyme stereoselectivity

It was previously reported that DHAP-dependent aldolase RhaD selectively chooses L-glyceraldehyde from racemic glyceraldehyde to produce l-fructose exclusively. Contrastingly, we discovered that D-glyceraldehyde is also tolerated as an acceptor and the stereoselectivity of the enzyme is lost in the corresponding aldol addition. Furthermore, we applied this property to efficiently synthesize two rare sugars D-sorbose and D-psicose.

Synthesis of rare sugars with L-fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase (FucA) from Thermus thermophilus HB8

We report herein a one-pot four-enzyme approach for the synthesis of the rare sugars d-psicose, d-sorbose, l-tagatose, and l-fructose with aldolase FucA from a thermophilic source (Thermus thermophilus HB8). Importantly, the cheap starting material DL-GP (DL-glycerol 3-phosphate), was used to significantly reduce the synthetic cost.

The transaldolase family: new synthetic opportunities from an ancient enzyme scaffold

Aldol reactions constitute a powerful methodology for carbon-carbon bond formation in synthetic organic chemistry. Biocatalytic carboligation by aldolases offers a green, uniquely regio- and stereoselective tool with which to perform these transformations. Recent advances in the field, fueled by both discovery and protein engineering, have greatly improved the synthetic opportunities for the atom-economic asymmetric synthesis of chiral molecules with potential pharmaceutical relevance. New aldolases derived from the transaldolase scaffold (based on transaldolase B and fructose-6-phosphate aldolase from Escherichia coli) have been shown to be unusually flexible in their substrate scope; this makes them particularly valuable for addressing an expanded molecular range of complex polyfunctional targets. Extensive knowledge arising from structural and molecular biochemical studies makes it possible to address the remaining limitations of the methodology by engineering tailored biocatalysts.

Optimization of a blueprint for in vitro glycolysis by metabolic real-time analysis

Recruiting complex metabolic reaction networks for chemical synthesis has attracted considerable attention but frequently requires optimization of network composition and dynamics to reach sufficient productivity. As a design framework to predict optimal levels for all enzymes in the network is currently not available, state-of-the-art pathway optimization relies on high-throughput phenotype screening. We present here the development and application of a new in vitro real-time analysis method for the comprehensive investigation and rational programming of enzyme networks for synthetic tasks. We used this first to rationally and rapidly derive an optimal blueprint for the production of the fine chemical building block dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) via Escherichia coli's highly evolved glycolysis. Second, the method guided the three-step genetic implementation of the blueprint, yielding a synthetic operon with the predicted 2.5-fold-increased glycolytic flux toward DHAP. The new analytical setup drastically accelerates rational optimization of synthetic multienzyme networks.