Islet Vasculature as a Regulator of Endocrine Pancreas Function

Altered expression of miR-375 and miR-541 in type 2 diabetes patients with and without coronary artery disease (CAD): the potential of miR-375 as a CAD biomarker

Background

MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miRs) have been linked to beta-cell pathologies and have also shown potential as biomarkers for cardiovascular disease. This study aimed to evaluate the expression of miR-375 and miR-541 in T2D patients with and without CAD, in order to determine the potential of these miRNAs as biomarkers for assessing CAD risk.

Methods

This study was conducted on 106 patients with T2D who underwent coronary angiographic examination. Reverse transcription was performed using the cDNA synthesis kit. Real-time PCR was performed using the SYBR Green method and specific primers. The ability to predict which person had developed CAD was evaluated by calculating the area under the receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC).

Results

The expression of miR-375 was significantly higher in samples from CAD patients compared to those without CAD (p = 0.009). While the expression of miR-541 was also higher in CAD patients, the difference was not statistically significant. In terms of predicting CAD, miR-375 was found to be a suitable predictor with an AUC of 0.74 (p = 0.01), while miR-541 was not. With a cut-off value of 0.016 for miR-375, the sensitivity was 67% and the specificity was 80%.

Conclusion

Our results indicated that circulating levels of miR-375 and miR-541 were elevated in T2D patients with CAD compared to those without CAD. This suggests that miR-375 could potentially be used as a non-invasive biomarker for the diagnosis of CAD in T2D patients.

AngioMT: A MATLAB based 2D image-to-physics tool to predict oxygen transport in vascularized microphysiological systems

Microphysiological models (MPS) are increasingly getting recognized as in vitro preclinical systems of pathophysiology and drug discovery. However, there is also a growing need to adapt and advance MPS to include the physiological contributions of the capillary vascular dynamics, because they undergo angiogenesis or vasculogenesis to deliver soluble oxygen and nutrients to its organs. Currently, the process of formation of microvessels in MPS is measured arbitrarily, and vascularized MPS do not include oxygen measurements in their analysis. Sensing and measuring tissue oxygen delivery is extremely difficult because it requires access to opaque and deep tissue, and/or requires extensive integration of biosensors that makes such systems impractical to use in the real world. Here, a finite element method-based oxygen transport program, called AngioMT, is built in MATLAB. AngioMT processes the routinely acquired 2D confocal images of microvascular networks in vitro and solves physical equations of diffusion-reaction dominated oxygen transport phenomena. This user-friendly image-to-physics transition in AngioMT is an enabling tool of MPS analysis because unlike the averaged morphological measures of vessels, it provides information of the spatial transport of oxygen both within the microvessels and the surrounding tissue regions. Further, it solves the more complex higher order reaction mechanisms which also improve the physiological relevance of this tool when compared directly against in vivo measurements. Finally, the program is applied in a multicellular vascularized MPS by including the ability to define additional organ/tissue subtypes in complex co-cultured systems. Therefore, AngioMT serves as an analytical tool to enhance the predictive power and performance of MPS that incorporate microcirculation.

Diabetes as a Pancreatic Microvascular Disease-A Pericytic Perspective

Diabetes is not only an endocrine but also a vascular disease. Vascular defects are usually seen as consequence of diabetes. However, at the level of the pancreatic islet, vascular alterations have been described before symptom onset. Importantly, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying these early vascular defects have not been identified, neither how these could impact the function of islet endocrine cells. In this review, we will discuss the possibility that dysfunction of the mural cells of the microvasculature-known as pericytes-underlies vascular defects observed in islets in pre-symptomatic stages. Pericytes are crucial for vascular homeostasis throughout the body, but their physiological and pathophysiological functions in islets have only recently started to be explored. A previous study had already raised interest in the "microvascular" approach to this disease. With our increased understanding of the crucial role of the islet microvasculature for glucose homeostasis, here we will revisit the vascular aspects of islet function and how their deregulation could contribute to diabetes pathogenesis, focusing in particular on type 1 diabetes (T1D).

Adverse impacts of environmentally relevant PFOS alternatives on mice pancreatic tissues

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) alternatives are chemicals that are used to make a range of products. Researchers have found that PFOS alternatives are probably no less toxic than PFOS, which has aroused concern. It has also revealed that the pancreas may be harmed by exposure to PFOS alternatives. However, there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate the toxicity mechanisms of PFOS alternatives. This study demonstrates the adverse effects of three PFOS alternatives on the pancreatic health of mice. After subchronic exposure to PFOS alternatives at environmentally relevant concentrations (800 μg/L perfluorohexanesulfonate, 800 μg/L perfluorobutanesulfonate, and 3 μg/L sodium ρ-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate) via drinking water for 6 weeks, toxicity mechanisms were elucidated by examining histopathology, immunity, endoplasmic reticulum stress, 16S rRNA, and short-chain fatty acid targeted metabolomics. Sodium ρ-perfluorous nonenoxybenzene sulfonate significantly increased levels of TNF-α, IL-6, p-PERK, and ATF-4 and decreased the abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila and Lactobacillus reuteri. In addition, the three PFOS alternatives changed the composition of the gut microbiota in mice. Short-chain fatty acids, which are metabolites of the gut microbiota, also significantly decreased. Correlation analysis demonstrates that the alteration of gut microbes is related to the adverse effects on the mice pancreas. Results suggest that the murine pancreas may be toxic endpoints of PFOS alternatives. This study alerts the threats to human health and accelerates the toxicology research of an increasing number of emerging PFOS alternatives.

Renewable Human Cell Model for Type 1 Diabetes Research: EndoC-βH5/HUVEC Coculture Spheroids

In vitro drug screening for type 1 diabetes therapies has largely been conducted on human organ donor islets for proof of efficacy. While native islets are the ultimate target of these drugs (either in situ or for transplantation), significant benefit can be difficult to ascertain due to the highly heterogeneous nature of individual donors and the overall scarcity of human islets for research. We present an in vitro coculture model based on immortalized insulin-producing beta-cell lines with human endothelial cells in 3D spheroids that aims to recapitulate the islet morphology in an effort towards developing a standardized cell model for in vitro diabetes research. Human insulin-producing immortalized EndoC-βH5 cells are cocultured with human endothelial cells in varying ratios to evaluate 3D cell culture models for type 1 diabetes research. Insulin secretion, metabolic activity, live cell fluorescence staining, and gene expression assays were used to compare the viability and functionality of spheroids composed of 100% beta-cells, 1 : 1 beta-cell/endothelial, and 1 : 3 beta-cell/endothelial. Monoculture and βH5/HUVEC cocultures formed compact spheroids within 7 days, with average diameter ~140 μm. This pilot study indicated that stimulated insulin release from 0 to 20 mM glucose increased from ~8-fold for monoculture and 1 : 1 coculture spheroids to over 20-fold for 1 : 3 EndoC-βH5/HUVEC spheroids. Metabolic activity was also ~12% higher in the 1 : 3 EndoC-βH5/HUVEC group compared to other groups. Stimulating monoculture beta-cell spheroids with 20 mM glucose +1 μg/mL glycine-modified INGAP-P increased the insulin stimulation index ~2-fold compared to glucose alone. Considering their availability and consistent phenotype, EndoC-βH5-based spheroids present a useful 3D cell model for in vitro testing and drug screening applications.

Pericyte dysfunction and impaired vasomotion are hallmarks of islets during the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes

Pancreatic islets are endocrine organs that depend on their microvasculature to function. Along with endothelial cells, pericytes comprise the islet microvascular network. These mural cells are crucial for microvascular stability and function, but it is not known if/how they are affected during the development of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Here, we investigate islet pericyte density, phenotype, and function using living pancreas slices from donors without diabetes, donors with a single T1D-associated autoantibody (GADA+), and recent onset T1D cases. Our data show that islet pericyte and capillary responses to vasoactive stimuli are impaired early on in T1D. Microvascular dysfunction is associated with a switch in the phenotype of islet pericytes toward myofibroblasts. Using publicly available RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data, we further found that transcriptional alterations related to endothelin-1 signaling and vascular and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling are hallmarks of single autoantibody (Aab)+ donor pancreata. Our data show that microvascular dysfunction is present at early stages of islet autoimmunity.

Biomarkers of aging

Aging biomarkers are a combination of biological parameters to (i) assess age-related changes, (ii) track the physiological aging process, and (iii) predict the transition into a pathological status. Although a broad spectrum of aging biomarkers has been developed, their potential uses and limitations remain poorly characterized. An immediate goal of biomarkers is to help us answer the following three fundamental questions in aging research: How old are we? Why do we get old? And how can we age slower? This review aims to address this need. Here, we summarize our current knowledge of biomarkers developed for cellular, organ, and organismal levels of aging, comprising six pillars: physiological characteristics, medical imaging, histological features, cellular alterations, molecular changes, and secretory factors. To fulfill all these requisites, we propose that aging biomarkers should qualify for being specific, systemic, and clinically relevant.

AngioMT: An in silico platform for digital sensing of oxygen transport through heterogenous microvascular networks

Measuring the capacity of microvascular networks in delivering soluble oxygen and nutrients to its organs is essential in health, disease, and surgical interventions. Here, a finite element method-based oxygen transport program, AngioMT, is designed and validated to predict spatial oxygen distribution and other physiologically relevant transport metrics within both the vascular network and the surrounding tissue. The software processes acquired images of microvascular networks and produces a digital mesh which is used to predict vessel and tissue oxygenation. The image-to-physics translation by AngioMT correlated with results from commercial software, however only AngioMT could provide predictions within the solid tissue in addition to vessel oxygenation. AngioMT predictions were sensitive and positively correlated to spatial heterogeneity and extent of vascularization of 500 different vascular networks formed with variable vasculogenic conditions. The predictions of AngioMT cross-correlate with experimentally-measured oxygen distributions in vivo. The computational power of the software is increased by including calculations of higher order reaction mechanisms, and the program includes defining additional organ and tissue structures for a more physiologically relevant analysis of tissue oxygenation in complex co-cultured systems, or in vivo. AngioMT may serve as a digital performance measuring tool of vascular networks in microcirculation, experimental models of vascularized tissues and organs, and in clinical applications, such as organ transplants.

Advances on Hormones and Steroids Determination: A Review of Voltammetric Methods since 2000

This article presents advances in the electrochemical determination of hormones and steroids since 2000. A wide spectrum of techniques and working electrodes have been involved in the reported measurements in order to obtain the lowest possible limits of detection. The voltammetric and polarographic techniques, due to their sensitivity and easiness, could be used as alternatives to other, more complicated, analytical assays. Still, growing interest in designing a new construction of the working electrodes enables us to prepare new measurement procedures and obtain lower limits of detection. A brief description of the measured compounds has been presented, along with a comparison of the obtained results.

Bioengineering the Vascularized Endocrine Pancreas: A Fine-Tuned Interplay Between Vascularization, Extracellular-Matrix-Based Scaffold Architecture, and Insulin-Producing Cells

Intrahepatic islet transplantation is a promising β-cell replacement strategy for the treatment of type 1 diabetes. Instant blood-mediated inflammatory reactions, acute inflammatory storm, and graft revascularization delay limit islet engraftment in the peri-transplant phase, hampering the success rate of the procedure. Growing evidence has demonstrated that islet engraftment efficiency may take advantage of several bioengineering approaches aimed to recreate both vascular and endocrine compartments either ex vivo or in vivo. To this end, endocrine pancreas bioengineering is an emerging field in β-cell replacement, which might provide endocrine cells with all the building blocks (vascularization, ECM composition, or micro/macro-architecture) useful for their successful engraftment and function in vivo. Studies on reshaping either the endocrine cellular composition or the islet microenvironment have been largely performed, focusing on a single building block element, without, however, grasping that their synergistic effect is indispensable for correct endocrine function. Herein, the review focuses on the minimum building blocks that an ideal vascularized endocrine scaffold should have to resemble the endocrine niche architecture, composition, and function to foster functional connections between the vascular and endocrine compartments. Additionally, this review highlights the possibility of designing bioengineered scaffolds integrating alternative endocrine sources to overcome donor organ shortages and the possibility of combining novel immune-preserving strategies for long-term graft function.

Pericyte Control of Blood Flow in Intraocular Islet Grafts Impacts Glucose Homeostasis in Mice

The pancreatic islet depends on blood supply to efficiently sense plasma glucose levels and deliver insulin and glucagon into the circulation. Long believed to be passive conduits of nutrients and hormones, islet capillaries were recently found to be densely covered with contractile pericytes with the capacity to locally control blood flow. Here, we determined the contribution of pericyte regulation of islet blood flow to plasma insulin and glucagon levels and glycemia. Selective optogenetic activation of pericytes in intraocular islet grafts contracted capillaries and diminished blood flow. In awake mice, acute light-induced stimulation of islet pericytes decreased insulin and increased glucagon plasma levels, producing hyperglycemic effects. Interestingly, pericytes are the targets of sympathetic nerves in the islet, suggesting that sympathetic control of hormone secretion may occur in part by modulating pericyte activity and blood flow. Indeed, in vivo activation of pericytes with the sympathetic agonist phenylephrine decreased blood flow in mouse islet grafts, lowered plasma insulin levels, and increased glycemia. We further show that islet pericytes and blood vessels in living human pancreas slices responded to sympathetic input. Our findings indicate that pericytes mediate vascular responses in the islet that are required for adequate hormone secretion and glucose homeostasis. Vascular and neuronal alterations that are commonly seen in the islets of people with diabetes may impair regulation of islet blood flow and thus precipitate islet dysfunction.

Calcium imaging in intact mouse acinar cells in acute pancreas tissue slices

The physiology and pathophysiology of the exocrine pancreas are in close connection to changes in intra-cellular Ca²⁺ concentration. Most of our knowledge is based on in vitro experiments on acinar cells or acini enzymatically isolated from their surroundings, which can alter their structure, physiology, and limit our understanding. Due to these limitations, the acute pancreas tissue slice technique was introduced almost two decades ago as a complementary approach to assess the morphology and physiology of both the endocrine and exocrine pancreas in a more conserved in situ setting. In this study, we extend previous work to functional multicellular calcium imaging on acinar cells in tissue slices. The viability and morphological characteristics of acinar cells within the tissue slice were assessed using the LIVE/DEAD assay, transmission electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence imaging. The main aim of our study was to characterize the responses of acinar cells to stimulation with acetylcholine and compare them with responses to cerulein in pancreatic tissue slices, with special emphasis on inter-cellular and inter-acinar heterogeneity and coupling. To this end, calcium imaging was performed employing confocal microscopy during stimulation with a wide range of acetylcholine concentrations and selected concentrations of cerulein. We show that various calcium oscillation parameters depend monotonically on the stimulus concentration and that the activity is rather well synchronized within acini, but not between acini. The acute pancreas tissue slice represents a viable and reliable experimental approach for the evaluation of both intra- and inter-cellular signaling characteristics of acinar cell calcium dynamics. It can be utilized to assess many cells simultaneously with a high spatiotemporal resolution, thus providing an efficient and high-yield platform for future studies of normal acinar cell biology, pathophysiology, and screening pharmacological substances.

Pancreatic β-Cell Development and Regeneration

The pancreatic β-cells are essential for regulating glucose homeostasis through the coordinated release of the insulin hormone. Dysfunction of the highly specialized β-cells results in diabetes mellitus, a growing global health epidemic. In this review, we describe the development and function of β-cells the emerging concept of heterogeneity within insulin-producing cells, and the potential of other cell types to assume β-cell functionality via transdifferentiation. We also discuss emerging routes to design cells with minimal β-cell properties and human stem cell differentiation efforts that carry the promise to restore normoglycemia in patients suffering from diabetes.

Assessment of exocrine pancreatic function in children and adolescents with direct and indirect testing

The exocrine pancreas plays an important role in digestion. Understanding of the physiology and regulation of exocrine function provides insight into disease processes and basis of functional testing. Specifically, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) can cause maldigestion and thus a proper assessment of exocrine pancreatic function is important. There are indirect and direct methods for evaluating pancreatic function. Indirect methods are varied and include stool, serum, urine, and breath tests. Fecal elastase is a commonly used indirect test today. Direct methods involve stimulated release of pancreatic fluid that is collected from the duodenum and analyzed for enzyme activity. The most used direct test today is the endoscopic pancreatic function test. Indirect pancreatic function testing is limited in identifying cases of mild to moderate EPI, and as such in these cases, direct testing has higher sensitivity and specificity in diagnosing EPI. This review provides a comprehensive guide to indirect and direct pancreatic function tests as well as an in-depth look at exocrine pancreatic function including anatomy, physiology, and regulatory mechanisms.

Assessing the Effects of VEGF Releasing Microspheres on the Angiogenic and Foreign Body Response to a 3D Printed Silicone-Based Macroencapsulation Device

Macroencapsulation systems have been developed to improve islet cell transplantation but can induce a foreign body response (FBR). The development of neovascularization adjacent to the device is vital for the survival of encapsulated islets and is a limitation for long-term device success. Previously we developed additive manufactured multi-scale porosity implants, which demonstrated a 2.5-fold increase in tissue vascularity and integration surrounding the implant when compared to a non-textured implant. In parallel to this, we have developed poly(ε-caprolactone-PEG-ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(L-lactide) multiblock copolymer microspheres containing VEGF, which exhibited continued release of bioactive VEGF for 4-weeks in vitro. In the present study, we describe the next step towards clinical implementation of an islet macroencapsulation device by combining a multi-scale porosity device with VEGF releasing microspheres in a rodent model to assess prevascularization over a 4-week period. An in vivo estimation of vascular volume showed a significant increase in vascularity (* p = 0.0132) surrounding the +VEGF vs. −VEGF devices, however, histological assessment of blood vessels per area revealed no significant difference. Further histological analysis revealed significant increases in blood vessel stability and maturity (** p = 0.0040) and vessel diameter size (*** p = 0.0002) surrounding the +VEGF devices. We also demonstrate that the addition of VEGF microspheres did not cause a heightened FBR. In conclusion, we demonstrate that the combination of VEGF microspheres with our multi-scale porous macroencapsulation device, can encourage the formation of significantly larger, stable, and mature blood vessels without exacerbating the FBR.

Microtubules regulate pancreatic β-cell heterogeneity via spatiotemporal control of insulin secretion hot spots

Heterogeneity of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in pancreatic islets is physiologically important but poorly understood. Here, we utilize mouse islets to determine how microtubules (MTs) affect secretion toward the vascular extracellular matrix at single cell and subcellular levels. Our data indicate that MT stability in the β-cell population is heterogenous, and that GSIS is suppressed in cells with highly stable MTs. Consistently, MT hyper-stabilization prevents, and MT depolymerization promotes the capacity of single β-cell for GSIS. Analysis of spatiotemporal patterns of secretion events shows that MT depolymerization activates otherwise dormant β-cells via initiation of secretion clusters (hot spots). MT depolymerization also enhances secretion from individual cells, introducing both additional clusters and scattered events. Interestingly, without MTs, the timing of clustered secretion is dysregulated, extending the first phase of GSIS and causing oversecretion. In contrast, glucose-induced Ca²⁺ influx was not affected by MT depolymerization yet required for secretion under these conditions, indicating that MT-dependent regulation of secretion hot spots acts in parallel with Ca²⁺ signaling. Our findings uncover a novel MT function in tuning insulin secretion hot spots, which leads to accurately measured and timed response to glucose stimuli and promotes functional β-cell heterogeneity.

Restoring normal islet mass and function in type 1 diabetes through regenerative medicine and tissue engineering

Type 1 diabetes is characterised by autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β-cell mass. With the advent of insulin therapy a century ago, type 1 diabetes changed from a progressive, fatal disease to one that requires lifelong complex self-management. Replacing the lost β-cell mass through transplantation has proven successful, but limited donor supply and need for lifelong immunosuppression restricts widespread use. In this Review, we highlight incremental advances over the past 20 years and remaining challenges in regenerative medicine approaches to restoring β-cell mass and function in type 1 diabetes. We begin by summarising the role of endocrine islets in glucose homoeostasis and how this is altered in disease. We then discuss the potential regenerative capacity of the remaining islet cells and the utility of stem cell-derived β-like cells to restore β-cell function. We conclude with tissue engineering approaches that might improve the engraftment, function, and survival of β-cell replacement therapies.

The Role of Pancreatic Alpha Cells and Endothelial Cells in the Reduction of Oxidative Stress in Pseudoislets

Pancreatic beta cells have inadequate levels of antioxidant enzymes, and the damage induced by oxidative stress poses a challenge for their use in a therapy for patients with type 1 diabetes. It is known that the interaction of the pancreatic endocrine cells with support cells can improve their survival and lead to less vulnerability to oxidative stress. Here we investigated alpha (alpha TC-1), beta (INS1E) and endothelial (HUVEC) cells assembled into aggregates known as pseudoislets as a model of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. We hypothesised that the coculture of alpha, beta and endothelial cells would be protective against oxidative stress. First, we showed that adding endothelial cells decreased the percentage of oxidative stress-positive cells. We then asked if the number of endothelial cells or the size (number of cells) of the pseudoislet could increase the protection against oxidative stress. However, no additional benefit was observed by those changes. On the other hand, we identified a potential supportive effect of the alpha cells in reducing oxidative stress in beta and endothelial cells. We were able to link this to the incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) by showing that the absence of alpha cells in the pseudoislet caused increased oxidative stress, but the addition of GLP-1 could restore this. Together, these results provide important insights into the roles of alpha and endothelial cells in protecting against oxidative stress.

Insulin protects against type 1 diabetes mellitus-induced ultrastructural abnormalities of pancreatic islet microcirculation

Pancreatic islet microcirculation, consisting of pancreatic islet microvascular endothelial cells (IMECs) and pericytes (IMPCs), provides crucial support for the physiological function of pancreatic islet. Emerging evidence suggests that pancreatic islet microcirculation is impaired in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Here, we investigated the potential ultrastructural protective effects of insulin against streptozotocin (STZ)-induced ultrastructural abnormalities of the pancreatic islet microcirculation in T1DM mouse model. For this purpose, pancreatic tissues were collected from control, STZ-induced T1DM and insulin-treated mice, and a pancreatic IMECs cell line (MS1) was cultured under control, 35 mM glucose with or without 10⁻⁸ M insulin conditions. Transmission and scanning electron microscopies were employed to evaluate the ultrastructure of the pancreatic islet microcirculation. We observed ultrastructural damage to IMECs and IMPCs in the type 1 diabetic group, as demonstrated by destruction of the cytoplasmic membrane and organelles (mainly mitochondria), and this damage was substantially reversed by insulin treatment. Furthermore, insulin inhibited collagenous fiber proliferation and alleviated edema of the widened pancreatic islet exocrine interface in T1DM mice. We conclude that insulin protects against T1DM-induced ultrastructural abnormalities of the pancreatic islet microcirculation.

All-in-One Silk Fibroin Sponge as the Vitrification Cryodevice of Rat Pancreatic Islets and the VEGF-Embedded Scaffold for Subrenal Transplantation

Islet transplantation is a promising option for the clinical treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes, but a reliable islet cryopreservation/transplantation protocol should be established to overcome the donor shortage. The current study reports that a silk fibroin (SF) sponge disk can be used as a cryodevice for vitrification of large quantity pancreatic islets and the scaffold for subsequent subrenal transplantation in a rat model. The marginal islet mass (550 islet equivalents [IEQs]) on an SF sponge disk was vitrified-warmed and transplanted beneath the kidney capsule of a streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat with or without vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Subrenal transplantation (no scaffold) of 550 IEQ fresh islets and post-warm islets vitrified on a nylon mesh device resulted in achieving euglycemia of recipient rats at 60% and 0%, respectively. Transplantation of 550 IEQ islets vitrified-warmed on an SF sponge disk failed to achieve euglycemia of recipient rats (0%), but the VEGF inclusion in the SF sponge disk contributed to acquiring the euglycemic recipients (33%). All cured recipient rats regained hyperglycemia after nephrectomy, and the histopathologic analysis exhibited a well-developing blood vessel network into the islet engrafts. Thus, an SF sponge disc was successively available as the cryodevice for islet vitrification, the transporter of the angiogenic VEGF, and the scaffold for subrenal transplantation in the rat model.

Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells improve rat islet graft revascularization by upregulating ISL1

Revascularization of the islet transplant is a crucial step that defines the success rate of patient recovery. Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) have been reported to promote revascularization; however, the underlying cellular mechanism remains unclear. Moreover, our liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry results showed that BMSCs could promote the expression of insulin gene enhancer binding protein-1 (ISL1) in islets. ISL1 is involved in islets proliferation and plays a potential regulatory role in the revascularization of islets. This study identifies the ISL1 protein as a potential modulator in BMSCs-mediated revascularization of islet grafts. We demonstrated that the survival rate and insulin secretion of islets were increased in the presence of BMSCs, indicating that BMSCs promote islet revascularization in a coculture system and rat diabetes model. Interestingly, we also observed that the presence of BMSCs led to an increase in ISL1 and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) expression in both islets and the INS-1 rat insulinoma cell line. In silico protein structure modeling indicated that ISL1 is a transcription factor that has four binding sites with VEGFA mRNA. Further results showed that overexpression of ISL1 increased both the abundance of VEGFA transcripts and protein accumulation, while inhibition of ISL1 decreased the abundance of VEGFA. Using a ChIP-qPCR assay, we demonstrated that direct molecular interactions between ISL1 and VEGFA occur in INS-1 cells. Together, these findings reveal that BMSCs promote the expression of ISL1 in islets and lead to an increase in VEGFA in islet grafts. Hence, ISL1 is a potential target to induce early revascularization in islet transplantation.

Engineering new microvascular networks on-chip: ingredients, assembly, and best practices

Tissue engineered grafts show great potential as regenerative implants for diseased or injured tissues within the human body. However, these grafts suffer from poor nutrient perfusion and waste transport, thus decreasing their viability post-transplantation. Graft vascularization is therefore a major area of focus within tissue engineering because biologically relevant conduits for nutrient and oxygen perfusion can improve viability post-implantation. Many researchers utilize microphysiological systems as testing platforms for potential grafts due to an ability to integrate vascular networks as well as biological characteristics such as fluid perfusion, 3D architecture, compartmentalization of tissue-specific materials, and biophysical and biochemical cues. While many methods of vascularizing these systems exist, microvascular self-assembly has great potential for bench-to-clinic translation as it relies on naturally occurring physiological events. In this review, we highlight the past decade of literature and critically discuss the most important and tunable components yielding a self-assembled vascular network on chip: endothelial cell source, tissue-specific supporting cells, biomaterial scaffolds, biochemical cues, and biophysical forces. This article discusses the bioengineered systems of angiogenesis, vasculogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis, and includes a brief overview of multicellular systems. We conclude with future avenues of research to guide the next generation of vascularized microfluidic models and future tissue engineered grafts.

Heterogeneity and Dynamics of Vasculature in the Endocrine System During Aging and Disease

The endocrine system consists of several highly vascularized glands that produce and secrete hormones to maintain body homeostasis and regulate a range of bodily functions and processes, including growth, metabolism and development. The dense and highly vascularized capillary network functions as the main transport system for hormones and regulatory factors to enable efficient endocrine function. The specialized capillary types provide the microenvironments to support stem and progenitor cells, by regulating their survival, maintenance and differentiation. Moreover, the vasculature interacts with endocrine cells supporting their endocrine function. However, the structure and niche function of vasculature in endocrine tissues remain poorly understood. Aging and endocrine disorders are associated with vascular perturbations. Understanding the cellular and molecular cues driving the disease, and age-related vascular perturbations hold potential to manage or even treat endocrine disorders and comorbidities associated with aging. This review aims to describe the structure and niche functions of the vasculature in various endocrine glands and define the vascular changes in aging and endocrine disorders.

Decreased blood vessel density and endothelial cell subset dynamics during ageing of the endocrine system

Age-associated alterations of the hormone-secreting endocrine system cause organ dysfunction and disease states. However, the cell biology of endocrine tissue ageing remains poorly understood. Here, we perform comparative 3D imaging to understand age-related perturbations of the endothelial cell (EC) compartment in endocrine glands. Datasets of a wide range of markers highlight a decline in capillary and artery numbers, but not of perivascular cells in pancreas, testis and thyroid gland, with age in mice and humans. Further, angiogenesis and β-cell expansion in the pancreas are coupled by a distinct age-dependent subset of ECs. While this EC subpopulation supports pancreatic β cells, it declines during ageing concomitant with increased expression of the gap junction protein Gja1. EC-specific ablation of Gja1 restores β-cell expansion in the aged pancreas. These results provide a proof of concept for understanding age-related vascular changes and imply that therapeutic targeting of blood vessels may restore aged endocrine tissue function. This comprehensive data atlas offers over > 1,000 multicolour volumes for exploration and research in endocrinology, ageing, matrix and vascular biology.

Bioactivation of Encapsulation Membranes Reduces Fibrosis and Enhances Cell Survival

Encapsulation devices are an emerging barrier technology designed to prevent the immunorejection of replacement cells in regenerative therapies for intractable diseases. However, traditional polymers used in current devices are poor substrates for cell attachment and induce fibrosis upon implantation, impacting long-term therapeutic cell viability. Bioactivation of polymer surfaces improves local host responses to materials, and here we make the first step toward demonstrating the utility of this approach to improve cell survival within encapsulation implants. Using therapeutic islet cells as an exemplar cell therapy, we show that internal surface coatings improve islet cell attachment and viability, while distinct external coatings modulate local foreign body responses. Using plasma surface functionalization (plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII)), we employ hollow fiber semiporous poly(ether sulfone) (PES) encapsulation membranes and coat the internal surfaces with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (FN) to enhance islet cell attachment. Separately, the external fiber surface is coated with the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-4 (IL-4) to polarize local macrophages to an M2 (anti-inflammatory) phenotype, muting the fibrotic response. To demonstrate the power of our approach, bioluminescent murine islet cells were loaded into dual FN/IL-4-coated fibers and evaluated in a mouse back model for 14 days. Dual FN/IL-4 fibers showed striking reductions in immune cell accumulation and elevated levels of the M2 macrophage phenotype, consistent with the suppression of fibrotic encapsulation and enhanced angiogenesis. These changes led to markedly enhanced islet cell survival and importantly to functional integration of the implant with the host vasculature. Dual FN/IL-4 surface coatings drive multifaceted improvements in islet cell survival and function, with significant implications for improving clinical translation of therapeutic cell-containing macroencapsulation implants.

The Role of Alpha Cells in the Self-Assembly of Bioengineered Islets

Vascularization is undoubtedly one of the greatest challenges in tissue engineering. Its importance is particularly evident when considering the transplantation of (bioengineered) pancreatic islets of Langerhans, which are highly sensitive to the delivery of oxygen and nutrients for their survival and function. Here we studied pseudoislets of Langerhans, which are three-dimensional spheroids composed of β (INS1E), α (alpha TC-1), and endothelial (HUVEC) cells, and were interested in how the location and prevalence of the different cell types affected the presence of endothelial cells in the pseudoislet. We hypothesized that alpha (α) cells play an essential role in islet self-assembly and the incorporation of endothelial cells into the pseudoislet, and are thus important to consider in tissue engineering or regenerative medicine strategies, which typically focuses on the insulin-producing beta (β) cells alone. We first determined the effect of changing the relative ratios of the cells and found the cell distribution converged on a steady state of ∼21% α cells, 74% β cells, and 5% endothelial cells after 10 days of culture regardless of their respective ratios at seeding. We also found that the incorporation of endothelial cells was related to the pseudoislet size, with more endothelial cells found in the core of larger pseudoislets following a concomitant increase of α cells and a decrease in β cells. Finally, we observed that both endothelial and β cells were found adjacent to α cells significantly more frequently than to each other. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the self-assembly of a pseudoislet is an intrinsically cell-regulated process. The endothelial cells had preferential proximity to the α cells, and this persisted even when challenged with changing the cell ratios and numbers. This study gives insight into the rules governing the self-organization of pseudoislets and suggests an important role for α cells to promote the incorporation of endothelial cells.

Integration of Islet/Beta-Cell Transplants with Host Tissue Using Biomaterial Platforms

Cell-based therapies are emerging for type I diabetes mellitus (T1D), an autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic β-cells, as a means to provide long-term restoration of glycemic control. Biomaterial scaffolds provide an opportunity to enhance the manufacturing and transplantation of islets or stem cell-derived β-cells. In contrast to encapsulation strategies that prevent host contact with the graft, recent approaches aim to integrate the transplant with the host to facilitate glucose sensing and insulin distribution, while also needing to modulate the immune response. Scaffolds can provide a supportive niche for cells either during the manufacturing process or following transplantation at extrahepatic sites. Scaffolds are being functionalized to deliver oxygen, angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, or trophic factors, and may facilitate cotransplantation of cells that can enhance engraftment or modulate immune responses. This local engineering of the transplant environment can complement systemic approaches for maximizing β-cell function or modulating immune responses leading to rejection. This review discusses the various scaffold platforms and design parameters that have been identified for the manufacture of human pluripotent stem cell-derived β-cells, and the transplantation of islets/β-cells to maintain normal blood glucose levels.

Pancreatic Angiopathy Associated With Islet Amyloid and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

OBJECTIVES

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is histopathologically characterized by islet amyloid and is closely connected with vascular complications. Here, we explore the presence of pancreatic angiopathy (PA) associated with islet amyloid and T2D.

METHODS

From a total of 172 autopsy cases who had a history of T2D diagnosis, we randomly selected 30 T2D autopsy cases with islet amyloid (DA+) in comparison with islet amyloid-free (DA-) 30 T2D cases and 60 nondiabetic (ND) controls. Amyloid deposits and PA including atherosclerosis of pancreatic interlobar arteries, arterial calcification, atheroembolism, hyaline arteriosclerosis of small arterioles, and islet capillary density were detected in all groups.

RESULTS

Pancreatic angiopathy was found in 91.7% of patients with T2D and in 68.3% of ND controls (P < 0.01). Furthermore, 100% of DA+ patients and 83.3% of DA- subjects showed PA. The intraislet capillary density was significantly lower in DA+ subjects than DA- subjects (mean [standard deviation], DA+: 205 [82] count/mm; DA-: 344 [76] count/mm; ND: 291 [94] count/mm; P < 0.01). Finally, interlobar arteriosclerosis (R = 0.603, P < 0.01) was linearly correlated with the severity of islet amyloid deposits.

CONCLUSIONS

Pancreatic angiopathy might be both a cause and a consequence of islet amyloid and T2D.

Brown Adipose Tissue: A Potential Site for Islet Transplantation

BACKGROUND

Islet transplantation is a promising treatment in patients with complicated diabetes. The ideal transplant site that can extend islet graft survival and reduce the required number of engrafted islets remains to be established.

METHODS

Donor islets were isolated from red fluorescent protein (RFP) mice and transplanted into interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) or unilateral inguinal white adipose tissue of age-matched diabetic RFP mice. Blood glucose and body weight of the mice were monitored, and vitality and function of ectopic RFP islets were detected by fluorescence imaging, histological examination, and intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (GTT).

RESULTS

BAT enabled the marginal number of grafted islets (80 islets) to restore blood glucose, insulin level, and GTT to normal values in all diabetic recipient mice in the short term after graft, and maintained these values for 1 year at the end of the experiment. Importantly, in the short term after transplantation, abundant extra- and intraislet neovasculatures were observed in BAT, but not in white adipose tissue, which allowed the ectopic islets to retain typical architecture and morphology and contributed to the normal GTT. Moreover, the islet-engrafted BAT displayed normal structure and morphology without significant immunocyte infiltration, and the recipient mice also showed normal lipid levels in the blood.

CONCLUSIONS

BAT remarkably enhances the viability and biological function of the transplanted ectopic islets. Moreover, the anatomical location of BAT lends itself to biopsy, removal, and islet retransplantation, which strongly suggests the BAT as a potential desirable site for islet transplantation in basic and clinical research.

Targeting pancreatic islet PTP1B improves islet graft revascularization and transplant outcomes

Deficient vascularization is a major driver of early islet graft loss and one of the primary reasons for the failure of islet transplantation as a viable treatment for type 1 diabetes. This study identifies the protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B) as a potential modulator of islet graft revascularization. We demonstrate that grafts of pancreatic islets lacking PTP1B exhibit increased revascularization, which is accompanied by improved graft survival and function, and recovery of normoglycemia and glucose tolerance in diabetic mice transplanted with PTP1B-deficient islets. Mechanistically, we show that the absence of PTP1B leads to activation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α-independent peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α/estrogen-related receptor α signaling and enhanced expression and production of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) by β cells. These observations were reproduced in human islets. Together, these findings reveal that PTP1B regulates islet VEGF-A production and suggest that this phosphatase could be targeted to improve islet transplantation outcomes.

Functional Characterization of the Human Islet Microvasculature Using Living Pancreas Slices

Pancreatic islets are clusters of endocrine cells that secrete different hormones to regulate blood glucose levels. Efficient hormone secretion requires a close interaction of endocrine cells with their vascular system. Islets receive blood through feeding arteriole(s) that branch into capillaries made of endothelial cells covered by pericytes. While a lot is known about rodent islet blood vessels, the structure and function of the human islet microvasculature has been less investigated. In this study, we used living pancreas slices from non-diabetic human donors to examine the function of human islet blood vessels. Living human pancreas slices were incubated with a membrane permeant calcium indicator and pericytes/smooth muscle cells were visualized with a fluorescent antibody against the mural cell marker NG2 proteoglycan. By confocal microscopy, we simultaneously recorded changes in the diameter of lectin-labeled blood vessels and cytosolic calcium levels in mural cells in islets. We tested several stimuli with vasoactive properties, such as norepinephrine, endothelin-1 and adenosine and compared human vascular responses with those previously published for mouse islet blood vessels. Norepinephrine and endothelin-1 significantly constricted human islet feeding arterioles, while adenosine dilated them. Islet capillaries were less responsive and only 15-20% of the mouse and human islet capillary network showed vasomotion. Nevertheless, in these responsive regions, norepinephrine and endothelin-1 decreased both mouse and human islet capillary diameter. Changes in islet blood vessel diameter were coupled to changes in cytosolic calcium levels in adjacent mouse and human islet mural cells. Our study shows that mural cells in islets are the targets of different regulatory mechanisms of islet blood perfusion. Several alterations of the human islet microvasculature occur during diabetes progression. Elucidating their functional consequences in future studies will be critical for our understanding of disease pathogenesis.

SPION-Decorated Exosome Delivered BAY55-9837 Targeting the Pancreas through Magnetism to Improve the Blood GLC Response

BAY55-9837, a potential therapeutic peptide in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), is capable of inducing glucose (GLC)-dependent insulin secretion. However, the therapeutic benefit of BAY55-9837 is limited by its short half-life, lack of targeting ability, and poor blood GLC response. How to improve the blood GLC response of BAY55-9837 is an existing problem that needs to be solved. In this study, a method for preparing BAY55-9837-loaded exosomes coupled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (SPIONs) with pancreas islet targeting activity and an enhanced blood GLC response with the help of an external magnetic force (MF) is demonstrated. The plasma half-life of BAY55-9837 loaded in exosome-SPION is 27-fold longer than that of BAY55-9837. The active targeting property of SIPONs enables BAY-exosomes to gain a favorable targeting property, which improves the BAY55-9837 blood GLC response capacity with the help of an external MF. In vivo studies show that BAY-loaded exosome-based vehicle delivery enhances pancreas islet targeting under an external MF and markedly increases insulin secretion, thereby leading to the alleviation of hyperglycemia. The chronic administration of BAY-exosome-SPION/MF significantly improves glycosylated hemoglobin and lipid profiles. BAY-exosome-SPION/MF maybe a promising candidate for a peptide drug carrier for T2DM with a better blood GLC response.

iPreP is a three-dimensional nanofibrillar cellulose hydrogel platform for long-term ex vivo preservation of human islets

Islet transplantation is an effective therapy for achieving and maintaining normoglycemia in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. However, the supply of transplantable human islets is limited. Upon removal from the pancreas, islets rapidly disintegrate and lose function, resulting in a short interval for studies of islet biology and pretransplantation assessment. Here, we developed a biomimetic platform that can sustain human islet physiology for a prolonged period ex vivo. Our approach involved the creation of a multichannel perifusion system to monitor dynamic insulin secretion and intracellular calcium flux simultaneously, enabling the systematic evaluation of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion under multiple conditions. Using this tool, we developed a nanofibrillar cellulose hydrogel-based islet-preserving platform (iPreP) that can preserve islet viability, morphology, and function for nearly 12 weeks ex vivo, and with the ability to ameliorate glucose levels upon transplantation into diabetic hosts. Our platform has potential applications in the prolonged maintenance of human islets, providing an expanded time window for pretransplantation assessment and islet studies.

Angiogenic Abnormalities in Diabetes Mellitus: Mechanistic and Clinical Aspects

CONTEXT

Diabetes causes severe pathological changes to the microvasculature in many organs and tissues and is at the same time associated with an increased risk of coronary and peripheral macrovascular events. We herein review alterations in angiogenesis observed in human and experimental diabetes and how they contribute to diabetes onset and development of vascular complications.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

The English language medical literature was searched for articles reporting on angiogenesis/vasculogenesis abnormalities in diabetes and their clinical manifestations, mechanistic aspects, and possible therapeutic implications.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

Angiogenesis is a complex process, driven by a multiplicity of molecular mechanisms and involved in several physiological and pathological conditions. Incompetent angiogenesis is pervasive in diabetic vascular complications, with both excessive and defective angiogenesis observed in various tissues. A striking different angiogenic response typically occurs in the retina vs the myocardium and peripheral circulation, but some commonalities in abnormal angiogenesis can explain the well-known association between microangiopathy and macroangiopathy. Impaired angiogenesis can also affect endocrine islet and adipose tissue function, providing a link to diabetes onset. Exposure to high glucose itself directly affects angiogenic/vasculogenic processes, and the mechanisms include defective responses to hypoxia and proangiogenic factors, impaired nitric oxide bioavailability, shortage of proangiogenic cells, and loss of pericytes.

CONCLUSIONS

Dissecting the molecular drivers of tissue-specific alterations of angiogenesis/vasculogenesis is an important challenge to devise new therapeutic approaches. Angiogenesis-modulating therapies should be carefully evaluated in view of their potential off-target effects. At present, glycemic control remains the most reasonable therapeutic strategy to normalize angiogenesis in diabetes.

Self-assembly, buckling and density-invariant growth of three-dimensional vascular networks

The experimental actualization of organoids modelling organs from brains to pancreases has revealed that much of the diverse morphologies of organs are emergent properties of simple intercellular 'rules' and not the result of top-down orchestration. In contrast to other organs, the initial plexus of the vascular system is formed by aggregation of cells in the process known as vasculogenesis. Here we study this self-assembling process of blood vessels in three dimensions through a set of simple rules that align intercellular apical-basal and planar cell polarity. We demonstrate that a fully connected network of tubes emerges above a critical initial density of cells. Through planar cell polarity, our model demonstrates convergent extension, and this polarity furthermore allows for both morphology-maintaining growth and growth-induced buckling. We compare this buckling with the special vasculature of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas and suggest that the mechanism behind the vascular density-maintaining growth of these islets could be the result of growth-induced buckling.

Pancreatic Blood Flow with Special Emphasis on Blood Perfusion of the Islets of Langerhans

The pancreatic islets are more richly vascularized than the exocrine pancreas, and possess a 5- to 10-fold higher basal and stimulated blood flow, which is separately regulated. This is reflected in the vascular anatomy of the pancreas where islets have separate arterioles. There is also an insulo-acinar portal system, where numerous venules connect each islet to the acinar capillaries. Both islets and acini possess strong metabolic regulation of their blood perfusion. Of particular importance, especially in the islets, is adenosine and ATP/ADP. Basal and stimulated blood flow is modified by local endothelial mediators, the nervous system as well as gastrointestinal hormones. Normally the responses to the nervous system, especially the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves, are fairly similar in endocrine and exocrine parts. The islets seem to be more sensitive to the effects of endothelial mediators, especially nitric oxide, which is a permissive factor to maintain the high basal islet blood flow. The gastrointestinal hormones with pancreatic effects mainly influence the exocrine pancreatic blood flow, whereas islets are less affected. A notable exception is incretin hormones and adipokines, which preferentially affect islet vasculature. Islet hormones can influence both exocrine and endocrine blood vessels, and these complex effects are discussed. Secondary changes in pancreatic and islet blood flow occur during several conditions. To what extent changes in blood perfusion may affect the pathogenesis of pancreatic diseases is discussed. Both type 2 diabetes mellitus and acute pancreatitis are conditions where we think there is evidence that blood flow may contribute to disease manifestations. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:799-837, 2019.

Type-3c Diabetes Mellitus, Diabetes of Exocrine Pancreas - An Update

BACKGROUND

The incidence of diabetes is increasing steeply; the number of diabetics has doubled over the past three decades. Surprisingly, the knowledge of type 3c diabetes mellitus (T3cDM) is still unclear to the researchers, scientist and medical practitioners, leading towards erroneous diagnosis, which is sometimes misdiagnosed as type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), or more frequently type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This review is aimed to outline recent information on the etiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic procedures, and therapeutic management of T3cDM patients.

METHODS

The literature related to T3cDM was thoroughly searched from the public domains and reviewed extensively to construct this article. Further, existing literature related to the other forms of diabetes is reviewed for projecting the differences among the different forms of diabetes. Detailed and updated information related to epidemiological evidence, risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis, pathogenesis and management is structured in this review.

RESULTS

T3cDM is often misdiagnosed as T2DM due to the insufficient knowledge differentiating between T2DM and T3cDM. The pathogenesis of T3cDM is explained which is often linked to the history of chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer. Inflammation, and fibrosis in pancreatic tissue lead to damage both endocrine and exocrine functions, thus leading to insulin/glucagon insufficiency and pancreatic enzyme deficiency.

CONCLUSION

Future advancements should be accompanied by the establishment of a quick diagnostic tool through the understanding of potential biomarkers of the disease and newer treatments for better control of the diseased condition.

An important step towards a prevascularized islet microencapsulation device: in vivo prevascularization by combination of mesenchymal stem cells on micropatterned membranes

Extrahepatic transplantation of islets of Langerhans could aid in better survival of islets after transplantation. When islets are transfused into the liver 60-70% of them are lost immediately after transplantation. An important factor for a successful extrahepatic transplantation is a well-vascularized tissue surrounding the implant. There are many strategies known for enhancing vessel formation such as adding cells with endothelial potential, the combination with angiogenic factors and / or applying surface topography at the exposed surface of the device. Previously we developed porous, micropatterned membranes which can be applied as a lid for an islet encapsulation device and we showed that the surface topography induces human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) alignment and interconnection. This was achieved without the addition of hydrogels, often used in angiogenesis assays. In this work, we went one step further towards clinical implementation of the device by combining this micropatterned lid with Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) to facilitate prevascularization in vivo. As for HUVECs, the micropatterned membranes induced MSC alignment and organization in vitro, an important contributor to vessel formation, whereas in vivo (subcutaneous rat model) they contributed to improved implant prevascularization. In fact, the combination of MSCs seeded on the micropatterned membrane induced the highest vessel formation score in 80% of the sections.

Can We Re-Engineer the Endocrine Pancreas?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Engineering endocrine pancreatic tissue is an emerging topic in type 1 diabetes with the intent to overcome the current limitation of β cell transplantation. During islet isolation, the vascularized structure and surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM) are completely disrupted. Once implanted, islets slowly engraft and mostly are lost for the initial avascular phase. This review discusses the main building blocks required to engineer the endocrine pancreas: (i) islet niche ECM, (ii) islet niche vascular network, and (iii) new available sources of endocrine cells.

RECENT FINDINGS

Current approaches include the following: tissue engineering of endocrine grafts by seeding of native or synthetic ECM scaffolds with human islets, vascularization of native or synthetic ECM prior to implantation, vascular functionalization of ECM structures to enhance angiogenesis after implantation, generation of engineered animals as human organ donors, and embryonic and pluripotent stem cell-derived endocrine cells that may be encapsulated or genetically engineered to be immunotolerated. Substantial technological improvements have been made to regenerate or engineer endocrine pancreatic tissue; however, significant hurdles remain, and more research is needed to develop a technology to integrate all components of viable endocrine tissue for clinical application.

An important step towards a prevascularized islet macroencapsulation device-effect of micropatterned membranes on development of endothelial cell network

The development of immune protective islet encapsulation devices could allow for islet transplantation in the absence of immunosuppression. However, the immune protective membrane / barrier introduced there could also impose limitations in transport of oxygen and nutrients to the encapsulated cells resulting to limited islet viability. In the last years, it is well understood that achieving prevascularization of the device in vitro could facilitate its connection to the host vasculature after implantation, and therefore could provide sufficient blood supply and oxygenation to the encapsulated islets. However, the microvascular networks created in vitro need to mimic well the highly organized vasculature of the native tissue. In earlier study, we developed a functional macroencapsulation device consisting of two polyethersulfone/polyvinylpyrrolidone (PES/PVP) membranes, where a bottom microwell membrane provides good separation of encapsulated islets and the top flat membrane acts as a lid. In this work, we investigate the possibility of creating early microvascular networks on the lid of this device by combining novel membrane microfabrication with co-culture of human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) and fibroblasts. We create thin porous microstructured PES/PVP membranes with solid and intermittent line-patterns and investigate the effect of cell alignment and cell interconnectivity as a first step towards the development of a stable prevascularized layer in vitro. Our results show that, in contrast to non-patterned membranes where HUVECs form unorganized HUVEC branch-like structures, for the micropatterned membranes, we can achieve cell alignment and the co-culture of HUVECs on a monolayer of fibroblasts attached on the membranes with intermittent line-pattern allows for the creation of HUVEC branch-like structures over the membrane surface. This important step towards creating early microvascular networks was achieved without the addition of hydrogels, often used in angiogenesis assays, as gels could block the pores of the membrane and limit the transport properties of the islet encapsulation device.

Islet Microvasculature Alterations With Loss of Beta-cells in Patients With Type 1 Diabetes

Islet microvasculature provides key architectural and functional roles, yet the morphological features of islets from patients with type 1 diabetes are poorly defined. We examined islet and exocrine microvasculature networks by multiplex immunofluorescence imaging of pancreases from organ donors with and without type 1 diabetes (n=17 and n=16, respectively) and determined vessel diameter, density, and area. We also analyzed these variables in insulin-positive and insulin-negative islets of 7 type 1 diabetes donors. Control islet vessel diameter was significantly larger (7.6 ± 1.1 μm) compared with vessels in diabetic islets (6.2 ± 0.8 μm; p<0.001). Control islet vessel density (number/islet) was significantly lower (5.3 ± 0.6) versus diabetic islets (9.3 ± 0.2; p<0.001). Exocrine vessel variables were not significantly different between groups. Islets with residual beta-cells were comparable to control islets for both vessel diameter and density and were significantly different from insulin-negative islets within diabetic donors (p<0.05). Islet smooth muscle actin area had a significant positive correlation with age in both groups (p<0.05), which could negatively impact islet transplantation efficiency from older donors. These data underscore the critical relationship of islet beta-cells and islet vessel morphology in type 1 diabetes. These studies provide new knowledge of the islet microvasculature in diabetes and aging.

An overview of type 2 diabetes and importance of vitamin D3-vitamin D receptor interaction in pancreatic β-cells

One significant health issue that plagues contemporary society is that of Type 2 diabetes (T2D). This disease is characterised by higher-than-average blood glucose levels as a result of a combination of insulin resistance and insufficient insulin secretions from the β-cells of pancreatic islets of Langerhans. Previous developmental research into the pancreas has identified how early precursor genes of pancreatic β-cells, such as Cpal, Ngn3, NeuroD, Ptf1a, and cMyc, play an essential role in the differentiation of these cells. Furthermore, β-cell molecular characterization has also revealed the specific role of β-cell-markers, such as Glut2, MafA, Ins1, Ins2, and Pdx1 in insulin expression. The expression of these genes appears to be suppressed in the T2D β-cells, along with the reappearance of the early endocrine marker genes. Glucose transporters transport glucose into β-cells, thereby controlling insulin release during hyperglycaemia. This stimulates glycolysis through rises in intracellular calcium (a process enhanced by vitamin D) (Norman et al., 1980), activating 2 of 4 proteinases. The rise in calcium activates half of pancreatic β-cell proinsulinases, thus releasing free insulin from granules. The synthesis of ATP from glucose by glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation plays a role in insulin release. Some studies have found that the β-cells contain high levels of the vitamin D receptor; however, the role that this plays in maintaining the maturity of the β-cells remains unknown. Further research is required to develop a more in-depth understanding of the role VDR plays in β-cell function and the processes by which the beta cell function is preserved.

Polymeric Scaffolds for Pancreatic Tissue Engineering: A Review

In recent years, there has been an alarming increase in the incidence of diabetes, with one in every eleven individuals worldwide suffering from this debilitating disease. As the available treatment options fail to reduce disease progression, novel avenues such as the bioartificial pancreas are being given serious consideration. In the past decade, the research focus has shifted towards the field of tissue engineering, which helps to design biological substitutes for repair and replacement of non-functional or damaged organs. Scaffolds constitute an integral part of tissue engineering; they have been shown to mimic the native extracellular matrix, thereby supporting cell viability and proliferation. This review offers a novel compilation of the recent advances in polymeric scaffolds, which are used for pancreatic tissue engineering. Furthermore, in this article, the design strategies for bioartificial pancreatic constructs and their future applications in cell-based therapy are discussed.

The Pericyte of the Pancreatic Islet Regulates Capillary Diameter and Local Blood Flow

Efficient insulin secretion requires a well-functioning pancreatic islet microvasculature. The dense network of islet capillaries includes the islet pericyte, a cell that has barely been studied. Here we show that islet pericytes help control local blood flow by adjusting islet capillary diameter. Islet pericytes cover 40% of the microvasculature, are contractile, and are innervated by sympathetic axons. Sympathetic adrenergic input increases pericyte activity and reduces capillary diameter and local blood flow. By contrast, activating beta cells by increasing glucose concentration inhibits pericytes, dilates islet capillaries, and increases local blood flow. These effects on pericytes are mediated by endogenous adenosine, which is likely derived from ATP co-released with insulin. Pericyte coverage of islet capillaries drops drastically in type 2 diabetes, suggesting that, under diabetic conditions, islets lose this mechanism to control their own blood supply. This may lead to inadequate insulin release into the circulation, further deteriorating glycemic control.

Vitamin A deficiency induces endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis in pancreatic islet cells: Implications of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1-mediated oleic acid synthesis

Previously, we reported that vitamin A deficiency resulted in the reduction of stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) and monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) levels, which corroborated with attenuation of high fructose-induced hepatic steatosis. Here, we aimed at assessing the effect of vitamin A deficiency on SCD1, MUFA levels and their impact on pancreas' structure and functions. Male weanling Wistar rats fed one of the four diets, namely control (Con), vitamin A-deficient (VAD), highfructose (HFr) and vitamin A-deficient diet with highfructose (VADHFr) for 16 weeks period. Compared to the control, feeding of VAD diet (alone or with HFr) resulted in pancreatic intra-islet vessel dilation and reduced plasma insulin, glucagon and C-peptide levels, however, glucose levels decreased only in VADHFr group. In line with plasma levels, VAD diet-fed animals displayed lower immunostaining for insulin and glucagon, which corroborated with increased apoptotic staining observed in the islet regions, possibly due to increased cellular stress, as indicated by high immunostaining for endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and CCAAT/Enhancer-binding protein homologues protein (CHOP). On the other hand, it significantly decreased the SCD1 protein, which corroborated with reduced MUFA levels, particularly, oleic acid (C18:1), when compared to the control and HFr groups. In conclusion, chronic vitamin A deficiency altered the structure and functions of pancreas by diminishing the islet cells, possibly by inducing cellular stress-mediated apoptosis and decreasing SCD1-mediated oleic acid (C18:1) synthesis. Thus, the data suggest that unlike liver, the reduction in SCD1 and MUFA levels in the pancreas exerts deleterious effects on its functions and perturb the overall cellular metabolism.

Microphysiological Analysis Platform of Pancreatic Islet β-Cell Spheroids

The hallmarks of diabetics are insufficient secretion of insulin and dysregulation of glucagon. It is critical to understand release mechanisms of insulin, glucagon, and other hormones from the islets of Langerhans. In spite of remarkable advancements in diabetes research and practice, robust and reproducible models that can measure pancreatic β-cell function are lacking. Here, a microphysiological analysis platform (MAP) that allows the uniform 3D spheroid formation of pancreatic β-cell islets, large-scale morphological phenotyping, and gene expression mapping of chronic glycemia and lipidemia development is reported. The MAP enables the scaffold-free formation of densely packed β-cell spheroids (i.e., multiple array of 110 bioreactors) surrounded with a perfusion flow network inspired by physiologically relevant microenvironment. The MAP permits dynamic perturbations on the β-cell spheroids and the precise controls of glycemia and lipidemia, which allow us to confirm that cellular apoptosis in the β-cell spheroid under hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia is mostly dependent to a reactive oxygen species-induced caspase-mediated pathway. The β-cells' MAP might provide a potential new map in the pathophysiological mechanisms of β cells.