Executive functions in children: associations with aggressive behavior and appraisal processing

Detecting social information processing profiles of boys with aggressive behavior problems: An interactive virtual reality approach

Children with aggressive behavior problems may aggress for different reasons, requiring tailored assessment and treatment. The aim of this study was to test whether it is possible to detect distinct social information processing (SIP) profiles among boys with aggressive behavior problems. We therefore conducted Latent Profile Analyses on boys' SIP patterns assessed in interactive virtual reality. Additionally, we examined the discriminant validity of these SIP profiles by comparing them on theoretically relevant child characteristics (i.e., temperament, executive functioning, aggressive belief systems, punishment insensitivity, sensation seeking). We presented boys (N = 181; ages 7-13) with a virtual classroom where they could play games with virtual peers. They reported on their SIP in four virtual reality scenarios, designed to assess reactive and proactive aggressive SIP. Results revealed four distinct SIP profiles: a general reactive SIP profile, a situation-specific reactive SIP profile, a mixed reactive-proactive SIP profile, and a nonaggressive SIP profile. Planned contrasts revealed that boys with these SIP profiles differed in temperament, aggressive belief systems, and punishment insensitivity, but not in executive functioning and sensation seeking. Overall, findings suggest that boys differ in the exact SIP patterns underlying their aggressive behavior, providing inroads to tailor interventions to children's individual needs.

Mindful Coping Power Effects on Children's Autonomic Nervous System Functioning and Long-Term Behavioral Outcomes

Mindful Coping Power (MCP) was developed to enhance the effects of the Coping Power (CP) preventive intervention on children's reactive aggression by integrating mindfulness training into CP. In prior pre-post analyses in a randomized trial of 102 children, MCP improved children's self-reported anger modulation, self-regulation, and embodied awareness relative to CP but had fewer comparative effects on parent- and teacher-reported observable behavioral outcomes, including reactive aggression. It was hypothesized that MCP-produced improvements in children's internal awareness and self-regulation, if maintained or strengthened over time with ongoing mindfulness practice, would yield improvements in children's observable prosocial and reactive aggressive behavior at later time points. To appraise this hypothesis, the current study examined teacher-reported child behavioral outcomes at a one-year follow-up. In the current subsample of 80 children with one-year follow-up data, MCP produced a significant improvement in children's social skills and a statistical trend for a reduction in reactive aggression compared with CP. Further, MCP produced improvements in children's autonomic nervous system functioning compared with CP from pre- to post-intervention, with a significant effect on children's skin conductance reactivity during an arousal task. Mediation analyses found that MCP-produced improvements in inhibitory control at post-intervention mediated program effects on reactive aggression at the one-year follow-up. Within-person analyses with the full sample (MCP and CP) found that improvements in respiratory sinus arrhythmia reactivity were associated with improvements in reactive aggression at the one-year follow-up. Together, these findings indicate that MCP is an important new preventive tool to improve embodied awareness, self-regulation, stress physiology, and observable long-term behavioral outcomes in at-risk youth. Further, children's inhibitory control and autonomic nervous system functioning emerged as key targets for preventive intervention.

Inhibitory Control in Early Childhood Aggression Subtypes: Mediation by Irritability

The present study tested irritability as a mediator of inhibitory control's (IC) associations with crossed form and function aggression subtypes over one year in early childhood (N = 300, M_age = 44.70 months, SD = 4.38 months). We hypothesized lower IC would predict increases in irritability, which would in turn predict increases in aggression overall (severity) and a predominance of reactive over proactive subtypes (directionality), and considered moderation by gender. Irritability mediated IC's relations in the predicted direction for physical severity for girls only and relational severity for both genders. Lower IC predicted increases in irritability, which in turn predicted increasing predominance of reactive over proactive physical and relational aggression. The predicted indirect effect was significant for physical but not relational directionality. Findings highlight the viability of directionality scores for disentangling these effects, and that developmental associations between IC, irritability, and reactive functions of aggression are evident in early childhood.

Childhood executive control and adolescent substance use initiation: the mediating roles of physical and relational aggression and prosocial behavior

Although predictive associations between childhood executive control (EC) and adolescent substance use have been established in prior research, the developmental pathways involved in these long-term links have not been well understood. The goal of the current study was to investigate the degree to which aggressive behaviors, including both physical and relational aggression, and prosocial behaviors in elementary school operate as developmental pathways between preschool EC and adolescent substance use, while accounting for participants' age, sex, family history of substance use, and family socioeconomic status. Participants were 329 youth (49% male; 63.6% European American) who were recruited to participate in a study between 2006 and 2012 while youth were in preschool and elementary school and followed into adolescence. The sample was recruited from a small Midwestern city in the United States. EC was assessed with performance-based tasks when children were 5 years 3 months. Youth behaviors with peers were reported by teachers when participants were in elementary school. Self-reports of the substance use initiation (e-cigarettes, cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana) were obtained in adolescence via phone surveys. Mediation analyses revealed a statistically significant indirect effect from preschool EC to adolescent substance use through youth's engagement in relational aggression in elementary school (b = > -0.22 [-0.51; -0.08]; β = > -0.18). Our results suggest that developmental pathways to adolescent substance use may begin in preschool, setting the stage for susceptibility to engagement in relational aggression, which increases, in turn, youth's likelihood for substance use initiation in adolescence.

Nonpartner Violence Perpetration Among Emerging Adults: Associations With Polysubstance Use and Trait Mindfulness

Objective

Violence is a leading cause of death among individuals ages 18-25, with alcohol misuse consistently linked with violence perpetration. However, the association between polysubstance use and violence perpetration is less clear, despite the frequency of use of alcohol with other drugs. Additionally, protective factors such as mindfulness that may reduce violence perpetration among emerging adults have been understudied. This cross-sectional study examined the association between substance use, trait mindfulness, and violence perpetration outside of romantic relationships, utilizing a compensatory model of resilience.

Methods

Data were drawn from a sample of 665 emerging adults ages 18-25, recruited from an urban Emergency Department (68% men). Participants self-administered a computer survey that assessed non-partner violence perpetration (NPV), alcohol use, marijuana use, prescription drug misuse, and trait mindfulness. Fifteen percent reported non-partner violence perpetration over the past six months.

Results

Multivariate logistic regression tested associations between violence perpetration, substance use, trait mindfulness, and demographic characteristics. Results showed that alcohol use alone (OR= 3.04), prescription opioid use alone (OR = 3.58), alcohol and marijuana use (OR = 3.75), and use of all three substances (OR= 7.78) were positively associated with violence perpetration. Post-hoc contrasts demonstrated the polysubstance use significantly increased risk over single substance use. Trait mindfulness (OR= 0.97) was negatively associated with violence perpetration after controlling for substance use.

Conclusions

Findings suggest that polysubstance use may increase risk for violence. Interventions that address polysubstance use, potentially including mindfulness, could reduce non-partner violence perpetration among emerging adults and requires further study.

The relationship between social creativity and aggressive behavior among Chinese junior high school students: The moderating role of hostile attribution bias

Recently, research has begun to pay attention to the dark side of creativity. This research attempted to explore the association between social creativity and aggressive behavior as well as the moderating role of hostile attribution bias. Data were obtained from 496 junior high school students in two cities in China using a convenience sampling technique. The results showed that different aspects of social creativity were different related to aggressive behavior. Specifically, appropriateness was negatively, and harmfulness was positively related to aggressive behavior; However, the relation between originality and aggressive behavior was not significant. In addition, hostile attribution bias moderated the relationships between appropriateness/harmfulness and aggressive behavior. Specifically, the negative relation between appropriateness and aggressive behavior as well as the positive relation between harmfulness and aggressive behavior became non-significant when hostile attribution bias was low. Implications of this study are also discussed.

Executive Function in Kindergarten and the Development of Behavior Competence: Moderating Role of Positive Parenting Practices

The present study used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 2011 (N = 15,827; 51.1% male; 48.4% White, 13.5% Black/African-American, 24.3% Hispanic/Latino, 7.5% Asian, and 6.3% other ethnicity) to examine the unique contribution of specific executive function processes (working memory and cognitive flexibility) at kindergarten entry on externalizing and internalizing behavior problems in spring of kindergarten, after controlling for fall behavior problems and demographic covariates. Due to the transition to elementary school being a critical identification and prevention period, we also focused on examining the moderating role of specific positive parenting practices (i.e., cognitive stimulation, warmth, and behavior management) on associations between child executive function processes and behavioral functioning. Results indicated working memory was negatively associated with parent-reported externalizing and teacher-rated internalizing behavior problems. Further, the association between working memory and parent-rated externalizing problems was moderated by cognitive stimulation, whereas the association between parent-rated internalizing problems was moderated by behavior management. Cognitive flexibility did not have any significant associations. We discuss implications for research and practice on how parenting practices may be leveraged to improve child outcomes.

The relation between harsh parenting and bullying involvement and the moderating role of child inhibitory control: A population-based study

Harsh parenting has been linked to children's bullying involvement in three distinct roles: perpetrators, targets (of bullying), and perpetrator‐targets. To understand how the same parenting behavior is associated with three different types of bulling involvement, we examined the moderating roles of children's inhibitory control and sex. In addition, we differentiated between mothers’ and fathers’ harsh parenting. We analyzed multi‐informant questionnaire data from 2131 families participating in the Dutch Generation R birth cohort study. When children were three years old, parents reported on their own harsh parenting practices. When children were four, mothers reported on their children's inhibitory control. At child age six, teachers reported on children's bullying involvement. Our results revealed that fathers’, and not mothers’, harsh parenting increased the odds of being a perpetrator. No moderation effects with children's inhibitory control and sex were found for the likelihood of being a perpetrator. Moderation effects were present for the likelihood of being a target and a perpetrator‐target, albeit only with mothers’ harsh parenting. Specifically, for boys with lower‐level inhibitory control problems, mothers’ harsh parenting increased the odds of being a target. In contrast, for boys with higher‐level inhibitory control problems, mothers’ harsh parenting decreased the odds of being a target. Furthermore, for girls with higher‐level inhibitory control problems, mothers’ harsh parenting increased the odds of being a perpetrator‐target. Overall, our results underscore the importance of differentiating by children's cognitive skills and by parent and child sex to fully understand how harsh parenting and bullying involvement are related.

Structural Relationships among Household Chaos, Maternal Negative Parenting, Child Executive Function, and Child Aggression

Objectives: This study aimed to identify the structural relationships among household chaos, maternal negative parenting behavior, child execution function, and child aggression; further, it demonstrates the mediating effects of maternal negative parenting and child execution function on the relationship between household chaos and child aggression.Methods: The participants comprised 206 children, aged between 3 and 5, and their mothers. This study observed Cronbach’ α and the descriptive statistics and performed frequency analysis, one-way random analysis, and partial correlation analysis via SPSS 20.0 program. The bootstrapping method was used to examine the mediating effect while the structural equation model analysis was performed using AMOS 22.0.Results: First, child aggression was positively associated with household chaos, mother’s intrusiveness, coercion, and neglect parenting but negatively associated with child inhibition, transition, working memory, and satisfaction delay tasks. Second, maternal negative parenting and child executive function were shown to mediate sequentially in the relationship between household chaos and child aggression. It was also found that maternal negative parenting and child executive function were partially mediated in the relationship between household chaos and child aggression.Conclusion: The data suggest the importance of mediating the effects of maternal negative parenting and child executive function on the relationship between household chaos and child aggression. These findings could highlight the significance of child executive function for the development of aggression and provide the basic data for the program to help those children who show aggressive behaviors in their early childhood educational institutions along with the evidence of parental education programs.

Network-wise surface-based morphometric insight into the cortical neural circuitry underlying irritability in adolescents

Previous studies examining structural brain correlates of irritability have taken a region-specific approach and have been relatively inconsistent. In a sample of adolescents with and without clinically impairing irritability, the current study examines: (i) cortical volume (CV) in canonical functional networks; (ii) the association between the CV of functional networks and severity of irritability; and (iii) the extent to which IQ mediates the association between structural abnormalities and severity of irritability. Structural MRI and IQ data were collected from 130 adolescents with high irritability (mean age = 15.54±1.83 years, 58 females, self-reported Affective Reactivity Index [ARI] ≥ 4) and 119 adolescents with low irritability (mean age = 15.10±1.93 years, 39 females, self-reported ARI < 4). Subject-specific network-wise CV was estimated after parcellating the whole brain into 17 previously reported functional networks. Our Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) revealed that adolescents with high irritability had significantly reduced CV of the bilateral control and default-mode networks (p < 0.05) relative to adolescents with low irritability. Multiple regression analyses showed a significant negative association between the control network CV and the severity of irritability. Mediation analysis showed that IQ partially mediated the association between the control network CV and the severity of irritability. Follow-up analysis on subcortical volume (SCV) showed that adolescents with high irritability had reduced bilateral SCV within the amygdala relative to adolescents with low irritability. Reduced CV within bilateral control and default networks and reduced SCV within bilateral amygdala may represent core features of the pathophysiology of irritability. The current data also indicate the potential importance of a patient's IQ in determining how pathophysiology related to the control network is expressed.

Parsing Associations Between Dimensions of Empathy and Reactive and Proactive Aggression

The broad dimension of empathy has been shown to underlie various forms of psychopathology, most extensively studied for the externalizing spectrum of psychopathology. However, associations between subdimensions of empathy and functions of aggression remain unclear. The current study (N = 409) aimed to investigate common and specific associations between a higher-order model of aggression, comprising reactive aggression (RA) and proactive aggression (PA) factors with an overarching general aggression factor, and item-level factor analytically derived dimensions of empathy: affective/self-oriented empathy and cognitive/other-oriented empathy. Results demonstrated specific and opposing associations between dimensions of empathy and the general aggression factor, such that affective/self-oriented empathy was positively associated, and cognitive/other-oriented empathy was negatively associated with general aggression. Affective/self-oriented empathy was positively associated with RA, whereas cognitive/other-oriented empathy was negatively associated with RA and PA. Results confirm the importance of considering the multidimensionality of empathy and aggression and suggest both common and distinct pathways from empathy to aggression.

Community Violence Exposure and Youth Aggression: The Moderating Role of Working Memory

Community violence exposure (CVE) is associated with aggression among youth, particularly those who reside in low-income, urban neighborhoods. However, not all youth who experience CVE exhibit aggression. Working memory (WM) difficulties may interfere with attributions or retrieval of nonaggressive responses, suggesting that individual differences in WM may contribute to proactive and/or reactive aggression among youth who experience CVE. Participants were 104 low-income, urban youth (M = 9.92 ± 1.22 years old; 50.5% male; 95% African American). Youth reported on frequency of direct victimization and witnessing of violence in the community and completed two WM tasks. Teachers reported on youth proactive and reactive aggression. WM moderated the relation between direct victimization and proactive and reactive aggression, and between witnessing violence and reactive aggression. Among youth reporting less frequent victimization and witnessing, lower WM was associated with higher levels of proactive and reactive aggression. Among youth reporting more frequent direct victimization, lower WM was associated with higher levels of proactive aggression. Proactive and reactive aggression levels were similar among youth reporting more frequent witnessing regardless of WM levels. WM represents a potential target for early identification and intervention efforts to reduce reactive and proactive aggression among low-income, urban youth who are at elevated risk for CVE.

Mindful Coping Power: Comparative Effects on Children's Reactive Aggression and Self-Regulation

Coping Power (CP) is an evidence-based preventive intervention for youth with disruptive behavior problems. This study examined whether Mindful Coping Power (MCP), a novel adaptation which integrates mindfulness into CP, enhances program effects on children’s reactive aggression and self-regulation. A pilot randomized design was utilized to estimate the effect sizes for MCP versus CP in a sample of 102 child participants (fifth grade students, predominantly low-middle income, 87% Black). MCP produced significantly greater improvement in children’s self-reported dysregulation (emotional, behavioral, cognitive) than CP, including children’s perceived anger modulation. Small to moderate effects favoring MCP were also observed for improvements in child-reported inhibitory control and breath awareness and parent-reported child attentional capacity and social skills. MCP did not yield a differential effect on teacher-rated reactive aggression. CP produced a stronger effect than MCP on parent-reported externalizing behavior problems. Although MCP did not enhance program effects on children’s reactive aggression as expected, it did have enhancing effects on children’s internal, embodied experiences (self-regulation, anger modulation, breath awareness). Future studies are needed to compare MCP and CP in a large scale, controlled efficacy trial and to examine whether MCP-produced improvements in children’s internal experiences lead to improvements in their observable behavior over time.

Relationship Between Parent and Teacher Reported Executive Functioning and Maladaptive Behaviors in Children With Down Syndrome

The current study evaluates the concurrent relationship between parent ratings of executive functioning and maladaptive behavior among children and adolescents with Down syndrome and then repeats this evaluation using teacher reports. Parents and teachers of 63 school-age children with Down syndrome rated the child's executive functioning (Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function) and behaviors (Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist). For parent and teacher ratings, elevated behavior dysregulation predicted higher levels of rule-breaking, aggressive, and externalizing behavior. For teacher ratings, elevated behavior dysregulation also predicted higher levels of inattention problems. Among both parent and teacher ratings, greater metacognitive difficulties predicted challenges with attention. Understanding the relationship between these constructs has important implications for targets of intervention and developing preventative strategies.

Cardiac Autonomic Function and Psychological Characteristics of Heterosexual Female Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Physical Aggression

Intimate partner violence is predominantly viewed as a social problem of men's violence against women. However, a growing evidence base suggests an equal prevalence rate for male and female perpetrated intimate partner physical aggression. Moreover, female perpetrated intimate partner violence is often assumed to be reactive, yet there is limited evidence to support this notion. In this article, we describe the results of two studies that investigated the prevalence of female perpetrated intimate partner physical aggression, and its correlates in heterosexual female university students. The relationships of personality traits, resting heart rate, and heart rate variability (a correlate of vagal activity) were compared between females who did and did not report having engaged in intimate partner physical aggression. In Study 1, we found that 30.9% of participants reported enacting intimate partner physical aggression during the preceding 12 months. This finding suggests that a considerable number of undergraduate females aggress against their intimate partners. Perpetrators, relative to nonperpetrators, scored higher on secondary psychopathic traits. In Study 2, female intimate partner violence was shown to be associated with low resting heart rate and high heart rate variability. Perpetrators, relative to nonperpetrators, scored higher on psychopathic traits that index emotional resilience and unempathic tendencies, and reported increased proactive and reactive aggression. This raises the possibility that some incidences of female intimate partner physical aggression represent proactive aggressive acts. These findings also support the frequently found association between low resting heart rate and aggression, but raise the prospect that the reported aggressive acts reflect high heart rate variability and strong parasympathetic nervous system activity.

Reading Deficits, Executive Functions, and Social Adjustment Problems: Direct and Mediated Relations

The main objective of the present study was to examine the direct and indirect relations between reading deficits, executive functions, and social adjustment problems in a sample of 210 adolescents. Results demonstrated significant positive correlations between reading deficits, executive function deficits, and social adjustment problems. Furthermore, the findings from two multimediation models indicated that, of three behavioral regulation deficits, inhibition, and, of five metacognitive deficits, initiate and working memory were significant mediators of the reading deficit-social adjustment problem association. We conclude that specific executive function deficits explain the association between reading deficits and social adjustment problems. Implications of the current findings are discussed along with suggestions for interventions to improve reading abilities and executive functions to make adolescents better able to adjust in their social context.

Childhood Cognitive Flexibility and Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior Problems: Examination of Prospective Bidirectional Associations

The goal of this study was to examine reciprocal associations between cognitive flexibility and externalizing and internalizing behavior problems longitudinally using data on four occasions from kindergarten through first grade and test for potential gender differences in these associations. The Dimensional Change Card Sort task was used to assess children's cognitive flexibility as a measure of executive function. Participants were 12,462 kindergarteners (49% female) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS-K: 2011). Results from multivariate latent curve models with structured residuals revealed that children's cognitive flexibility at the beginning of kindergarten was not associated with their growth in either externalizing (r = -0.01, p = .174), or internalizing (r = -0.03, p = .403) problems between kindergarten and the end of first grade. However, after controlling for individual differences in growth, cognitive flexibility at each assessment directly contributed to subsequent lower levels of internalizing (but not externalizing) behavior problems at the next assessment (b = -0.004, p = 0.013; β = -0.03), suggesting that children who are more flexible in switching from one activity to another may be less prone to developing internalizing problems. At kindergarten entry boys had lower levels of cognitive flexibility (b = -0.31, p < .001, β = -.12) and higher levels of externalizing (b = 0.25, p < .001, β = .23), and internalizing problems(b = 0.04, p = 001, β = .05) compared to girls, but did not differ from girls in their rates of change in cognitive flexibility and externalizing or internalizing behavior problems.

Prenatal risk and physical aggression during the first years of life: The gender-specific role of inhibitory control

Prenatal risk and a lack of inhibitory control have consistently been related to the development of physical aggression in older children. This study examined whether inhibitory control mediated the relation between prenatal risk and aggression in infants and toddlers. The role of gender in this mediation model was also examined. The sample consisted of 161 mother-child dyads (83 boys). A prenatal cumulative risk score was created from a number of well-established risk factors including maternal psychopathology, substance use, and social and socioeconomic disadvantages. At 12 months, children performed an inhibitory control task. Physical aggression was assessed through maternal reports at 12 and 20 months of age. Results showed that higher prenatal risk was associated with more physical aggression. Inhibitory control mediated this association at both 12 and 20 months: higher prenatal risk was related to lower inhibitory control, which in turn led to higher aggression. At 20 months, gender moderated the mediation effect: the mediating role of inhibitory control was only found for girls. These results suggest that even before 2 years of age, inhibitory control is an important construct involved in the relation between prenatal risk and physical aggression.

Relationships between childhood maltreatment, impairment in executive functions and disruptive behavior disorders in a community sample of children

Evidence points to an independent relationship among childhood maltreatment, impairments in executive functions (EF) and disruptive behavior disorders (DBD). However, it is still not fully understood how these three factors are interrelated. This study evaluated the association between childhood maltreatment and DBD testing the role of EF performance as a mediator or moderator. We studied a probabilistic school-based sample of 2016 children from 6 to 12 years. Mental disorders were assessed using the Development and Well-Being Assessment with parents and children. Children answered questions about exposure to child maltreatment and were evaluated with a set of cognitive tasks addressing inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility and planning. Childhood maltreatment was strongly associated with DBD (OR = 7.7, CI 95% 4.5-12.9). No association was found between childhood maltreatment and EF performance. Children with DBD showed worse performance in cognitive flexibility, which was not identified as a mediator or moderator of the association between childhood maltreatment and DBD. Results indicate that the association between maltreatment and disruptive behavior occurs regardless of performance in executive function in a community sample. Future studies are essential to confirm these findings and elucidate the cognitive mechanisms involved in this association.

The Role of Inhibitory Control, Attention and Vocabulary in Physical Aggression Trajectories From Infancy to Toddlerhood

Physical aggression has its origin very early in development, but no studies to date have examined physical aggression trajectories starting before the age of 1.5 years. This study examined whether cognition plays a role in the development of physical aggression from infancy onward. In a sample of 182 mother-child dyads (94 boys; 88 girls), child physical aggression was assessed by maternal report using the Physical Aggression Scale for Early Childhood at 12, 20, and 30 months. Children performed cognitive tasks measuring inhibitory control and attention, and mothers rated children's vocabulary at 12 and 30 months. Results showed that differential development of physical aggression already starts at 12 months of age: low-stable, low-increasing, moderate-decreasing and high-stable trajectory groups were identified. Inhibitory control, attention and vocabulary at 12 months and development of these abilities from 12 to 30 months were selectively related to the likelihood of following the low-increasing and moderate-decreasing trajectories compared to the low-stable physical aggression trajectory. This study is the first to show that specific aspects of cognition and cognitive development are related to differential physical aggression development from infancy onward.

Caregivers' Grit Moderates the Relationship Between Children's Executive Function and Aggression

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have shown that the impairment of executive function is positively related to aggression in children and adolescents. What is worth investigating is the moderator of such a relationship so that aggressive behavior can be reduced effectively in those who have executive function problems. The present study examined the association between executive function and two major subtypes of aggression (proactive and reactive aggression) and whether their caregivers' grit (perseverance) moderated such relationship.

METHOD

Executive function and reactive and proactive aggression were assessed in 254 children and adolescents aged 8-19 years old, and their caregivers' grit was measured.

RESULTS

Results show that caregivers' grit plays a significant role in moderating the relationship between children's executive function and proactive aggression after controlling for the covariates including the children's age, gender, and family income. Specifically, children's executive function became more negatively associated with proactive aggression when caregivers' grit was high while the association was positive when it was low. On the other hand, the association between children's executive function and reactive aggression did not vary across different levels of caregivers' grit.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that proactive aggression may be reduced in those who have better executive function by enhancing their caregivers' grit, which inform the design of interventions in adjunct with the current approach (e.g., executive function training) to reduce aggression in children and adolescents in the community.

Executive Functions and Emotion Regulation in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Borderline Intellectual Disability

The main objective of this study is to investigate the multiple relations and to determine the differences between executive functions (EFs), emotion regulation, and behavioral and emotional problems in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), borderline intellectual disability (ID), and typical development (TD). The sample included 85 children aged 6 to 11 years, 42 with typical development (TD), 27 with ADHD, and 16 with borderline ID. The results emphasized a positive correlation between adaptive emotion regulation strategies and EFs, and no significant relations between the maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and EFs. In addition, the executive function of planning correlated negatively with anxiety, ADHD symptoms, and conduct problems. The performance of both clinical groups regarding EFs was significantly lower than that of the TD group, and they differed significantly from each other only on visual attention. The presence of oppositional-defiant and conduct problems was higher in both clinical groups than in the TD group, and more anxiety symptoms were reported in children with ADHD. This study supports the idea that emotion regulation, Efs, and clinical symptoms are interconnected. It also profiles the deficits in cognitive functioning and emotion regulation in two clinical groups, thus helping future intervention programs.

Callous-Unemotional Traits and Executive Functions are Unique Correlates of Disruptive Behavior in Children

This study examined the influence of executive functions on the association between callous-unemotional traits and severity and type of childhood disruptive behavior. Eighty one children aged 8-12 years and their parents participated in the study. We assessed children's callous-unemotional traits, executive functions, and two indices of disruptive behavior. Callous-unemotional traits and parent ratings of executive dysfunction were uniquely correlated with elevated conduct problems and oppositional and defiant behavior. Neither performance-based measures, nor parent ratings of executive function, moderated the association between callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior. Study findings suggest that executive functions and callous-unemotional traits may impact children's behavior independently.

Theoretical Model of Mindful Coping Power: Optimizing a Cognitive Behavioral Program for High-Risk Children and Their Parents by Integrating Mindfulness

This paper describes a theoretical model of Mindful Coping Power, a preventive intervention targeting high-risk children and their parents. Mindful Coping Power integrated mindfulness into Coping Power, an evidence-based cognitive behavioral intervention. Reactive aggression is emotionally driven, impulsive, and often referred to as being "hot-blooded." It has been resistant to change, given the high level of emotional arousal and impulsive angry outbursts. Our premise is that mindfulness impacts the mechanisms of reactive aggression-attentional, cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dysregulation. Also in the model are parents who exhibit emotionally charged interactions with their child. Mindful parenting focuses on parents' own emotional self-regulation and being fully present with their child. Our model sets the stage for incorporating mindfulness into existing interventions, thereby optimizing programs and maximizing effects.

Exploring Traumatic Brain Injuries and Aggressive Antisocial Behaviors in Young Male Violent Offenders

Background: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of disabilities and mortality worldwide, with higher prevalence in offender populations than in the general population. Previous research has strongly advocated increased awareness of TBI in offender populations. The aim of this study was to explore the prevalence and characteristics of TBI, and to investigate associations and interactions between TBI, aggressive antisocial behaviors, general intellectual functioning, and substance use disorders (SUD) in a well-characterized group of young violent offenders. Methods: The study investigated a cohort (n = 269) of 18 to 25-year-old male violent offenders in Sweden. Data on TBI (files + self-report), aggressive antisocial behaviors (Life History of Aggression), SUD (clinical interviews), and general intellectual functioning (General Ability Index, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales Third Edition) were collected between 2010 and 2012. Parametric (Student's t-test) and non-parametric (Mann-Whitney U-test, Spearman's rho, χ², Kruskal Wallis test) inferential statistics were applied and effect sizes reported. Results: TBI, both with and without loss of consciousness, was common, with 77.5% of the offenders reporting having suffered at least one TBI during their lifetime. TBI was associated with an increased occurrence of aggressive antisocial behaviors and SUD, and offenders with both TBI and SUD evidenced the largest amount of aggressive antisocial behaviors. No clinically meaningful associations were found between TBI and general intelligence. Effect sizes were in the small to medium range. Conclusions: Our study confirms an increased prevalence of TBI among young violent offenders compared to the general population, as well as associations between TBI, aggressive antisocial behaviors, and SUD. However, it provides no information on the severity of the TBI, nor on the causality of the demonstrated associations. Nevertheless, TBI, and possible related deficits, need to be considered in the assessment and treatment of young violent offenders.

The Computations of hostile biases (CHB) model: Grounding hostility biases in a unified cognitive framework

Our behavior is partly a product of our perception of the world, and aggressive individuals have been found to have 'hostility biases' in their perception and interpretation of social information. Four types of hostility biases can be distinguished: the hostile attribution, interpretation, expectation, and perception bias. Such low-level biases are believed to have a profound influence on decision-making, and possibly also increase the likelihood of engaging in aggressive acts. The current review systematically examined extant research on the four types of hostility bias, with a particular focus on the associations between each type of hostility bias and aggressive behavior. The results confirmed the robust association between hostility biases and aggressive behavior. However, it is still unknown how exactly hostility biases are acquired. This is also caused by a tendency to study hostility biases separately, as if they are non-interacting phenomena. Another issue is that current approaches cannot directly quantify the latent cognitive processes pertaining to the hostility biases, thus creating an explanatory gap. To fill this gap, we embedded the results of the systematic review in a state-of-the-art computational framework, which provides a novel mechanistic account with testable predictions.

The interplay between self-regulation and affectivity in binge eating among adolescents

Binge eating among adolescents is associated with negative developmental outcomes. From a cognitive perspective, the role of impaired self-regulation is increasingly emphasized as an underlying factor in binge eating, whereas the affect regulation model proposes that affectivity is a key factor in explaining binge eating. Studies combining both perspectives are scarce, but necessary to add to the understanding of this pathological eating behavior. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate unique and joint contributions of both factors in understanding binge eating among adolescents. Participants were 301 adolescents (10-17 years; 67.2% girls; M_age = 13.46 years; SD = 1.99) from the general community. Adolescents self-reported on different types of binge eating episodes (loss of control over eating in general, objective and subjective binge eating in particular), self-regulation (general self-regulation and inhibitory control) and affectivity (positive and negative). The parents were questioned about their children's self-regulatory capacities. Results revealed main effects of self-regulatory capacities (adolescent report) and negative affectivity in predicting objective binge eating. In addition, negative affectivity interacted with self-regulation (parent report) to predict objective binge eating, whereas positive affectivity interacted with self-regulation (adolescent report) to predict subjective binge eating. No significant effects were found for loss of control over eating specifically. Both self-regulation and affectivity each make unique as well as joint contributions to binge eating among adolescents, with results differing across types of binge eating episodes and informants. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Hostile Intent Attribution and Aggressive Behavior in Children Revisited: A Meta-Analysis

To test specific hypotheses about the relation between hostile intent attribution (HIA) and children’s aggressive behavior, a multilevel meta‐analysis was conducted on 111 studies with 219 effect sizes and 29.272 participants. A positive association between HIA and aggression was found, but effect sizes varied widely between studies. Results suggested that HIA is a general disposition guiding behavior across a broad variety of contexts, whereas the strength of the relation between HIA and aggression depends on the level of emotional engagement. The relation is stronger for more reliable HIA measures, but is not stronger for reactive aggression or co‐morbid attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder than for aggression in general. The importance of understanding specific moderators of effect size for theory development is discussed.

A Model of Aggressive Behavior: Early Adversity, Impulsivity, and Response Inhibition

Exposure to adverse environments during childhood is robustly linked to future aggressive behavior. In this study we tested a model of emotional and neurocognitive mechanisms related to aggressive behavior in the context of childhood adversity. More specifically, we used path analysis to assess the distal contribution of childhood adversity and the more proximal contributions of emotion-related and non-emotion-related forms of impulsivity, and behavioral response inhibition to aggressive behavior. Participants were 180 undergraduates who completed well-validated self-report measures and an emotional version of the Go/No-Go task. The structural equation model was a poor fit for the data (χ²(3) = 23.023, p <. 001; RMR = .131; CFI = .682; RMSEA = .142), though several significant paths emerged. Childhood adversity, emotion-related impulsivity, and behavioral response inhibition displayed direct effects on aggression, collectively accounting for 16.3% of variance. Findings demonstrate the specificity of emotional subtypes of impulsivity in linking childhood adversity and aggression. This study extends work on pathways to aggressive behavior by illustrating the complex relationships of early environmental, cognitive, and emotional mechanisms related to aggression.

Early Neglect and the Development of Aggression in Toddlerhood: The Role of Working Memory

Previous research has provided evidence for the robust relation between maltreatment and the development of externalizing behavior, including aggression. However, less empirical attention has been given to the specific role of neglect. The current study aimed to examine the role of working memory in the association between early neglect and aggression in toddlerhood. Longitudinal data were collected from 89 infants and their biological mothers when the infant was approximately 12, 26, and 38 months old. History of neglect was assessed at 12 months using official Child Protective Service records. Working memory and mental development were assessed at 26 months. Aggression was measured using maternal report at 38 months. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling, and mediation was tested using 95% asymmetric confidence intervals. Results indicated that infants who experienced neglect exhibited poorer working memory abilities, specifically spatial working memory, and higher rates of aggression in toddlerhood. In addition, spatial working memory mediated the relation between neglect and aggression, suggesting that this may be one promising target for intervention.

Parental Warmth and Hostility and Child Executive Function Problems: A Longitudinal Study of Chinese Families

This study examined the longitudinal associations of maternal and paternal warmth and hostility with child executive function problems. Data were collected for two consecutive years from 333 kindergarten children who resided in Hong Kong, China, as well as their mothers, fathers, and class teachers. At Time 1, the average age of children was 57.73 months, and 56% of them were girls. At Time 1, mothers and fathers rated their own parenting practices with their children. At Times 1 and 2, class teachers rated children’s problems in three aspects of executive functions, including updating/working memory, inhibition, and shifting/cognitive flexibility. As control variables, at Time 1, parents provided information on child and family demographic factors, and children completed verbal ability tasks. Multilevel modeling revealed that controlling for child and family demographic factors, child verbal abilities, and paternal parenting practices, maternal hostility, but not maternal warmth, was linked to increases in child inhibition and shifting/cognitive flexibility problems. Moreover, paternal hostility, but not paternal warmth, was linked to increases in updating/working memory problems. Theoretically, this study highlighted the importance of considering the contributions of both mothers and fathers, and differentiating between positive and negative aspects of parenting, when examining the development of child executive functions. Practically, this study pointed to the utility of targeting maternal and paternal hostility in family intervention and community education in order to reduce child executive function problems.

Two subtypes of psychopathic criminals differ in negative affect and history of childhood abuse

OBJECTIVE

Specification of the etiological mechanisms underlying psychopathy is a key step in developing more effective methods for preventing and remediating the callous and impulsive behavior that characterizes the disorder. Theoretical conceptualizations of psychopathic subtypes propose that a primary variant largely stems from impoverished affect, whereas a secondary variant is hypothesized to develop subsequent to adverse environmental experiences (e.g., childhood maltreatment). However, there has been a dearth of research demonstrating that psychopathic subtypes actually differ in terms of experienced childhood maltreatment in an adult offender population.

METHOD

The current study employed model-based cluster analysis (MBCA) in a sample of incarcerated, psychopathic males (n = 110) to identify subtypes of psychopathic offenders based on a broad personality assessment.

RESULTS

Two subgroups emerged: 1 with high levels of negative affect (high-NA) and 1 with low levels of negative affect (low-NA). The high-NA subgroup scored significantly higher on measures of childhood maltreatment.

CONCLUSION

These results provide support for theoretical conceptualizations of psychopathic subtypes, suggesting that psychopathic offenders with high levels of negative affect experience a greater degree of childhood maltreatment. (PsycINFO Database Record

Executive Functioning and Engagement in Physical and Relational Aggression among Children with ADHD

Although evidence suggests that executive functioning (EF) impairments are implicated in physically aggressive behavior (e.g., hitting) these cognitive impairments have rarely been examined with regard to relational aggression (e.g., gossip, systematic exclusion). Studies also have not examined if EF impairments underlie the expression of aggression in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and if child gender moderates risk. Children with and without clinical elevations in ADHD symptoms (N = 124; ages 8-12 years; 48 % male) completed a battery of EF tests. Parent and teacher report of ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms and teacher report of engagement in physical and relational aggression were collected. Models tested the unique association of EF abilities with physical and relational aggression and the indirect effect through the expression of ADHD or ODD behaviors; child gender was also tested as a moderator. EF impairment was uniquely associated with physical aggression, but better EF ability was associated with relational aggression. For boys, poor EF also was indirectly associated with greater physical aggression through the expression of ADHD behaviors. However, ADHD symptoms were unrelated to relational aggression. ODD symptoms also predicted physical aggression for boys but relational aggression for girls. Results suggest that there are multiple and distinct factors associated with engagement in physical and relational aggression and that better EF may actually promote relational aggression. Established models of physical aggression should not be assumed to map on to explanations of relational aggression.

Longitudinal Links between Executive Function, Anger, and Aggression in Middle Childhood

Previous research has indicated that executive function (EF) is negatively associated with aggressive behavior in childhood. However, there is a lack of longitudinal studies that have examined the effect of deficits in EF on aggression over time and taken into account different forms and functions of aggression at the same time. Furthermore, only few studies have analyzed the role of underlying variables that may explain the association between EF and aggression. The present study examined the prospective paths between EF and different forms (physical and relational) and functions (reactive and proactive) of aggression. The habitual experience of anger was examined as a potential underlying mechanism of the link between EF and aggression, because the tendency to get angry easily has been found to be both a consequence of deficits in EF and a predictor of aggression. The study included 1,652 children (between 6 and 11 years old at the first time point), who were followed over three time points (T1, T2, and T3) covering 3 years. At T1, a latent factor of EF comprised measures of planning, rated via teacher reports, as well as inhibition, set shifting, and working-memory updating, assessed experimentally. Habitual anger experience was assessed via parent reports at T1 and T2. The forms and functions of aggression were measured via teacher reports at all three time points. Structural equation modeling revealed that EF at T1 predicted physical, relational, and reactive aggression at T3, but was unrelated to proactive aggression at T3. Furthermore, EF at T1 was indirectly linked to physical aggression at T3, mediated through habitual anger experience at T2. The results indicate that deficits in EF influence the later occurrence of aggression in middle childhood, and the tendency to get angry easily mediates this relation.

Hot and Cool Executive Functions in Adolescence: Development and Contributions to Important Developmental Outcomes

Despite significant theoretical advancement in the area of child neuropsychology, limited attention has been paid to the developmental features of adolescence. The present study intends to address this issue in relation to executive function (EF). EF refers to the psychological processes that underlie goal-directed behavior; recent studies separate cool EF (psychological process involves pure logic and critical analysis) and hot EF (psychological process driven by emotion). Although neurological findings suggest that adolescence is a sensitive period for EF development, data on comparing the developmental progression in hot or cool EFs is highly missing. Moreover, while evidence has confirmed the relationships between EF and day-to-day functioning, whether and how hot and cool EFs contribute to core developmental outcomes in adolescence is still remained unknown. The current study aims to enhance our understanding of the development and impacts of hot and cool EFs in adolescence. A total of 136 typically developing adolescents from age 12 to 17 completed four cool EF tasks including Backward digit span, Contingency naming test, Stockings of Cambridge, and Stroop Color and Word test, and one hot task on Cambridge gambling task. Data on academic performance and psychological adjustment was also collected. Results showed that cool and hot EF exhibited different patterns of age-related growth in adolescence. Specifically, cool EF ascended with age while hot EF showed a bell-shaped development. Moreover, there were correlations among cool EF measures but no association between cool and hot EFs. Further, cool EF was a better predictor of academic performance, while hot EF uniquely related to emotional problems. The results provide evidence for the association among cool EF tests and the differentiation of hot and cool EFs. The bell-shaped development of hot EF might suggest a period of heightened risk-taking propensity in middle adolescence. Given the plastic nature of EF, especially over adolescence, the current findings may have practical implications for future EF identification and training.

Proactive and Reactive Aggression Subgroups in Typically Developing Children: The Role of Executive Functioning, Psychophysiology, and Psychopathy

This study aimed to assess whether groups of aggressive children differed on psychopathic traits, and neuropsychological and neurobiological measures of prefrontal functioning consistent with the objectives of their aggression-reactive or proactive. Including 110 typically developing children (9-11 years), a latent class analysis identified a low aggression group, a high reactive aggression group, and a mixed (high reactive and proactive) aggression group. Results show high callous-unemotional traits and low resting respiratory sinus arrhythmia increased the likelihood of children being in the mixed aggression group, when compared to the reactive and low aggression groups. However, deficits in planning and inhibitory control increased the likelihood of children being in the reactive aggression group, when compared to the mixed and low aggression groups. Executive functioning deficits did not differentiate the mixed group from the low aggression group. These findings highlight psychobiological and executive functioning differences that may explain heterogeneity in childhood aggression.

Heterogeneity in the development of proactive and reactive aggression in childhood: Common and specific genetic - environmental factors

BACKGROUND

Few studies are grounded in a developmental framework to study proactive and reactive aggression. Furthermore, although distinctive correlates, predictors and outcomes have been highlighted, proactive and reactive aggression are substantially correlated. To our knowledge, no empirical study has examined the communality of genetic and environmental underpinning of the development of both subtypes of aggression. The current study investigated the communality and specificity of genetic-environmental factors related to heterogeneity in proactive and reactive aggression's development throughout childhood.

METHODS

Participants were 223 monozygotic and 332 dizygotic pairs. Teacher reports of aggression were obtained at 6, 7, 9, 10 and 12 years of age. Joint development of both phenotypes were analyzed through a multivariate latent growth curve model. Set point, differentiation, and genetic maturation/environmental modulation hypotheses were tested using a biometric decomposition of intercepts and slopes.

RESULTS

Common genetic factors accounted for 64% of the total variation of proactive and reactive aggression's intercepts. Two other sets of uncorrelated genetic factors accounted for reactive aggression's intercept (17%) on the one hand, and for proactive (43%) and reactive (13%) aggression's slopes on the other. Common shared environmental factors were associated with proactive aggression's intercept (21%) and slope (26%) and uncorrelated shared environmental factors were also associated with reactive aggression's slope (14%). Common nonshared environmental factors explained most of the remaining variability of proactive and reactive aggression slopes.

CONCLUSIONS

A genetic differentiation hypothesis common to both phenotypes was supported by common genetic factors associated with the developmental heterogeneity of proactive and reactive aggression in childhood. A genetic maturation hypothesis common to both phenotypes, albeit stronger for proactive aggression, was supported by common genetic factors associated with proactive and reactive aggression slopes. A shared environment set point hypothesis for proactive aggression was supported by shared environmental factors associated with proactive aggression baseline and slope. Although there are many common features to proactive and reactive aggression, the current research underscores the advantages of differentiating them when studying aggression.

Peer victimization and changes in physical and relational aggression: The moderating role of executive functioning abilities

This study is the first to examine whether executive functioning (EF) abilities moderate longitudinal associations between peer victimization and engagement in physically and relationally aggressive behavior. Participants were 61 children (9-13 years, M = 10.68, SD = 1.28; 48% male) drawn from a partially clinical sample who were assessed at two time points, approximately 12 months apart. At time 1, children were administered a battery of EF tests; adult reports of children's relational and physical victimization and use of relational and physical aggression were collected. At time 2, adult-reported aggression was re-collected. Regression analyses tested whether EF ability moderated the association between peer victimization and increased engagement in aggression. Form-specific (e.g., physical victimization predicting physical aggression) and cross-form (e.g., physical victimization predicting relational aggression) models were tested. EF moderated the association between physical victimization and increases in physical aggression over time and between relational victimization and increases in relational aggression over time. Physical victimization predicted increases in physical aggression only among children with poor EF. However, relational victimization predicted increases in relational aggression for children with good EF skills but decreases in relational aggression for children with poor EF skills. Interaction effects for cross-form models were not significant. Results suggest that there are distinct risk factors implicated in children's engagement in physical and relational aggression. Established cognitive vulnerability models for engagement in physical aggression should not be assumed to apply to engagement in relational aggression.

The pharmacological treatment of aggression in children and adolescents with conduct disorder. Do callous-unemotional traits modulate the efficacy of medication?

BACKGROUND

Children and adolescents with conduct disorder (CD) show repetitive and persistent patterns of aggressive behaviour and the more severe forms are often associated with callous-unemotional (CU) traits.

OBJECTIVES

To systematically review and, where data are adequate, conduct meta-analyses on the efficacy of medication on aggression in children and adolescent with CD considering the impact of CU traits.

RESULTS

Few studies have investigated patients with CD as primary diagnosis, and few of these have discriminated between different types of aggression or reported measures of CU traits. Methylphenidate and risperidone showed the largest effects on aggression in randomized controlled trials; other antipsychotics showed clinical efficacy on CD but this evidence is mainly revealed by open label trials. There is some low quality evidence to support a small effect of mood stabilizers and other agents. There were only two papers describing the effects of CU traits thus providing inconclusive results.

CONCLUSION

Considering heterogeneity of the disorder, more proof-of-concept clinical studies are needed to define effects of medication and role of CU traits.

Deconstructing the associations between executive functioning, problematic alcohol use and intimate partner aggression: A dyadic analysis

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS

Problematic drinking and executive functioning deficits are two known risk factors for intimate partner aggression (IPA). However, executive functioning is a multifaceted construct, and it is not clear whether deficits in specific components of executive functioning are differentially associated with IPA perpetration generally and within the context of problematic alcohol use. To address this question, the present study investigated the effects of problematic drinking and components of executive functioning on physical IPA perpetration within a dyadic framework.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants were 582 heavy drinking couples (total n = 1164) with a recent history of psychological and/or physical IPA recruited from two metropolitan cities in the USA. Multilevel models were used to examine effects within an actor-partner interdependence framework.

RESULTS

The highest levels of physical IPA were observed among actors who reported everyday consequences of executive functioning deficits related to emotional dysregulation whose partners were problematic drinkers. However, the association between executive functioning deficits related to emotional dysregulation and IPA was stronger towards partners who were non-problematic drinkers relative to partners who were problematic drinkers. No such effect was found for executive functioning deficits related to behavioural regulation.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Results provide insight into how problematic drinking and specific executive functioning deficits interact dyadically in relation to physical IPA perpetration. [Parrott DJ, Swartout KM, Eckhardt CI, Subramani OS. Deconstructing the associations between executive functioning, problematic alcohol use and intimate partner aggression: A dyadic analysis. Drug Alcohol Rev 2017;36:88-96].

Executive Functions in Children Who Experience Bullying Situations

Bullying is characterized by intentional, repetitive, and persistent aggressive behavior that causes damage to the victim. Many studies investigate the social and emotional aspects related to bullying, but few assess the cognitive aspects it involves. Studies with aggressive individuals indicate impairment in executive functioning and decision-making. The objective of this study was to assess hot and cold executive functions in children who experience bullying. A total of 60 children between 10 and 11 years of age were included in the study. They were divided into four groups: aggressors (bullies), victims, bully-victims, and control. Tests for decision-making, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility were used. The bully group made more unfavorable choices on the Iowa Gambling Task, which may indicate difficulties in the decision-making process. The victim group took longer to complete the Trail Making Test (Part B) than aggressors, suggesting lower cognitive flexibility in victims. The hypothesis that aggressors would have lower performance in other executive functions such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility has not been confirmed. This study indicates that bullies have an impairment of hot executive functions whereas victims have a comparatively lower performance in cold executive functions. In addition to social and cultural variables, neurocognitive and emotional factors seem to influence the behavior of children in bullying situations.

Executive Functions as Predictors of School Performance and Social Relationships: Primary and Secondary School Students

This study examined the relationship between executive functions (EFs) and school performance in primary and secondary school students aged 8 to 13 years (N = 146, M = 10.4, 45.8% girls). EFs were evaluated using the Trail Making Test (TMT), Verbal Fluency (VF), and the Stroop Test. Students' GPAs and teachers' assessment of academic skills were used to measure school performance. To evaluate the students' social behavior, participants were asked to rate all their classmates' prosocial behavior and nominate three students with whom they preferred to do school activities; teachers also provided evaluations of students' social skills. EF measures explained 41% (p = .003, f 2 = .694) of variability in school performance and 29% (p = .005, f 2 = .401) of variance in social behavior in primary school students. The predictive power of EFs was found to be lower for secondary school students, although the TMT showed significant prediction and explained 13% (p = .004, f 2 = .149) of variance in school performance and 15% (p = .008, f 2 = .176) in peer ratings of prosocial behavior. This paper discusses the relevance of EFs in the school environment and their different predictive power in primary and secondary school students.

Religiousness and aggression in adolescents: The mediating roles of self-control and compassion

Although people have used religion to justify aggression, evidence suggests that greater religiousness corresponds with less aggression. We explored two explanations for the religion-aggression link. First, most major religions teach self-control (e.g., delaying gratification, resisting temptation), which diminishes aggression. Second, most major religions emphasize compassionate beliefs and behavior (i.e., perspective taking, forgiveness, a broader love of humanity) that are incompatible with aggression. We tested whether self-control and compassion mediated the relationship between religion and aggression (direct and indirect) in a longitudinal study of 1,040 adolescents in the United States. Structural equation analyses revealed that self-control and compassion together completely mediated the religion-aggression relationship for both types of aggression.

[Formula: see text]Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare

Child executive functions (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, working memory) are key to success in school. Cortisol, the primary stress hormone, is known to affect cognition; however, there is limited information about how child cortisol levels, parenting factors and child care context relate to executive functions in young children. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between child cortisol, parenting stress, parent coping, and daycare quality in relation to executive functions in children aged 3-5 years. We hypothesized that (1) poorer executive functioning would be related to higher child cortisol and higher parenting stress, and (2) positive daycare quality and positive parent coping style would buffer the effects of child cortisol and parenting stress on executive functions. A total of 101 children (53 girls, 48 boys, mean age 4.24 years ±0.74) with complete data on all measures were included. Three saliva samples to measure cortisol were collected at the child's daycare/preschool in one morning. Parents completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Preschool Version (BRIEF-P), Parenting Stress Index (PSI), and Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ). The Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale - Revised (ECERS-R) was used to measure the quality of daycare. It was found that children with poorer executive functioning had higher levels of salivary cortisol, and their parents reported higher parenting stress. However, parent coping style and quality of daycare did not modulate these relationships. Identifying ways to promote child executive functioning is an important direction for improving school readiness.