Longitudinal associations between perceived parent-child relationship quality and depressive symptoms in adolescence

Parent-child relationship, parenting behaviors, and adolescents' depressive symptoms after an earthquake: unraveling within-adolescent associations from between-adolescent differences

This study assessed temporal associations between parent-child relationship, parenting behaviors (i.e., warmth, rejection, and overprotection), and adolescents' depressive symptoms after trauma, using random-intercept cross-lagged panel models to distinguish between- and within-adolescent differences. We surveyed Chinese adolescents 12 (Aug 2018; T1), 21 (May 2019; T2), 27 (Nov 2019; T3) months after the Jiuzhaigou earthquake that occurred in August 2017. Of the 585 adolescents who participated in at least two waves of the study, mean age at T1 was 15.50 years old (SD = 1.58 years) and 57.8% were girls. Controlling adolescents' gender, age, ethnicity, trauma exposure at T1, and parents' marital status, between-adolescent results showed that parent-child relationship and parenting behaviors, parent-child relationship and depressive symptoms were correlated across models of parental warmth, rejection, and overprotection, whereas depressive symptoms were only correlated with parental rejection and overprotection. Within-adolescent results indicated that parent-child relationship and adolescents' depressive symptoms had bidirectional associations via the mediation of parental warmth from T1 to T3. Over the longer term following the earthquake, we found that parental rejection was bidirectionally associated with adolescents' depressive symptoms, whereas parental overprotection was unidirectionally influenced by adolescents' depressive symptoms from T2 to T3. In addition, more depressive symptoms in adolescents were associated with worsening parent-child relationship from T2 to T3. In conclusion, shortly after trauma, interventions should focus on improving parent-child relationship and relieving adolescents' depressive symptoms. Over the longer term after trauma, relieving adolescents' depressive symptoms should be prioritized to avoid its eroding effects on parent-child relationship and parenting behaviors, and to break the "vicious cycle".

Neural and affective responses to prolonged eye contact with parents in depressed and nondepressed adolescents

Eye contact improves mood, facilitates connectedness, and is assumed to strengthen the parent-child bond. Adolescent depression is linked to difficulties in social interactions, the parent-child bond included. Our goal was to elucidate adolescents' affective and neural responses to prolonged eye contact with one's parent in nondepressed adolescents (HC) and how these responses are affected in depressed adolescents. While in the scanner, 59 nondepressed and 19 depressed adolescents were asked to make eye contact with their parent, an unfamiliar peer, an unfamiliar adult, and themselves by using videos of prolonged direct and averted gaze, as an approximation of eye contact. After each trial, adolescents reported on their mood and feelings of connectedness, and eye movements and BOLD-responses were assessed. In HCs, eye contact boosted mood and feelings of connectedness and increased activity in inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), temporal pole, and superior frontal gyrus. Unlike HCs, eye contact did not boost the mood of depressed adolescents. While HCs reported increased mood and feelings of connectedness to the sight of their parent versus others, depressed adolescents did not. Depressed adolescents exhibited blunted overall IFG activity. These findings show that adolescents are particularly sensitive to eye contact and respond strongly to the sight of their parents. This sensitivity seems to be blunted in depressed adolescents. For clinical purposes, it is important to gain a better understanding of how the responsivity to eye contact in general and with their parents in particular, can be restored in adolescents with depression.

Family cumulative risk, life satisfaction, and anxiety and depression in adolescents: A developmental cascades model

INTRODUCTION

Family cumulative risk (FCR) is predominantly regarded as an antecedent for adolescent mental health, as the prevailing perspective continues to emphasize the influential role of parents, despite recognizing the child's influence. To identify the interplay between family adversity (FCR, process-related FCR, and sociodemographic-related FCR), life satisfaction (LS), and anxiety and depression (AD), this study examined the cascade effects among these constructs.

METHOD

Participants (N = 707; 52.9% male; grades 10 and 11) from four high schools in Wuhan, China, were recruited to participate, and they completed the measures in October 2018, April 2019, and November 2019. Family sociodemographic risk (e.g., single parenthood) and family process risk (e.g., low family cohesion) were simulated in the models for FCR, sociodemographic-related FCR, and process-related FCR.

RESULTS

The random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) revealed a lagged effect from LS to FCR; lagged effects from LS and AD to process-related FCR at the within-person level; and significant associations between LS, AD, and family adversity at the between-person level.

CONCLUSIONS

The lagged effects provide evidence for the influential child perspective and suggest that FCR and family process risk are sensitive to adolescent well-being and psychopathological symptoms. School mental health prevention and intervention programs that take a complete mental health approach to enhance children's well-being and alleviate symptoms would help prevent increases in family risk.

A Daily Diary Study of the Reciprocal Relation between Parental Psychological Aggression and Adolescent Anxiety in China

The daily reciprocal relations between parental psychological aggression and adolescent anxiety and the heterogeneity, i.e., whether these relations vary across different adolescents, remain unclear. This study examined this issue with a 15-day daily diary study among 326 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 14.53 years, SD = 0.60, 47.2% girls). Dynamic structural equation models revealed that parental psychological aggression co-fluctuated with adolescent anxiety within a day. For lagged associations, only father-driven effects were supported but not mother-driven effects, whereas child-driven effects were supported for both parents. These within-person associations were heterogeneous across adolescents. Moreover, adolescents with more parental psychological aggression reported higher anxiety. This study revealed the reciprocal relations between parental psychological aggression and adolescent anxiety at the micro timescale and also highlighted that the within-person associations were heterogeneous across different adolescents.

Intraindividual variability in parental acceptance-rejection predicts externalizing and internalizing symptoms across childhood/adolescence in nine countries

Parenting that is high in rejection and low in acceptance is associated with higher levels of internalizing (INT) and externalizing (EXT) problems in children and adolescents. These symptoms develop and can increase in severity to negatively impact adolescents' social, academic, and emotional functioning. However, there are two major gaps in the extant literature: (a) nearly all prior research has focused on between-person differences in acceptance/rejection at the expense of examining intraindividual variability (IIV) across time in acceptance/rejection; and (b) no prior studies examine IIV in acceptance/rejection in diverse international samples. The present study utilized six waves of data with 1,199 adolescents' families living in nine countries from the Parenting Across Cultures study to test the hypotheses that (1) higher amounts of youth IIV in mother acceptance/rejection predict higher internalizing and (2) externalizing symptoms, and (3) that higher youth IIV in father acceptance/rejection predict higher internalizing, and (4) externalizing symptoms. Meta-analytic techniques indicated a significant, positive effect of IIV in child-reported mother and father acceptance/rejection on adolescent externalizing symptoms, and a significant positive effect of IIV in father acceptance/rejection on internalizing symptoms. The weighted effect for mother acceptance/rejection on internalizing symptoms was not statistically significant. Additionally, there was significant heterogeneity in all meta-analytic estimates. More variability over time in experiences of parental acceptance/rejection predicts internalizing and externalizing symptoms as children transition into adolescence, and this effect is present across multiple diverse samples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The relationship between academic stress and depression among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study from China

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic is a global public health crisis. During the COVID-19 pandemic, mental health has attracted great attention. However, there is a lack of research on the relationship between academic stress and depression in Chinese college students and its mechanisms. Therefore, this study investigated the mechanisms of coping style, sleep quality, and interpersonal relationship in academic stress and depression among college students.

METHODS

The cross-sectional study was conducted from May to June 2022 through face-to-face questionnaires with college students in Anhui Province, China. The questionnaires included sociodemographic information, the Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire, and the Self-Rating Depression Scale. Ordered logistic regression model was used to study the relationship between academic stress and depression of college students during the COVID-19 pandemic through the mechanism analysis of coping style, sleep quality and interpersonal relationship.

RESULTS

Two thousand thirty-three Chinese college students participated in the study, including 1,285 female and 748 male college students, with an average age 19.81 years old (SD = 1.22 years old). The results showed that (1) Academic stress had a significant impact on depression in college students under the background of COVID-19 (p < 0.01); (2) The influence of academic stress on depression had a difference in work experience as student cadres, which showed that college students who had served as student cadres were less affected by academic stress (p < 0.10), college students who had not served as student cadres were greatly affected by the academic stress (p < 0.05); (3) College students' attitudes toward COVID-19 significantly affected depression (p < 0.01); (4) Counselors' concern had a significant impact on college students' depression (p < 0.01); (5) Positive coping style, high quality sleep and good interpersonal relationship were the important mechanisms of the impact of academic stress on college students' depression.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides new findings for in-depth understanding of the relationship between academic stress and depression among college students in China during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is conducive to the provision of targeted intervention measures for the mental health of college students.

Associations between resilience and symptoms of depression and anxiety among adolescents: Examining the moderating effects of family environment

Depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents have experienced increase their risk of peripheral mental health and social problems. For adolescents, the role of family environmental factors should be taken into consideration. This study aimed to explore the association between resilience and depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents and to extend the findings by examining the moderating effects of family environment. A total of 35,573 adolescents in middle schools were recruited in China. Childhood abuse, resilience, and symptoms of depression and anxiety were evaluated in adolescents. We found a significant association between resilience and symptoms of depression and anxiety [OR = 0.976 (0.975-0.978), P < 0.001; OR = 0.980 (0.978-0.981), P < 0.001]. The adjusted ORs (95 % CIs) for mental health across the categories of resilience were as follows: 1 (reference) for low resilience, 0.660 (0.620-0.703) for medium resilience, 0.309 (0.286-0.333) for high resilience. The relationship between resilience and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls, non-only children, and those without child abuse experience compared to boys, only child, and those with child abuse experience (all p < 0.05). Our findings of a nationally representative sample in China suggest that gender, only child, parent-child relationship and child abuse moderated the relationship between resilience and symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Testing transactional processes between parental support and adolescent depressive symptoms: From a daily to a biennial timescale

Transactional processes between parental support and adolescents' depressive symptoms might differ in the short term versus long term. Therefore, this multi-sample study tested bidirectional within-family associations between perceived parental support and depressive symptoms in adolescents with datasets with varying measurement intervals: Daily (N = 244, Mage = 13.8 years, 38% male), bi-weekly (N = 256, Mage = 14.4 years, 29% male), three-monthly (N = 245, Mage = 13.9 years, 38% male), annual (N = 1,664, Mage = 11.1 years, 51% male), and biennial (N = 502, Mage = 13.8 years, 48% male). Preregistered random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) showed negative between- and within-family correlations. Moreover, although the preregistered models showed no within-family lagged effect from perceived parental support to adolescent depressive symptoms at any timescale, an exploratory model demonstrated a negative lagged effect at a biennial timescale with the annual dataset. Concerning the reverse within-family lagged effect, increases in adolescent depressive symptoms predicted decreases in perceived parental support 2 weeks and 3 months later (relationship erosion effect). Most cross-lagged effects were not moderated by adolescent sex or neuroticism trait level. Thus, the findings mostly support adolescent-driven effects at understudied timescales and illustrate that within-family lagged effects do not generalize across timescales.

Psychological Difficulties in Children and Adolescents during the COVID-19 Lockdown: The Effects of Spending Free Time with Parents or Using Digital Devices

The present study investigated protective and risk factors for psychological difficulties in children and adolescents during the COVID-19 lockdown. Specifically, the role of increased use of digital devices (DDs) for recreational purposes and the role of free time spent with parents were explored. Furthermore, the possible mediating effect of increased use of DDs in the relationship between free time spent with parents and psychological difficulties was tested. Participants were 4412 Italian children and adolescents, divided into two groups: children aged 6-10 years (n = 2248) and adolescents aged 11-18 years (n = 2164). Data were collected in Italy during the national lockdown and questionnaires were completed online by parents, who reported on their children's habits. The daily use of DDs increased significantly during the lockdown compared to the previous period, in both children and adolescents. Additionally, psychological difficulties increased in both children and adolescents during the lockdown, with a more severe impairment for children. Increased use of DDs during the lockdown positively predicted psychological difficulties (children: beta = 0.18, p < 0.001; adolescents: beta = 0.13, p < 0.001), while free time spent with parents was protective (children: beta = -13, p < 0.001; adolescents: beta = -0.12, p < 0.001). For children (but not adolescents), increased use of DDs mediated the effects of free time spent with parents on psychological difficulties (children: beta = -0.01, 95% CI [-0.018, -0.002]; adolescents: beta = -0.003, 95% CI [-0.009, 0.003]). The findings provide new insights for education and research.

The relationship between parent-child relationship and peer victimization: a multiple mediation model through peer relationship and depression

Introduction

Peer victimization is a highly prevalent worldwide issue with cross-cultural characteristics. Parent-child relationship and peer victimization is known to be interrelated, but how they influence each other remains unclear. This study explored the mechanisms of peer victimization related to parent-child relationship.

Methods

A total of 58,756 fourth grade students aged 10-12 years (10.83 ± 0.83, 54.4% males) from China completed four questionnaires. A multiple mediator model was tested, in which the two variables influenced each other through the mediating factors of peer relationship and depression.

Results

Peer victimization was indirectly negatively impacted by parent-child relationship through two chain mediating factors of peer relationship and depression: (1) the mediational path through peer relationship with an effect size of 44.66%; (2) the mediational path through depression with an effect size of 21.64%; and (3) the mediational path through peer relationship and depression with an effect size of 18.08%. The total mediational effect size was 84.11%.

Conclusion

The effect size through peer relationship is the strongest among the three mediation paths, suggesting that peer relationship is the key determinant in breaking the link between parent-child relationship and victimization. Poor parent-child and peer relationships may be risk factors eliciting peer victimization. Compared to internalizing behaviors (e.g., depression), low-quality interpersonal relationships maybe the root cause of the formation and maintenance of victimization. Thus, intervention programs against bullying should pay more attention on children's contextual factors, especially their relationships with their families and peers, among children at an early age.

Perceived Parental Support and Psychological Control, DNA Methylation, and Loneliness: Longitudinal Associations Across Early Adolescence

A broad range of factors have been associated with the development of adolescent loneliness. In the family context, a lack of parental support and high levels of parental psychological control have systematically been linked to loneliness. On the biological level, DNA methylation (which is an epigenetic process that suppresses gene expression) is believed to play a role in the development of loneliness. Specifically, high levels of DNA methylation in genes that play an important role in the functioning of the human stress response system are believed to elevate the risk of loneliness. Moreover, DNA methylation levels in these stress-related genes can be influenced by stressful environmental factors, suggesting a potential mediating role of DNA methylation in the association between parenting behaviors and loneliness. The current 3-year longitudinal study is the first study to examine the potential bidirectional longitudinal associations between loneliness, DNA methylation in stress-related genes, and both perceived parental support and psychological control. Furthermore, we explored the potential mediating role of DNA methylation in stress-related genes in the associations between perceived parenting and loneliness. The sample comprised 622 early adolescents (55% girls, M_{age T1} = 10.77 years, SD_{age T1} = 0.48) who were followed from Grade 5 to 7. Parental support, psychological control, and loneliness were assessed annually by adolescent self-report questionnaires and DNA methylation was determined from saliva samples. Cross-Lagged Panel Models (CLPM) revealed that higher levels of loneliness predicted lower perceived parental support and higher perceived psychological control over time, as well as higher DNA methylation in some stress-related genes, that is, the glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) and the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In addition, higher NR3C1 methylation was predictive of lower perceived parental support and higher psychological control over time. No evidence was found for a mediating role of DNA methylation. Overall, our longitudinal findings challenge the current focus on DNA methylation and parenting behaviors as risk factors for adolescent loneliness. Instead, they suggest that the less considered direction of effects, which implies that loneliness predicts DNA methylation and aspects of parenting such as support and psychological control, should receive greater attention in future research.

Transactional Links Between Parenting and Big Two Personality Traits Across Early Adolescence: Between- and Within-Family Effects

It is well established that parenting bears a strong link with the development of personality traits among adolescents. However, studies that examine the reciprocal associations between changes in parenting and the Big Two personality traits (i.e., extraversion and neuroticism) of adolescence are lacking. The aim of this study was to examine the longitudinal transactional links between three dimensions of parenting (i.e., parental support, psychological control, and harsh punishment) and the Big Two personality traits during early adolescence. The study applied a four-wave longitudinal approach with each wave being 12 months apart. Participants were 3307 Chinese youth (43.6% girls, M_age = 11.30 years, SD = 0.24). The results of cross-lagged panel modeling supported the significant bidirectional relations between these three parenting practices and adolescent extraversion and neuroticism at the between-family level. The within-person level analysis of random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling found that parental harsh punishment significantly predicted youth neuroticism (but not vice versa) and psychological control significantly predicted both extraversion (but not vice versa) and neuroticism (and vice versa). Sex differences were observed in the bidirectional relation between harsh punishment and neuroticism at the between-family level and in the longitudinal relation between psychological control and neuroticism at the within-family level. These results suggest that the linkages between parenting and adolescent personality traits can be understood to be advanced by both the between-family and within-family approaches that may provide greater support for causal inferences.

Patterns of Personality Development and Psychosocial Functioning in Japanese Adolescents: A Four-Wave Longitudinal Study

While patterns of adolescent personality development are country-specific, previous studies that have examined them have been limited to the Netherlands and Finland. This study aimed to identify the patterns of personality development and examine the relationship between these patterns and psychosocial functioning among Japanese adolescents. Overall, 618 Japanese adolescents (49.5% girls; 16 years) participated in the annual longitudinal survey from 2013 to 2016. Using latent class growth analysis, the following four patterns of personality development were identified: resilient, over-controlled, vulnerable, and moderate. Although the mean-level changes in the Big Five domains were generally insignificant among the four patterns, the vulnerable pattern showed a progressive increase in conscientiousness, and the moderate pattern showed a decrease in neuroticism and an increase in conscientiousness. Furthermore, multivariate analysis of variance tests indicated that the resilient pattern showed higher subjective well-being and lower psychosocial problems than the other personality patterns; the over-controlled pattern showed higher internalizing problems than the resilient pattern; the vulnerable pattern showed lower subjective well-being and higher internalizing problems than the other patterns; and the moderate pattern scored between the resilient, over-controlled, and vulnerable patterns in both subjective well-being and psychosocial problems. These findings suggest that the vulnerable and moderate patterns, which are immature patterns compared to the resilient and over-controlled ones, showed positive changes to the direction of maturity from middle to late adolescence in Japan.

Family processes and structure: Longitudinal influences on adolescent disruptive and internalizing behaviors

Objective

The present study revisits the assumption in American culture, based in "family privilege," that children fare better in two-parent households by longitudinally examining associations between family structure, process, and adolescent behavior.

Background

Societal assumptions and cross-sectional research suggest that there is a difference in child adjustment across varying family structures. Relatedly, the family process literature emphasizes the importance of parent-child relationship quality in addition to family structure on child adjustment.

Method

We utilized a longitudinal, prospective design that assessed family structures on nine occasions covering a 12-year period beginning when the target child was 2 years of age for a large (N = 714), ethnically and racially diverse sample of low-income families. We examined the relation between self-reported, teacher-reported, and primary caregiver-reported adolescent disruptive and internalizing problem behavior across family structures and parent-child relationship quality.

Results

Across seven identified family structures, adolescent behavior did not differ after accounting for middle-childhood adjustment and relevant contextual factors. However, consistent with family process models of child adjustment, positive parent-child relationship quality predicted lower rates of adolescent maladaptive behavior.

Conclusion

These findings serve to combat stigma related to family structures that deviate from married parents raising their children and highlight the need for interventions designed to foster positive parent-child relationships.

Implications

Policy makers and practitioners should aim to support efforts to foster positive parent-child relationships across types of family structures and refrain from promoting or discouraging the formations of specific family structure types.

Contributions of Multilevel Family Factors to Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder in China

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is one of the most prevalent childhood mental health disorders and is extremely affected by family factors. However, limited studies have addressed the issue from the perspective of family systems. The current study examines the associations between multilevel family factors (i.e., family cohesion/ adaptability at system level, mother-child and father-child attachment at a dyadic level, and child self-esteem at an individual level) and emotional and behavioral problems among children with ODD in China. The participants were 256 Chinese children with ODD and their parents and class master teachers. A multiple-informant approach and structural equation model were used. The results revealed that system level factors (family cohesion/adaptability) were associated with child emotional and behavior problems indirectly through factors at the dyadic level (mother-child attachment) and the individual level (child self-esteem) in sequence. Mother-child, but not father-child, attachment, mediated the linkage between family cohesion/adaptability and the emotional problems of children with ODD. Moreover, child self-esteem mediated the association between mother-child attachment and child emotional and behavioral problems. The findings of the present study underscored that multilevel family factors are uniquely related to emotional and behavioral problems in children with ODD.

Typicality and trajectories of problematic and positive behaviors over adolescence in eight countries

In this study, we examine the predictions of a storm and stress characterization of adolescence concerning typicality and trajectories of internalizing, externalizing, and wellbeing from late childhood through late adolescence. Using data from the Parenting Across Cultures study, levels and trajectories of these characteristics were analyzed for 1,211 adolescents from 11 cultural groups across eight countries. Data were longitudinal, collected at seven timepoints from 8 to 17 years of age. Results provide more support for a storm and stress characterization with respect to the developmental trajectories of behavior and characteristics from childhood to adolescence or across the adolescent years than with respect to typicality of behavior. Overall, adolescents' behavior was more positive than negative in all cultural groups across childhood and adolescence. There was cultural variability in both prevalence and trajectories of behavior. The data provide support for arguments that a more positive and nuanced characterization of adolescence is appropriate and important.

Mothering versus fathering? Positive parenting versus negative parenting? Their relative importance in predicting adolescent aggressive behavior: A longitudinal comparison

To understand whose parenting (mothers vs. fathers) and which type of parenting (warmth vs. hostility) is more important in predicting adolescent aggression, this study applied dominance analysis to evaluate the relative importance of four different parenting dimensions (maternal hostility, paternal hostility, maternal warmth, and paternal warmth). Four waves of adolescent-reported longitudinal data from the PROSPER project (N = 626, 52% adolescent girls, 89% White rural, age 12 to 15) were used to investigate longitudinal change in the relative importance of these dimensions over time. Findings reveal that at most ages, maternal hostility was relatively more important than both paternal hostility and maternal warmth in predicting adolescent aggression among adolescent girls and boys. However, paternal parenting was more important for boys at specific ages. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for interventions and further research on parenting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Secure Attachment Relationships With Mothers, But Not Fathers, Moderate the Relation Between Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Symptoms and Delinquency in Adolescents

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether secure parent-adolescent attachment relationships moderate the longitudinal relation between 9th grade (G9) ADHD symptoms and 12th grade (G12) delinquency within a community sample of adolescents.

METHOD

Participants included 335 9th graders, of whom 203 students completed measures again in 12th grade. Mothers reported on their adolescents' ADHD symptoms and aggressive behaviors, and adolescents completed measures of their own delinquency and their perceptions of their parent-child attachment relationships.

RESULTS

G9 ADHD symptoms predicted increases in G12 delinquent behaviors. Moderation effects were also found such that G9 ADHD symptoms predicted G12 delinquency for only those youth who had moderate or low levels of secure maternal attachment. Paternal secure attachment did not moderate the effects of G9 ADHD symptoms on G12 delinquency.

CONCLUSION

Findings underscore the importance of secure maternal attachment relationships in the development of delinquency among adolescents with ADHD symptoms.

Do You See What I See? Longitudinal Associations Between Mothers' and Adolescents' Perceptions of Their Relationship and Adolescent Internalizing Symptoms

This 6-year community study examined how discrepancies in mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationship were longitudinally associated with adolescent internalizing symptoms, and vice versa. 497 adolescents (57% boys, M_{age T1} = 13.03, SD_age = 0.46) and their mothers reported in 6 annual waves on conflict and warmth in the mother-adolescent relationship and adolescents reported on their depressive and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) symptoms. Latent Congruence Models suggested that both adolescent depressive and GAD symptoms significantly predicted higher levels of conflict as well as stronger discrepancies in perceptions of conflict 1-year later. In turn, higher levels of conflict significantly predicted both adolescent depressive and GAD symptoms 1-year later. For warmth, lower levels significantly predicted adolescent depressive symptoms 1-year later. Concluding, these findings suggest (1) more systematic evidence for longitudinal associations between conflict than warmth in the mother-adolescent relationship and adolescent internalizing symptoms; (2) support for a transactional model, including support for both interpersonal scar or symptom-driven effects (concerning both levels of and mother-adolescent discrepancies in conflict) and interpersonal risk or relationship-driven effects (concerning levels of both conflict and warmth); (3) longitudinal effects from adolescent internalizing symptoms to mother-adolescent discrepancies, but not vice versa; and (4) strong consistency in patterns of findings across both adolescent depressive and GAD symptoms, with few differential longitudinal associations with aspects of mother-adolescent relationship quality. Thereby, this study provides a more nuanced understanding of the direction of effects between adolescent internalizing symptoms and both levels of and discrepancies in mothers' and adolescents' perceptions of their relationship.

Cooperation with Teachers as a Mediator of the Relationship between Family Conflict and Children's Psychological Difficulties

Parent-child conflict can have a series of negative consequences concerning youth emotional and behavioral development. The link between family conflict and children's externalizing symptoms is well established, whereas the association with internalizing symptoms is less explored. Within the school context, children are engaged in other meaningful relationships (i.e., with teachers and peers) which contribute to their growth. This cross-sectional study aimed at understanding whether a cooperative behavior with the teachers is able to mediate the association between parent-child conflict and children's psychopathological symptoms. We recruited 319 (150 boys) school-aged children (M = 11.3 years; SD = 1.8 years) and their parents and teachers. Children self-reported on their internalizing symptoms, whereas parents completed a questionnaire concerning their relationship with the child, and teachers rated children's behavior and internalizing/externalizing symptoms. Analyses conducted through Hayes' PROCESS tool showed that cooperation with the teacher partially mediated the association between parent-child conflict and child-reported depressive symptoms. Notably, cooperative behavior fully mediated the link between parent-child conflict and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms reported by teachers. Difficulties exhibited at school partly derive from a conflictual home environment. Our findings showed that such problems can be reduced thanks to a cooperative relationship with the teacher.

Parent-Child Relationship Quality, Childhood Maltreatment, and Psychological Symptoms in Chinese Adolescent

This study aimed to examine the association between childhood maltreatment, parent-child relationship quality with psychological symptoms and to explore the moderating role of parent-child relationship quality in the association between childhood maltreatment and psychological symptoms among adolescents. It also probed to the role of gender differences in this effect. A representative sample of 14,500 middle school students in China were asked to complete a standard questionnaire on the details of childhood maltreatment, parent-child relationship quality, and psychological symptoms. All data were analyzed using SPSS 23.0. The PROCESS program was used to analyze whether parent-child relationship quality moderated the link between childhood maltreatment and psychological symptoms. The analyses revealed significant correlations between childhood maltreatment, parent-child relationship quality, and psychological symptoms (p < .001). Specifically, paternal relationship quality moderated the association between childhood maltreatment and psychological symptoms in the total sample (B = -0.01, p < .05) and the subgroup of girls (B = -0.01, p < .05), while maternal relationship quality moderated only the association between childhood maltreatment and psychological symptoms in the subgroup of boys (B = -0.01, p < .05). As the findings indicate, priority should be given to the quality of parent-child relationship and gender-specific methods employed to effectively reduce the psychological symptoms of adolescents with a history of childhood maltreatment.

Mediating effects of parent-child relationship on the association between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms among adolescents

BACKGROUND

Depressive symptoms are the most common mental disorder among adolescents, and its prevalence has been increasing in recent years. Although childhood maltreatment is a contributing factor to depressive symptoms among adolescents, the underlying mechanism of how this factor causes depressive symptoms is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the mediating effects of parent-child relationship on the association between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms among adolescents and to identify how sex and only child status affect this association.

METHODS

A total of 14,500 middle school students were randomly selected from four cities (Shenzhen, Zhengzhou, Nanchang, and Guiyang) in China. A survey questionnaire was administered to collect information on childhood maltreatment, parent-child relationship, and depressive symptoms. Pearson's correlation analysis was used in analyzing the relationship, Bootstrap method was used to test the mediating effects. A moderated mediation analysis has been used to determine the moderated mediation effect.

RESULTS

Childhood maltreatment significantly negatively correlated with parent-child relationship and positively correlated with depressive symptoms (P < 0.001). The indirect effect of parent-child relationship accounted for 20.60% of the total effect between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms in all respondents and differed by sex (boys, 17.00%; girls, 25.23%) and only child status (only child, 15.61%; child with siblings, 23.49%). Besides, the indirect effect of the mediation model was moderated by sex and only child status.

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood maltreatment increased the risk of depressive symptoms, and this relationship was partially mediated by parent-child relationship, sex and only child status have moderated the indirect relationship. These findings showed efforts aimed at enhancing the parent-child relationship may prevent or reduce the prevalence of depressive symptoms among adolescents, especially in girls and children with siblings.

Associations of mental health and chronic physical illness during childhood with major depression in later life

OBJECTIVES

This study examined whether childhood chronic physical illness burden was associated with major depression in later life (>50 years) and whether this relationship was mediated by childhood mental health status.

METHOD

Data came from the 2016 United States Health and Retirement Study (n = 18,483). Logistic regression tested associations of childhood chronic physical illness burden with childhood mental health status and major depression in later life. Path analysis quantified mediation of the association between chronic physical illness burden and major depression by childhood mental health status.

RESULTS

One standard deviation increase in childhood chronic physical illness burden was associated with 1.34 (95% CI = 1.25, 1.43) times higher odds of major depression in later life. Childhood mental health status explained 53.4% (95% CI: 37.3%, 69.6%) of this association. In follow-up analyses of categorical diagnoses, having difficulty seeing, ear problems or infections, a respiratory disorder, asthma, an allergic condition, epilepsy or seizures, migraines or severe headaches, heart trouble, stomach problems, or a disability lasting ≥6 months was associated with major depression in later life with mediation by childhood mental health status.

CONCLUSION

Findings of this study indicate that children with a higher chronic physical illness burden are more likely to have major depression in later life and poor mental health during childhood mediates this relationship. Further research is needed to determine whether increased screening and treatment of psychiatric symptoms in pediatrics can decrease the burden of major depression across the life course.

Parental Phubbing and Internet Gaming Addiction in Children: Mediating Roles of Parent-Child Relationships and Depressive Symptoms

Mounting research has well documented that parental phubbing is significantly associated with Internet gaming addiction (IGA) in children. However, the mediating mechanisms of this relations are poorly understood. This study used a multi-informant design to investigate whether parent-child relationships (closeness and conflict) and depressive symptoms mediate the relation between parental phubbing and IGA. A total of 1,021 Chinese children (44.30 percent girls; M_age = 10.33, standard deviation = 0.98) and their mothers completed anonymous questionnaires. The results showed that parent-child conflict and depressive symptoms each played a mediating role between parental phubbing and the children's IGA, whereas parent-child closeness did not. Moreover, parental phubbing demonstrated an indirect effect on the children's IGA successively through the parent-child conflict and children's depressive symptoms. The findings suggest that improved parent-child relationships and immediate intervention for depressive symptoms can reduce the risk of IGA among children.

Influence of Parent–Child Conflict on Psychological Distress among Chinese Adolescents: Moderating Effects of School Connectedness and Neighborhood Disorder

Previous empirical studies have found that not all adolescents showed a high level of psychological distress when facing parent–child conflict, which implies that there could be some additional moderating variables in this pair association. School connectedness and neighborhood disorder have been regarded as possible moderators of this relationship, but empirical evidence is lacking. The participants in this study included 971 students from two middle schools (grades 7–9) and two high schools (grades 10–12) and their parents in the City of Y, Shanxi Province, in mainland China. The PROCESS macro was used to conduct the moderation analysis. The results revealed that both school connectedness and neighborhood disorder significantly moderated the association of parent–child conflict with adolescent psychological distress. These findings highlighted the significance of increasing school connectedness and decreasing neighborhood disorder to alleviate adolescent psychological distress, thereby contributing to related policies and interventions.

Parental migration status moderates the link between parent-child relationship and children's well-being through psychological distress

The effects of parental migration on the well-being of left-behind children (LBC) are varied. Several studies demonstrated that parental migration reduces children's psychological health but other research showed contradictory results. This study sought to clarify this issue by examining the mediating role of psychological distress and the moderating role of parental migration status in the association between the parent-child relationship and children's psychological distress. A total of 743 LBC and 688 non-LBC self-reported their parent-child relationship, psychological distress, and well-being. Findings showed that psychological distress mediated the association between parent-child relationship and children's well-being. This denotes that greater parent-child relationship results into lowered levels of psychological distress, and in turn, increases children's emotional, psychological, and social well-being. Moreover, the link between parent-child relationship and psychological distress was found to be contingent to parental migration status. Specifically, the negative association between parent-child relationship and psychological distress was especially strong among LBC in contrast to non- LBC. This implies that children with higher quality relationships with their parents tend to exhibit decreased severity of psychological distress symptoms, especially in children whose parents are working overseas. These results underscore the dynamic role of parent-child relationship in the well-being of LBC, and suggest ways to develop intervention programs that include cultivating skills in managing psychological distress and improving the emotional, psychological, and social well-being of LBC.

Transactional processes among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms from middle childhood to early adolescence: Disentangling between- and within-person associations

RATIONALE

Previous cross-sectional and unidirectional longitudinal studies have investigated the associations among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms among children and adolescents without distinguishing between-person effects from within-person effects.

OBJECTIVE

The current study aimed to examine the dynamic longitudinal associations among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms, including whether positivity functioned as a mediator of the reciprocal relations between perceived maternal/paternal warmth and depressive symptoms at the within-person level encompassing middle childhood to early adolescence.

METHODS

A sample of 3765 Chinese students (45.8% girls; M age = 9.92 years, SD = 0.72; range = 9-12 years at Time 1) completed self-report measures on 4 occasions across 2 years, using 6-month intervals. Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models were employed to disentangle between- and within-person effects.

RESULTS

(a) Perceived maternal/paternal warmth and depressive symptoms reciprocally and negatively predicted each other; (b) positivity and depressive symptoms reciprocally and negatively predicted each other; (c) perceived maternal/paternal warmth and positivity reciprocally and positively predicted each other; (d) depressive symptoms indirectly predicted perceived maternal/paternal warmth via positivity; (e) perceived maternal warmth displayed earlier and more stable effects on positivity and depressive symptoms than perceived paternal warmth; and (f), no childhood sex differences existed in the observed associations.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the longitudinal within-person transactions among perceived parental warmth, positivity, and depressive symptoms, and the differential roles of perceived maternal/paternal warmth. These findings may help provide a potential theoretical framework through which to precisely identify objectives for early intervention.

Longitudinal relations between maternal and adolescent emotion dysregulation and maternal autonomy support

INTRODUCTION

Maternal characteristics and mother-adolescent relationships are thought to affect the emotional development of adolescents. Adolescents can learn to regulate their emotions by observing their mothers, and this is further facilitated by maternal autonomy support. Therefore, this study longitudinally examined the associations among maternal emotion dysregulation, maternal autonomy support, and adolescent emotion dysregulation.

METHOD

Participants were 466 Dutch adolescents (54.51% males; M_age  = 14.03, SD = 0.45) and 462 mothers (M_age  = 45.49, SD = 4.47), who completed self-reports of emotion dysregulation and maternal autonomy support for five consecutive years.

RESULTS

Random Intercept-Cross Lagged Panel Model analyses showed that at the between-family level, maternal emotion dysregulation was correlated with adolescent emotion dysregulation, adolescent-reported maternal autonomy support, and mother-reported maternal autonomy support; and adolescent emotion dysregulation was correlated with adolescent-reported maternal autonomy support. At the within-family level, higher than usual maternal emotion dysregulation was positively related to adolescent emotion dysregulation at Time 1, yet, was negatively related to adolescent emotion dysregulation at other time points concurrently, and predicted lower adolescent emotion dysregulation in the next year. Also, higher than usual adolescent emotion dysregulation was related to lower adolescent-reported maternal autonomy support both concurrently and the next year.

CONCLUSIONS

Both mothers and adolescents played an important role in adolescent emotional development. To promote adolescent emotional development, it is important to target both maternal emotion dysregulation to understand the development of adolescent emotion dysregulation, and adolescent emotion dysregulation to prevent mothers from providing less autonomy support to their adolescents.

Longitudinal Associations Among Low-Income Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting and Relationships with Children and Adolescent Depression

Few studies have examined the associations among quality of parent-child relationships, parenting, and adolescent depression in samples of low-income mothers and fathers with large numbers of nonresidential fathers. This study used the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing data (N = 3,384) to examine the longitudinal associations among parent-child closeness, harsh parenting, and neglect when children were nine years old and adolescent depression at age 15. The findings indicated that children who perceived having close relationships with mothers and fathers at age nine reported significantly less depression at age 15, regardless of residential status. Moderation analyses showed a stronger negative relationship between daughters' closeness with mothers and depression than sons' closeness with mothers and depression. Daughters and sons who were close to fathers reported less depression. There were no significant associations among harsh discipline or neglect and depression. The findings support the use of interventions that promote healthy attachments and close parent-child relationships between low-income parents and children.

Family relationship quality during the COVID-19 pandemic: The value of adolescent perceptions of change

INTRODUCTION

Adolescents typically spend decreasing amounts of time with family members, but the COVID-19 pandemic changed this pattern for many youth. The objective of the current study was to better understand adolescents' perceived change in family relationship quality, and how these perceptions were related to psychosocial functioning during the COVID-19 pandemic, accounting for more traditional measures of family relationship quality. Understanding how adolescents perceived change in relationship quality with family members during the pandemic offers novel insight into adolescents' relationships with their families and psychosocial functioning during this period.

METHOD

A sample of Canadian adolescents (N = 605, ages 14 to 18, 53% girls), was employed to examine patterns of adolescents' perceived change in relationship quality with parents and siblings since the start of the pandemic, accounting for relationship quality, pandemic-related characteristics, and demographic variables.

RESULTS

Four latent profiles were identified: youth who perceived (1) low change, (2) improvement only, (3) moderate instability and (4) high instability in relationship quality. Higher perceived instability was associated with poorer functioning, with youth who reported only improvement reporting the highest overall level of functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent perceptions of change in relationship quality were heterogeneous, and contribute to psychosocial functioning over and above their general evaluations of relationship quality. In particular, youth who perceive considerable change in their relationships with siblings and parents may require additional support in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Father-Child Conflict and Chinese Adolescent Depression: A Moderated Mediation Model

To investigate the effects of father-child conflict and regulatory emotional self-efficacy (RESE) on Chinese adolescent depression, 654 middle-school students were measured. The results showed that: (1) Father-son conflict was significantly lower than father-daughter conflict, girls’ depression was significantly higher than that of boys, and boys’ RESE and self-efficacy in regulating negative emotions (NEG) were significantly higher than that for girls, but there was no significant difference between boys and girls in self-efficacy in expressing positive emotions (POS). (2) Father-child conflict was significantly positively associated with Chinese adolescent depression. Father-child conflict was negatively correlated with RESE, and its two dimensions. Both POS and NEG played a partial mediating role in the relationship between father-child conflict and adolescent depression. (3) Gender only regulated the relationship between NEG and adolescent depression. Compared to boys, girls are more affected by depression at the low level of NEG.

Longitudinal Associations Between Depressive Symptoms and Quality of Romantic Relationships in Late Adolescence

While youth with higher levels of depressive symptoms appear to have lower quality romantic relationships, little is known about longitudinal associations for both men and women. Therefore, this study used longitudinal dyadic design to examine both concurrent and longitudinal associations between depressive symptoms and positive as well as negative aspects of romantic relationship quality across two waves one- or two-years apart. The sample consisted of 149 Dutch stable heterosexual couples (149 females and 142 males participated at T₁) in a stable romantic relationship in late adolescence with a mean age of 20.43 years old at the first wave. Actor-Partner Interdependence models were used to examine potential bidirectional associations over time between depressive symptoms and romantic relationship quality, above and beyond potential concurrent associations and stability of the constructs over time, from the perspective of both romantic partners. Results consistently indicated that men and women who reported higher levels of depressive symptoms perceived less positive aspects (intimacy and support) and more negative aspects (conflict) in their romantic relationship over time. In addition, unexpectedly, when men and women perceived more positive relationship aspects, their partners reported higher levels of depressive symptoms over time. These findings stress that depressive symptoms can interfere with the formation of high-quality romantic relationships.

Associations between adolescents' internalizing problems and well-being: is there a buffering role of boys' and girls' relationships with their mothers and fathers?

Background

Internalizing mental health problems (i.e., depression and anxiety symptoms) are known to be related negatively to adolescents’ well-being. However, whether this negative association manifests equally in boys and girls, and the potential buffering role of high-quality relationships with mothers and fathers, remain unknown. Thus, the present study was conducted to 1) investigate associations among adolescents’ internalizing problems and mother– and father–adolescent relationship quality, on the one hand, and adolescents’ well-being, on the other hand, 2) explore the buffering role of high-quality mother– and father–adolescent relationships in the association between adolescents’ internalizing problems and well-being, and 3) examine gender differences in these main and buffering effects.

Methods

The analysis sample consisted of 1064 adolescents (53.7% girls; aged 11–17 years) from three secondary schools in the Netherlands. Participants filled out an online questionnaire incorporating the Mental Health Continuum–Short Form to measure well-being, the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale-25 to measure internalizing problems, and the Network of Relationships Inventory to measure mother– and father–adolescent relationship quality. The cross-sectional data were analyzed using path models in R, controlling for age, ethnocultural background, and education level. Multigroup analyses were performed to identify gender differences.

Results

Adolescents with fewer internalizing problems (β = − 0.40, p < 0.001) and adolescents with higher-quality relationships with their mothers and fathers reported higher concurrent levels of well-being (β = 0.10 to 0.18, all p < 0.01). The quality of mother-adolescent relationships had a significantly larger association with adolescents’ well-being than that of father-adolescent relationship quality. However, relationships with mothers and fathers did not significantly buffer the association between adolescents’ internalizing problems and well-being. Multigroup analyses revealed no difference between boys and girls.

Conclusions

The current study contributes to the understanding of internalizing problems as an important risk factor for adolescents’ well-being, regardless of the quality of relationships with mothers and fathers. The quality of adolescents’ relationships with their parents is associated positively with their well-being, even in the presence of internalizing problems. These findings underline the importance of mothers’ and fathers’ roles in adolescent boys’ and girls’ well-being.

Longitudinal associations among adolescents' internalizing problems, well-being, and the quality of their relationships with their mothers, fathers, and close friends

RATIONALE

Internalizing problems (i.e., depressive and anxiety symptoms) are known to decrease adolescents' well-being, but knowledge about potential underlying mechanisms is limited. The qualities of adolescents' most proximal relationships with their parents and close friends are expected to play a role in the association between adolescents' internalizing problems and well-being.

OBJECTIVE

The present study was conducted to 1) investigate the indirect longitudinal association between internalizing problems and adolescents' well-being via the quality of adolescents' relationships with both their mothers and fathers and their close friends, and 2) test whether our findings were gender invariant.

METHODS

Data were collected via online questionnaires in two waves at a 12-month interval from adolescents attending three secondary schools in the Netherlands (N = 1298; M age = 13.7 years, 53.2% girls). The data were analyzed using a two-wave cross-lagged panel model in R. Multigroup analyses were performed to examine the gender invariance of the findings.

RESULTS

After controlling for baseline levels, results showed that (1) girls, but not boys, who reported more internalizing problems at T1 had lower well-being at T2; (2) girls and boys who reported more internalizing problems at T1 had lower-quality relationships with their mothers, fathers, and close friends at T2; and (3) boys, but not girls, who reported higher-quality friendships at T1 had higher well-being at T2. However, no significant indirect effects between internalizing problems and well-being via the quality of adolescents' relationships with their parents and close friends were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study contributes to understanding internalizing problems as an important risk factor to the quality of adolescents' proximal social relationships (parents, friends) and their well-being. The findings support the importance of building high-quality relationships, particularly friendships, and recommend future research to study adolescents' internalizing problems and well-being including gender-specific examinations.

Parent-child relationship quality and adolescent health: Testing the differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress hypotheses in African American youths

This study tested two competing models of differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress in a prospective longitudinal study of African American youths (N = 935). It examined whether individual variations in the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis at age 11 interact with middle childhood parent-child relationship quality to predict mental and physical health problems in adolescence (ages 11-15 years old). Adolescent boys with lower levels of cortisol reactivity to laboratory challenges had the highest levels of internalizing problems if they experienced a high conflictual relationship with their parents. Equally low-reactive boys, however, reported the lowest number of physical illnesses if their relationship with their parents was characterized by high levels of intimacy and support.

The Association between School Climate and Aggression: A Moderated Mediation Model

While previous studies have shown evidence of an association between school climate and aggression, few have explored the mechanisms behind this association. As such, this cross-sectional study focused on both the mediating effects of self-control and the moderating effects of the parent-child relationship on the association between school climate and aggression. Data were obtained through an anonymous survey conducted among 1030 Chinese elementary and middle school students (52.72% male, average age = 11.53 years), who responded to items on school climate, aggression, self-control, and the parent-child relationship. First, the results showed that school climate was negatively associated with aggression. Second, a mediation analysis showed that self-control significantly mediated the association between school climate and aggression. Third, a moderated mediation analysis showed that the parent-child relationship significantly moderated the first stage of the indirect path (school climate → self-control). Specifically, this association was notably stronger among children and adolescents with better parent-child relationships. In sum, these findings constitute a valuable reference for both improving self-control and in the context of targeted interventions aimed at preventing aggression in children and adolescents in China.

Psychoeducational and Skill-building Interventions for Emotion Dysregulation

Family psychoeducation plus skill building is a class of interventions considered to be well-established for youth with mood disorders or emotion dysregulation. Psychoeducational psychotherapy (PEP) is an example of this class of interventions. PEP provides psychoeducation for parents and children, skill building to help children better regulate emotions and behaviors, and strategies for parents to better facilitate school-based interventions, develop specific symptom management techniques, and generate coping strategies for the entire family. Evidence is summarized supporting the efficacy of PEP for reducing rage, overall mood symptom severity, disruptive behavior, and executive functioning deficits in youth. Long-term benefits of PEP are discussed.

Parent and Child Reports of Parenting Behaviors: Agreement Among a Longitudinal Study of Drug Court Participants

Identifying ways to support children of parents with substance use disorder is a critical public health issue. This study focused on the parent-child relationship as a critical catalyst in child resilience. Using data from a longitudinal cohort study, the aims of this study were to: (1 ) examine the agreement between parent and child reports of parenting behaviors and (2 ) describe the association between agreement and child mental health. Participants were 50 parent-child dyads that included parents enrolled in an adult drug court and their children, aged 8-18. Overall, agreement (i.e., concordance) between parent and child reports of parenting was slight to fair. Parents reported their parenting behaviors to be slightly more positive than how children rated the same behaviors in the areas of: involvement, 0.53 (SD = 0.80); positive parenting, 0.66 (SD = 0.87), and monitoring behaviors, 0.46 (SD = 0.90). Parents also rated themselves, in comparison to their children's reports, as using less inconsistent discipline, -0.33 (SD = 1.00), and less corporal punishment, 0.13 (SD = 1.01). Agreement was related to some, but not all, child mental health outcomes. When parents rating their parenting as more positive than their child reported, that had a negative effect on child self-esteem and personal adjustment. Contrary to hypotheses, we did not find a significant relationship between positive parenting and internalizing problems. Findings have implications for obtaining parent and child reports of parenting within the drug court system, and for identifying children at higher risk for externalizing problems.

Dynamic Associations of Parent-Adolescent Closeness and Friend Support With Adolescent Depressive Symptoms Across Ages 12-19

Supportive relationships with parents and friends reduce adolescent risk for depression; however, whether and how the strength of these associations changes across adolescence remains less clear. Age-varying associations of mother-adolescent and father-adolescent closeness and friend support with depressive symptoms were examined across ages 12.5-19.5 using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 4,819). Positive relationships with mothers, fathers, and friends were associated with lower depressive symptoms across adolescence, and the associations were generally stable across age. The association between father-adolescent closeness and depressive symptoms was stronger for girls than for boys during mid-adolescence. Mother-adolescent closeness was more strongly negatively associated with depressive symptoms in the context of higher friend support during mid-adolescence.

The longitudinal relationship between child emotional disorder and parental mental health in the British Child and Adolescent Mental Health surveys 1999 and 2004

BACKGROUND

Research suggests parental psychopathology has an adverse effect on child mental health. However, due to the interactional nature of parent-child relationships and with a high rate of emotional disorders reported in school-age children, it is important to know whether the effect is reciprocal.

METHODS

We explored the longitudinal relationship between child and parent mental health in the British Child and Adolescent Mental Health Surveys (N=7,100 child-parent dyads) and their three-year follow-ups. The Development and Well-Being Assessment with DSM-IV diagnostic criteria was used to measure child psychiatric diagnoses, while parental mental health was assessed using the General Health Questionnaire. Multivariable logistic regression was used to explore the longitudinal association between child emotional disorder and parent mental health.

RESULTS

Parents of children who had an emotional disorder at baseline were more likely to have poor mental health three years later compared with parents whose children had no psychiatric diagnosis (33.3% versus 16.7%; crude odds ratio=2.52; adjusted odds ratio=2.19, 95% CI=1.58 to 3.05, p<0.001). Children of parents with poor mental health at baseline were more likely to develop an emotional disorder three years later compared with children whose parents had good mental health (5.2% versus 2.5%; crude odds ratio=2.08; adjusted odds ratio=1.63, 95% CI=1.18 to 2.25, p=0.003).

LIMITATIONS

The findings of this research are limited by the survey data collected, the measures used and survey dropout.

CONCLUSIONS

We detected a bi-directional relationship between child and parent mental health, suggesting that effective intervention for one individual may benefit other family members.

Family cohesion and the relations among peer victimization and depression: A random intercepts cross-lagged model

The relation between peer victimization and depressive symptoms is complex, requiring the use of methodologically rigorous designs to examine these relations and potential mediating factors. The current study used a random intercepts cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to investigate both between-person and within-person associations in peer victimization, depressive symptoms, and family cohesion across five waves in a sample of adolescents (N = 801, ages 13-15 years at recruitment) in the Northeast. We also investigated the moderating effects of sex and victimization status (i.e., bullying victimization vs. peer victimization). Overall, findings revealed a reciprocal relation between peer victimization and depressive symptoms for females, but no relation for males. A reciprocal relation between peer victimization and family cohesion was found for males. No significant differences were found by victimization status. Future research on peer victimization and associated outcomes and the role of family should account for both between-person and within-person variance.

Parental Involvement and Life Satisfaction in Early Adolescence

Early adolescence is a developmental stage that comprises some basic interactional processes with parents, which can be described as gaining autonomy while maintaining relatedness. Studying how maternal and paternal involvement influence the life satisfaction of sons and daughters during early adolescence is especially important while seeking to understand the challenges of this developmental stage. In this paper, we investigate the differential effects of maternal and paternal involvement, as assessed by sons and daughters, on their life satisfaction during early adolescence. We use a unique survey conducted in Chile, The National Survey on Student Trajectories and Transitions, focusing on a subsample of 497 early adolescents attending 5th to 8th grade (60% female, M age = 12.42, SD = 1.18). Our findings indicate that both paternal and maternal involvement are positively correlated with the life satisfaction of adolescents. We also find that the gender of adolescents moderates the effect of maternal involvement, so daughters (but not sons) who deemed the involvement of their mothers to be more positive reported greater life satisfaction. More positive paternal involvement correlates with greater life satisfaction for sons and daughters. We discuss some mechanisms that might bring about these differences.

[How do Adolescents see their Parents? Prevalences, Predictors and Relationships in Longitudinal and Cross-Section Research]

How do Adolescents see their Parents? Prevalences, Predictors and Relationships in Longitudinal and Cross-Section Research The parent-child relationship has a significant influence on the psychological and social development of a young person in adolescence. The parental image from the perspective of the adolescent has rarely been examined. The aim of this study is to examine the parental images of adolescents in terms of family cohesion, conflicts and overprotection for differences between the paternal and the maternal images and between girls and boys. Furthermore, a cross-section examines the relationship between the parental images and psychological disorders, and, in a longitudinal 10-year study, whether the parental images can be predicted through risk factors in childhood. The sample includes 343 young people with an average age of 14 years, 46 % are girls. The parental images were recorded with the "Elternbildfragebogen" (Parental Image Questionnaire; EBF-KJ; Titze u. Lehmkuhl, 2010). Compared to fathers, mothers are assessed more positively in terms of their cohesion, but at the same time they also show more conflictual and higher overprotection behavior. Very few differences were found between girls and boys. There were consistently significant correlations between the parental images and internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, such that cohesion is a protective factor and conflicts and overprotection are risk factors for the development of psychological disorders. Some aspects of the images of the mother and father can be significantly predicted by the parents' education and by psychological disorders in childhood. Future research should examine the influence of possible mediators and moderators.