Glucose metabolism following human traumatic brain injury: methods of assessment and pathophysiological findings

Validation of optimised intracranial spectroscopic probe for instantaneous in-situ monitoring and classification of traumatic brain injury

The development of an optical interface to directly distinguish the brain tissue's biochemistry is the next step in understanding traumatic brain injury (TBI) pathophysiology and the best and most appropriate treatment in cases where in-hospital intracranial access is required. Despite TBI being a globally leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients under 40, there is still a lack of objective diagnostical tools. Further, given its pathophysiological complexity the majority of treatments provided are purely symptomatic without standardized therapeutic targets. Our tailor-engineered prototype of the intracranial Raman spectroscopy probe (Intra-RSP) is designed to bridge the gap and provide real-time spectroscopic insights to monitor TBI and its evolution as well as identify patient-specific molecular targets for timely intervention. Raman spectroscopy being rapid, label-free and non-destructive, renders it an ideal portable diagnostics tool. In combination with our in-house developed software, using machine learning algorithms for multivariate analysis, the Intra-RSP is shown to accurately differentiate simulated TBI conditions in rat brains from the healthy controls, directly from the brain surface as well as through the rat's skull. Using clinically pre-established methods of cranial entry, the Intra-RSP can be inserted into a 2-piece optimised cranial bolt with integrated focussing and correctly identify a sample in real-life conditions with an accuracy >80 %. To further validate the Intra-RSP's efficiency as a TBI monitoring device, rat brains mildly damaged from inflicted spinal cord injury were found to be correctly classified with 94.5 % accuracy. Through optimization and rigorous in-vivo validation, the Intra-RSP prototype is envisioned to seamlessly integrate into existing standards of neurological care, serving as a minimally invasive, in-situ neuromonitoring tool. This transformative approach has the potential to revolutionize the landscape of neurological care by providing clinicians with unprecedented insights into the nature of brain injuries and fostering targeted, timely and effective therapeutic interventions.

Assessing Mild Traumatic Brain Injury-Associated Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) Damage and Restoration Using Late-Phase Perfusion Analysis by 3D ASL MRI: Implications for Predicting Progressive Brain Injury in a Focused Review

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a common occurrence around the world, associated with a variety of blunt force and torsion injuries affecting all age groups. Most never reach medical attention, and the identification of acute injury and later clearance to return to usual activities is relegated to clinical evaluation-particularly in sports injuries. Advanced structural imaging is rarely performed due to the usual absence of associated acute anatomic/hemorrhagic changes. This review targets physiologic imaging techniques available to identify subtle blood-brain barrier dysfunction and white matter tract shear injury and their association with chronic traumatic encephalopathy. These techniques provide needed objective measures to assure recovery from injury in those patients with persistent cognitive/emotional symptoms and in the face of repetitive mTBI.

Metabolic Pathophysiology of Cortical Spreading Depression: A Review

Cortical spreading depression (CSD) is an electrophysiologic pathological state in which a wave of depolarization in the cerebral cortex is followed by the suppression of spontaneous neuronal activity. This transient spread of neuronal depolarization on the surface of the cortex is the hallmark of CSD. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that transmembrane ion transport, astrocytic ion clearing and fatigue, glucose metabolism, the presence of certain genetic markers, point mutations, and the expression of the enzyme responsible for the production of various arachidonic acid derivatives that participate in the inflammatory response, namely, cyclooxygenase (COX), all influence CSD. Here, we explore the associations between CSD occurrence in the cortex and various factors, including how CSD is related to migraines, how the glucose state affects CSD, the effect of TBI and its relationship with CSD and glucose metabolism, how different markers can be measured to determine the severity of CSD, and possible connections to oligemia, orexin, and leptin.

Mechanisms of vascular injury in neurotrauma: A critical review of the literature

One in every two individuals will experience a traumatic brain injury in their lifetime with significant impacts on the global economy and healthcare system each year. Neurovascular injury is a key aspect of neurotrauma to both the brain and the spinal cord and an important avenue of current and future research seeking innovative therapies. In this paper, we discuss primary and secondary neurotrauma, mechanisms of injury, the glymphatic system, repair and recovery. Each of these topics are directly connected to the vasculature of the central nervous system, affecting severity of injury and recovery. Consequently, neurovascular injury in trauma represents a promising target for future therapeutics and innovation.

Daily variation in blood glucose levels during continuous enteral nutrition in patients on the intensive care unit: a retrospective observational study

BACKGROUND

The circadian timing system coordinates daily cycles in physiological functions, including glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Here, the aim was to characterise the 24-h variation in glucose levels in critically ill patients during continuous enteral nutrition after controlling for potential sources of bias.

METHODS

Time-stamped clinical data from adult patients who stayed in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) for at least 4 days and received enteral nutrition were extracted from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC)-IV database. Linear mixed-effects and XGBoost modelling were used to determine the effect of time of day on blood glucose values.

FINDINGS

In total, 207,647 glucose measurements collected during enteral nutrition were available from 6,929 ICU patients (3,948 males and 2,981 females). Using linear mixed-effects modelling, time of day had a significant effect on blood glucose levels (p < 0.001), with a peak of 9.6 [9.5-9.6; estimated marginal means, 95% CI] mmol/L at 10:00 in the morning and a trough of 8.6 [8.5-8.6] mmol/L at 02:00 at night. A similar impact of time of day on glucose levels was found with the XGBoost regression model.

INTERPRETATION

These results revealed marked 24-h variation in glucose levels in ICU patients even during continuous enteral nutrition. This 24-h pattern persists after adjustment for potential sources of bias, suggesting it may be the result of endogenous biological rhythmicity.

FUNDING

This work was supported by a VENI grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), an institutional project grant, and by the Dutch Research Council (NWO).

Non-pharmacological interventions for traumatic brain injury

Heterogeneity and variability of symptoms due to the type, site, age, sex, and severity of injury make each case of traumatic brain injury (TBI) unique. Considering this, a universal treatment strategy may not be fruitful in managing outcomes after TBI. Most of the pharmacological therapies for TBI aim at modifying a particular pathway or molecular process in the sequelae of secondary injury rather than a holistic approach. On the other hand, non-pharmacological interventions such as hypothermia, hyperbaric oxygen, preconditioning with dietary adaptations, exercise, environmental enrichment, deep brain stimulation, decompressive craniectomy, probiotic use, gene therapy, music therapy, and stem cell therapy can promote healing by modulating multiple neuroprotective mechanisms. In this review, we discussed the major non-pharmacological interventions that are being tested in animal models of TBI as well as in clinical trials. We evaluated the functional outcomes of various interventions with an emphasis on the links between molecular mechanisms and outcomes after TBI.

The combination treatment of hypothermia and intranasal insulin ameliorates the structural and functional changes in a rat model of traumatic brain injury

The present study aimed to investigate the combination effects of hypothermia (HT) and intranasal insulin (INS) on structural changes of the hippocampus and cognitive impairments in the traumatic brain injury (TBI) rat model. The rats were divided randomly into the following five groups (n = 10): Sham, TBI, TBI with HT treatment for 3 h (TBI + HT), TBI with INS (ten microliters of insulin) treatment daily for 7 days (TBI + INS), and TBI with combining HT and INS (TBI + HT + INS). At the end of the 7th day, the open field and the Morris water maze tests were done for evaluation of anxiety-like behavior and memory performance. Then, after sacrificing, the brain was removed for stereological study. TBI led to an increase in the total volume of hippocampal subfields CA1 and DG and a decrease in the total number of neurons and non-neuronal cells in both sub-regions, which was associated with anxiety-like behavior and memory impairment. Although, the combination of HT and INS prevented the increased hippocampal volume and cell loss and improved behavioral performances in the TBI group. Our study suggests that the combined treatment of HT and INS could prevent increased hippocampal volume and cell loss in CA1 and DG sub-regions and consequently improve anxiety-like behaviors and memory impairment following TBI.

Traumatic brain injury and stem cell treatments: A review of recent 10 years clinical trials

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is damage to the brain by an external physical force. It may result in cognitive and physical dysfunction. It is one of the main causes of disability and death all around the world. In 2016, the worldwide incidence of acute TBI was nearly 27 million cases. Therapeutic interventions currently in use provide poor outcomes. So recent research has focused on stem cells as a potential treatment. The major objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the recent clinical trials in the field of stem cell transplantation for patients with TBI. The Cochrane Library, Web of Science, SCOPUS, PubMed and also Google Scholar were searched for relevant terms such as "traumatic brain injury", " brain trauma", "brain injury", "head injury", "TBI", "stem cell", and "cell transplantation" and for publications from January 2013 to June 2023. Clinical trials and case series which utilized stem cells for TBI treatment were included. The data about case selection and sample size, mechanism of injury, time between primary injury and cell transplantation, type of stem cells transplanted, route of stem cell administration, number of cells transplanted, episodes of transplantation, follow-up time, outcome measures and results, and adverse events were extracted. Finally, 11 studies met the defined criteria and were included in the review. The total sample size of all studies was 402, consisting of 249 cases of stem cell transplantation and 153 control subjects. The most commonly used cells were BMMNCs, the preferred route of transplantation was intrathecal transplantation, and all studies reported improvement in clinical, radiologic, or biochemical markers after transplantation. No serious adverse events were reported. Stem cell therapy is safe and logistically feasible and leads to neurological improvement in patients with traumatic brain injury. However, further controlled, randomized, multicenter studies with large sample sizes are needed to determine the optimal cell and dose, timing of transplantation in acute or chronic phases of TBI, and the optimal route and number of transplants.

Tracing the path of disruption: 13C isotope applications in traumatic brain injury-induced metabolic dysfunction

Cerebral metabolic dysfunction is a critical pathological hallmark observed in the aftermath of traumatic brain injury (TBI), as extensively documented in clinical investigations and experimental models. An in-depth understanding of the bioenergetic disturbances that occur following TBI promises to reveal novel therapeutic targets, paving the way for the timely development of interventions to improve patient outcomes. The 13C isotope tracing technique represents a robust methodological advance, harnessing biochemical quantification to delineate the metabolic trajectories of isotopically labeled substrates. This nuanced approach enables real-time mapping of metabolic fluxes, providing a window into the cellular energetic state and elucidating the perturbations in key metabolic circuits. By applying this sophisticated tool, researchers can dissect the complexities of bioenergetic networks within the central nervous system, offering insights into the metabolic derangements specific to TBI pathology. Embraced by both animal studies and clinical research, 13C isotope tracing has bolstered our understanding of TBI-induced metabolic dysregulation. This review synthesizes current applications of isotope tracing and its transformative potential in evaluating and addressing the metabolic sequelae of TBI.

Engineered Dual Antioxidant Enzyme Complexes Targeting ICAM-1 on Brain Endothelium Reduce Brain Injury-Associated Neuroinflammation

The neuroinflammatory cascade triggered by traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents a clinically important point for therapeutic intervention. Neuroinflammation generates oxidative stress in the form of high-energy reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, which are key mediators of TBI pathology. The role of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is essential for proper neuronal function and is vulnerable to oxidative stress. Results herein explore the notion that attenuating oxidative stress at the vasculature after TBI may result in improved BBB integrity and neuroprotection. Utilizing amino-chemistry, a biological construct (designated "dual conjugate" for short) was generated by covalently binding two antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD-1) and catalase (CAT)) to antibodies specific for ICAM-1. Bioengineering of the conjugate preserved its targeting and enzymatic functions, as evaluated by real-time bioenergetic measurements (via the Seahorse-XF platform), in brain endothelial cells exposed to increasing concentrations of hydrogen peroxide or a superoxide anion donor. Results showed that the dual conjugate effectively mitigated the mitochondrial stress due to oxidative damage. Furthermore, dual conjugate administration also improved BBB and endothelial protection under oxidative insult in an in vitro model of TBI utilizing a software-controlled stretching device that induces a 20% in mechanical strain on the endothelial cells. Additionally, the dual conjugate was also effective in reducing indices of neuroinflammation in a controlled cortical impact (CCI)-TBI animal model. Thus, these studies provide proof of concept that targeted dual antioxidant biologicals may offer a means to regulate oxidative stress-associated cellular damage during neurotrauma.

Cerebral Glucose Metabolism following TBI: Changes in Plasma Glucose, Glucose Transport and Alternative Pathways of Glycolysis-A Translational Narrative Review

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major public health concern with significant consequences across various domains. Following the primary event, secondary injuries compound the outcome after TBI, with disrupted glucose metabolism emerging as a relevant factor. This narrative review summarises the existing literature on post-TBI alterations in glucose metabolism. After TBI, the brain undergoes dynamic changes in brain glucose transport, including alterations in glucose transporters and kinetics, and disruptions in the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In addition, cerebral glucose metabolism transitions from a phase of hyperglycolysis to hypometabolism, with upregulation of alternative pathways of glycolysis. Future research should further explore optimal, and possibly personalised, glycaemic control targets in TBI patients, with GLP-1 analogues as promising therapeutic candidates. Furthermore, a more fundamental understanding of alterations in the activation of various pathways, such as the polyol and lactate pathway, could hold the key to improving outcomes following TBI.

Blood biomarkers of neuronal injury in paediatric cerebral malaria and severe malarial anaemia

Persistent neurodisability is a known complication in paediatric survivors of cerebral malaria and severe malarial anaemia. Tau, ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1, neurofilament-light chain, and glial fibrillary acidic protein have proven utility as biomarkers that predict adverse neurologic outcomes in adult and paediatric disorders. In paediatric severe malaria, elevated tau is associated with mortality and neurocognitive complications. We aimed to investigate whether a multi-analyte panel including ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1, neurofilament-light chain, and glial fibrillary acidic protein can serve as biomarkers of brain injury associated with mortality and neurodisability in cerebral malaria and severe malarial anaemia. In a prospective cohort study of Ugandan children, 18 months to 12 years of age with cerebral malaria (n = 182), severe malarial anaemia (n = 158), and asymptomatic community children (n = 118), we measured admission blood levels of ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1, neurofilament-light chain, and glial fibrillary acidic protein. We investigated differences in biomarker levels, associations with mortality, blood-brain barrier integrity, neurodeficits and cognitive Z-scores in survivors up to 24-month follow-up. Admission ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 levels were elevated >95th percentile of community children in 71 and 51%, and neurofilament-light chain levels were elevated >95th percentile of community children in 40 and 37% of children with cerebral malaria and severe malarial anaemia, respectively. Glial fibrillary acidic protein was not elevated in disease groups compared with controls. In cerebral malaria, elevated neurofilament-light chain was observed in 16 children who died in hospital compared with 166 survivors (P = 0.01); elevations in ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 levels were associated with degree of blood-brain barrier disruption (P = 0.01); and the % predictive value for neurodeficits over follow-up (discharge, 6-, 12-, and 24 months) increased for ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 (60, 67, 72, and 83), but not neurofilament-light chain (65, 68, 60, and 67). In cerebral malaria, elevated ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 was associated with worse memory scores in children <5 years at malaria episode who crossed to over 5 years old during follow-up cognitive testing [β -1.13 (95% confidence interval -2.05, -0.21), P = 0.02], and elevated neurofilament-light chain was associated with worse attention in children ≥5 years at malaria episode and cognitive testing [β -1.08 (95% confidence interval -2.05, -1.05), P = 0.03]. In severe malarial anaemia, elevated ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 was associated with worse attention in children <5 years at malaria episode and cognitive testing [β -0.42 (95% confidence interval -0.76, -0.07), P = 0.02]. Ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 and neurofilament-light chain levels are elevated in paediatric cerebral malaria and severe malarial anaemia. In cerebral malaria, elevated neurofilament-light chain is associated with mortality whereas elevated ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 is associated with blood-brain barrier dysfunction and neurodeficits over follow-up. In cerebral malaria, both markers are associated with worse cognition, while in severe malarial anaemia, only ubiquitin C-terminal hydrolase-L1 is associated with worse cognition.

Raman Spectroscopy Spectral Fingerprints of Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people of all ages around the globe. TBI is notoriously hard to diagnose at the point of care, resulting in incorrect patient management, avoidable death and disability, long-term neurodegenerative complications, and increased costs. It is vital to develop timely, alternative diagnostics for TBI to assist triage and clinical decision-making, complementary to current techniques such as neuroimaging and cognitive assessment. These could deliver rapid, quantitative TBI detection, by obtaining information on biochemical changes from patient's biofluids. If available, this would reduce mis-triage, save healthcare providers costs (both over- and under-triage are expensive) and improve outcomes by guiding early management. Herein, we utilize Raman spectroscopy-based detection to profile a panel of 18 raw (human, animal, and synthetically derived) TBI-indicative biomarkers (N-acetyl-aspartic acid (NAA), Ganglioside, Glutathione (GSH), Neuron Specific Enolase (NSE), Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP), Ubiquitin C-terminal Hydrolase L1 (UCHL1), Cholesterol, D-Serine, Sphingomyelin, Sulfatides, Cardiolipin, Interleukin-6 (IL-6), S100B, Galactocerebroside, Beta-D-(+)-Glucose, Myo-Inositol, Interleukin-18 (IL-18), Neurofilament Light Chain (NFL)) and their aqueous solution. The subsequently derived unique spectral reference library, exploiting four excitation lasers of 514, 633, 785, and 830 nm, will aid the development of rapid, non-destructive, and label-free spectroscopy-based neuro-diagnostic technologies. These biomolecules, released during cellular damage, provide additional means of diagnosing TBI and assessing the severity of injury. The spectroscopic temporal profiles of the studied biofluid neuro-markers are classed according to their acute, sub-acute, and chronic temporal injury phases and we have further generated detailed peak assignment tables for each brain-specific biomolecule within each injury phase. The intensity ratios of significant peaks, yielding the combined unique spectroscopic barcode for each brain-injury marker, are compared to assess variance between lasers, with the smallest variance found for UCHL1 (σ2 = 0.000164) and the highest for sulfatide (σ2 = 0.158). Overall, this work paves the way for defining and setting the most appropriate diagnostic time window for detection following brain injury. Further rapid and specific detection of these biomarkers, from easily accessible biofluids, would not only enable the triage of TBI, predict outcomes, indicate the progress of recovery, and save healthcare providers costs, but also cement the potential of Raman-based spectroscopy as a powerful tool for neurodiagnostics.

Parallel detection of multi-contrast MRI and Deuterium Metabolic Imaging (DMI) for time-efficient characterization of neurological diseases

Deuterium Metabolic Imaging (DMI) is a novel method that can complement traditional anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. DMI relies on the MR detection of metabolites that become labeled with deuterium (2H) after administration of a deuterated substrate and can provide images with highly specific metabolic information. However, clinical adoption of DMI is complicated by its relatively long scan time. Here, we demonstrate a strategy to interleave DMI data acquisition with MRI that results in a comprehensive neuro-imaging protocol without adding scan time. The interleaved MRI-DMI routine includes four essential clinical MRI scan types, namely T1-weighted MP-RAGE, FLAIR, T2-weighted Imaging (T2W) and susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI), interwoven with DMI data acquisition. Phantom and in vivo human brain data show that MR image quality, DMI sensitivity, as well as information content are preserved in the MRI-DMI acquisition method. The interleaved MRI-DMI technology provides full flexibility to upgrade traditional MRI protocols with DMI, adding unique metabolic information to existing types of anatomical image contrast, without extra scan time.

Neuroanatomical zones of human traumatic brain injury reveal significant differences in protein profile and protein oxidation: Implications for secondary injury events

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes significant neurological deficits and long-term degenerative changes. Primary injury in TBI entails distinct neuroanatomical zones, i.e., contusion (Ct) and pericontusion (PC). Their dynamic expansion could contribute to unpredictable neurological deterioration in patients. Molecular characterization of these zones compared with away from contusion (AC) zone is invaluable for TBI management. Using proteomics-based approach, we were able to distinguish Ct, PC and AC zones in human TBI brains. Ct was associated with structural changes (blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, neuroinflammation, axonal injury, demyelination and ferroptosis), while PC was associated with initial events of secondary injury (glutamate excitotoxicity, glial activation, accumulation of cytoskeleton proteins, oxidative stress, endocytosis) and AC displayed mitochondrial dysfunction that could contribute to secondary injury events and trigger long-term degenerative changes. Phosphoproteome analysis in these zones revealed that certain differentially phosphorylated proteins synergistically contribute to the injury events along with the differentially expressed proteins. Non-synaptic mitochondria (ns-mito) was associated with relatively more differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) compared to synaptosomes (Syn), while the latter displayed increased protein oxidation including tryptophan (Trp) oxidation. Proteomic analysis of immunocaptured complex I (CI) from Syn revealed increased Trp oxidation in Ct > PC > AC (vs. control). Oxidized W272 in the ND1 subunit of CI, revealed local conformational changes in ND1 and the neighboring subunits, as indicated by molecular dynamics simulation (MDS). Taken together, neuroanatomical zones in TBI show distinct protein profile and protein oxidation representing different primary and secondary injury events with potential implications for TBI pathology and neurological status of the patients.

Hyperpolarized 13C metabolic imaging detects long-lasting metabolic alterations following mild repetitive traumatic brain injury

Career athletes, active military, and head trauma victims are at increased risk for mild repetitive traumatic brain injury (rTBI), a condition that contributes to the development of epilepsy and neurodegenerative diseases. Standard clinical imaging fails to identify rTBI-induced lesions, and novel non-invasive methods are needed. Here, we evaluated if hyperpolarized 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (HP 13C MRSI) could detect long-lasting changes in brain metabolism 3.5 months post-injury in a rTBI mouse model. Our results show that this metabolic imaging approach can detect changes in cortical metabolism at that timepoint, whereas multimodal MR imaging did not detect any structural or contrast alterations. Using Machine Learning, we further show that HP 13C MRSI parameters can help classify rTBI vs. Sham and predict long-term rTBI-induced behavioral outcomes. Altogether, our study demonstrates the potential of metabolic imaging to improve detection, classification and outcome prediction of previously undetected rTBI.

Mitochondria dysregulation contributes to secondary neurodegeneration progression post-contusion injury in human 3D in vitro triculture brain tissue model

Traumatic Brain injury-induced disturbances in mitochondrial fission-and-fusion dynamics have been linked to the onset and propagation of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. However, cell-type-specific contributions and crosstalk between neurons, microglia, and astrocytes in mitochondria-driven neurodegeneration after brain injury remain undefined. We developed a human three-dimensional in vitro triculture tissue model of a contusion injury composed of neurons, microglia, and astrocytes and examined the contributions of mitochondrial dysregulation to neuroinflammation and progression of injury-induced neurodegeneration. Pharmacological studies presented here suggest that fragmented mitochondria released by microglia are a key contributor to secondary neuronal damage progression after contusion injury, a pathway that requires astrocyte-microglia crosstalk. Controlling mitochondrial dysfunction thus offers an exciting option for developing therapies for TBI patients.

Nrf2 Activation: Involvement in Central Nervous System Traumatic Injuries. A Promising Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds

Central nervous system (CNS) trauma, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI) and spinal cord injury (SCI), represents an increasingly important health burden in view of the preventability of most injuries and the complex and expensive medical care that they necessitate. These injuries are characterized by different signs of neurodegeneration, such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuronal apoptosis. Cumulative evidence suggests that the transcriptional factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) plays a crucial defensive role in regulating the antioxidant response. It has been demonstrated that several natural compounds are able to activate Nrf2, mediating its antioxidant response. Some of these compounds have been tested in experimental models of SCI and TBI, showing different neuroprotective properties. In this review, an overview of the preclinical studies that highlight the positive effects of natural bioactive compounds in SCI and TBI experimental models through the activation of the Nrf2 pathway has been provided. Interestingly, several natural compounds can activate Nrf2 through multiple pathways, inducing a strong antioxidant response against CNS trauma. Therefore, some of these compounds could represent promising therapeutic strategies for these pathological conditions.

Traumatic brain injury and the development of parkinsonism: Understanding pathophysiology, animal models, and therapeutic targets

The clinical translation of therapeutic approaches to combat debilitating neurodegenerative conditions, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), remains as an urgent unmet challenge. The strong molecular association between the pathogenesis of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and the development of parkinsonism in humans has been well established. Therefore, a lot of ongoing research aims to investigate this pathology overlap in-depth, to exploit the common targets of TBI and PD for development of more effective and long-term treatment strategies. This review article intends to provide a detailed background on TBI pathophysiology and its established overlap with PD with an additional emphasis on the recent findings about their effect on perivascular clearance. Although, the traditional animal models of TBI and PD are still being considered, there is a huge focus on the development of combinatory hybrid animal models coupling concussion with the pre-established PD models for a better recapitulation of the human context of PD pathogenesis. Lastly, the therapeutic targets for TBI and PD, and the contemporary research involving exosomes, DNA vaccines, miRNA, gene therapy and gene editing for the development of potential candidates are discussed, along with the recent development of lesser invasive and promising central nervous system (CNS) drug delivery strategies.

The relationship between HbA1C levels and clinical outcome in patients with traumatic train injury: A prospective study

Introduction/Aim: Recently, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) has been suggested as a predictor of mortality and poor clinical outcome in patients with trauma. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between HbA1c values and clinical outcome in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Methods: In a cross-sectional study, a total of 133 TBI patients referred to the emergency department of Imam Khomeini Hospital in Sari, Mazandaran, Iran were evaluated. After transferring the patients to the neurosurgery ward, their HbA1c, fasting blood glucose (FBG) and postprandial glucose (PPG) were measured. Also, patients' Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score was recorded at the time of admission, 24 hours after admission and at the time of discharge from the hospital. Results: The mean of GCS score of patients at the time of admission, 24 hours after admission, and at the time of discharge were 9.02 (2.09), 10.07 (2.16), and 12.98 (1.82), respectively. The mean GCS score of patients with HbA1c < 5.7% was significantly lower than of patients with HbA1c = 5.7 - 6.5% at the time of admission (p < 0.05). At 24 hours after admission, the mean GCS score of patients with HbA1c < 5.7% was significantly lower than in other groups (p < 0.05). However, at the time of discharge, the mean GCS score of patients with HbA1c > 6.5% was significantly lower than in patients with HbA1c = 5.7 - 6.5% (p < 0.05). Over time, the mean of GCS scores in all patients significantly increased (p < 0.001). Conclusion: According to the results of this study it seems that HbA1c measurements cannot provide clear information about the clinical outcome of patients with TBI.

Metabolic derangements are associated with impaired glucose delivery following traumatic brain injury

Metabolic derangements following traumatic brain injury are poorly characterized. In this single-centre observational cohort study we combined 18F-FDG and multi-tracer oxygen-15 PET to comprehensively characterize the extent and spatial pattern of metabolic derangements. Twenty-six patients requiring sedation and ventilation with intracranial pressure monitoring following head injury within a Neurosciences Critical Care Unit, and 47 healthy volunteers were recruited. Eighteen volunteers were excluded for age over 60 years (n = 11), movement-related artefact (n = 3) or physiological instability during imaging (n = 4). We measured cerebral blood flow, blood volume, oxygen extraction fraction, and 18F-FDG transport into the brain (K1) and its phosphorylation (k3). We calculated oxygen metabolism, 18F-FDG influx rate constant (Ki), glucose metabolism and the oxygen/glucose metabolic ratio. Lesion core, penumbra and peri-penumbra, and normal-appearing brain, ischaemic brain volume and k3 hotspot regions were compared with plasma and microdialysis glucose in patients. Twenty-six head injury patients, median age 40 years (22 male, four female) underwent 34 combined 18F-FDG and oxygen-15 PET at early, intermediate, and late time points (within 24 h, Days 2-5, and Days 6-12 post-injury; n = 12, 8, and 14, respectively), and were compared with 20 volunteers, median age 43 years (15 male, five female) who underwent oxygen-15, and nine volunteers, median age 56 years (three male, six female) who underwent 18F-FDG PET. Higher plasma glucose was associated with higher microdialysate glucose. Blood flow and K1 were decreased in the vicinity of lesions, and closely related when blood flow was <25 ml/100 ml/min. Within normal-appearing brain, K1 was maintained despite lower blood flow than volunteers. Glucose utilization was globally reduced in comparison with volunteers (P < 0.001). k3 was variable; highest within lesions with some patients showing increases with blood flow <25 ml/100 ml/min, but falling steeply with blood flow lower than 12 ml/100 ml/min. k3 hotspots were found distant from lesions, with k3 increases associated with lower plasma glucose (Rho -0.33, P < 0.001) and microdialysis glucose (Rho -0.73, P = 0.02). k3 hotspots showed similar K1 and glucose metabolism to volunteers despite lower blood flow and oxygen metabolism (P < 0.001, both comparisons); oxygen extraction fraction increases consistent with ischaemia were uncommon. We show that glucose delivery was dependent on plasma glucose and cerebral blood flow. Overall glucose utilization was low, but regional increases were associated with reductions in glucose availability, blood flow and oxygen metabolism in the absence of ischaemia. Clinical management should optimize blood flow and glucose delivery and could explore the use of alternative energy substrates.

Urinary metabolomic signatures as indicators of injury severity following traumatic brain injury: A pilot study

BACKGROUND

Analysis of fluid metabolites has the potential to provide insight into the neuropathophysiology of injury in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI).

OBJECTIVE

Using a 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based quantitative metabolic profiling approach, this study determined (1) if urinary metabolites change during recovery in patients with mild to severe TBI; (2) whether changes in urinary metabolites correlate to injury severity; (3) whether biological pathway analysis reflects mechanisms that mediate neural damage/repair throughout TBI recovery.

METHODS

Urine samples were collected within 7 days and at 6-months post-injury in male participants (n = 8) with mild-severe TBI. Samples were analyzed with NMR-based quantitative spectroscopy for metabolomic profiles and analyzed with multivariate statistical and machine learning-based analyses.

RESULTS

Lower levels of homovanillate (R = -0.74, p ≤ 0.001), L-methionine (R = -0.78, p < 0.001), and thymine (R = -0.85, p < 0.001) negatively correlated to injury severity. Pathway analysis revealed purine metabolism to be a primary pathway (p < 0.01) impacted by TBI.

CONCLUSION

This study provides pilot data to support the use of urinary metabolites in clinical practice to better interpret biochemical changes underlying TBI severity and recovery. The discovery of urinary metabolites as biomarkers may assist in objective and rapid identification of TBI severity and prognosis. Thus, 1H NMR metabolomics has the potential to facilitate the adaptation of treatment programs that are personalized to the patient's needs.

Early Post-ischemic Brain Glucose Metabolism Is Dependent on Function of TLR2: a Study Using [18F]F-FDG PET-CT in a Mouse Model of Cardiac Arrest and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Purpose

The mammalian brain glucose metabolism is tightly and sensitively regulated. An ischemic brain injury caused by cardiac arrest (CA) and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) affects cerebral function and presumably also glucose metabolism. The majority of patients who survive CA suffer from cognitive deficits and physical disabilities. Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) plays a crucial role in inflammatory response in ischemia and reperfusion (I/R). Since deficiency of TLR2 was associated with increased survival after CA-CPR, in this study, glucose metabolism was measured using non-invasive [¹⁸F]F-FDG PET-CT imaging before and early after CA-CPR in a mouse model comparing wild-type (WT) and TLR2-deficient (TLR2^−/−) mice. The investigation will evaluate whether FDG-PET could be useful as an additional methodology in assessing prognosis.

Procedures

Two PET-CT scans using 2-deoxy-2-[¹⁸F]fluoro-D-glucose ([¹⁸F]F-FDG) tracer were carried out to measure dynamic glucose metabolism before and early after CPR. To achieve this, anesthetized and ventilated adult female WT and TLR2^−/− mice were scanned in PET-CT. After recovery from the baseline scan, the same animals underwent 10-min KCL-induced CA followed by CPR. Approximately 90 min after CA, measurements of [¹⁸F]F-FDG uptake for 60 min were started. The [¹⁸F]F-FDG standardized uptake values (SUVs) were calculated using PMOD-Software on fused FDG-PET-CT images with the included 3D Mirrione-Mouse-Brain-Atlas.

Results

The absolute SUV_mean of glucose in the whole brain of WT mice was increased about 25.6% after CA-CPR. In contrast, the absolute glucose SUV in the whole brain of TLR2^−/− mice was not significantly different between baseline and measurements post CA-CPR. In comparison, baseline measurements of both mouse strains show a highly significant difference with regard to the absolute glucose SUV in the whole brain. Values of TLR2^−/− mice revealed a 34.6% higher glucose uptake.

Conclusions

The altered mouse strains presented a different pattern in glucose uptake under normal and ischemic conditions, whereby the post-ischemic differences in glucose metabolism were associated with the function of key immune factor TLR2. There is evidence for using early FDG-PET-CT as an additional diagnostic tool after resuscitation. Further studies are needed to use PET-CT in predicting neurological outcomes.

Metabolic reprogramming mediates hippocampal microglial M1 polarization in response to surgical trauma causing perioperative neurocognitive disorders

Background

Microglial polarization toward pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype are major contributors to the development of perioperative neurocognitive disorders (PNDs). Metabolic reprogramming plays an important role in regulating microglial polarization. We therefore hypothesized that surgical trauma can activate microglial M1 polarization by metabolic reprogramming to induce hippocampal neuroinflammation and subsequent postoperative cognitive impairment.

Methods

We used aged mice to establish a model of PNDs, and investigated whether surgical trauma induced metabolic reprograming in hippocampus using PET/CT and GC/TOF–MS based metabolomic analysis. We then determined the effect of the glycolytic inhibitor 2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) on hippocampal microglial M1 polarization, neuroinflammation, and cognitive function at 3 d after surgery.

Results

We found that surgery group had less context-related freezing time than either control or anesthesia group (P < 0.05) without significant difference in tone-related freezing time (P > 0.05). The level of Iba-1 fluorescence intensity in hippocampus were significantly increased in surgery group than that in control group (P < 0.05) accompanied by activated morphological changes of microglia and increased expression of iNOS/CD86 (M1 marker) in enriched microglia from hippocampus (P < 0.05). PET/CT and metabolomics analysis indicated that surgical trauma provoked the metabolic reprogramming from oxidative phosphorylation to glycolysis in hippocampus. Inhibition of glycolysis by 2-DG significantly alleviated the surgical trauma induced increase of M1 (CD86⁺CD206⁻) phenotype in enriched microglia from hippocampus and up-regulation of pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1β and IL-6) expression in hippocampus. Furthermore, glycolytic inhibition by 2-DG ameliorated the hippocampus dependent cognitive deficit caused by surgical trauma.

Conclusions

Metabolic reprogramming is crucial for regulating hippocampal microglial M1 polarization and neuroinflammation in PNDs. Manipulating microglial metabolism might provide a valuable therapeutic strategy for treating PNDs.

Surgical trauma impaired the hippocampus-dependent contextual memory in age mice.

Surgical trauma induced microglial M1 polarization and subsequent neuroinflammation.

Metabolic reprogramming was crucial for regulating microglial M1 polarization in PNDs.

Modulating microglial metabolism might provide a valuable approach for treating PNDs.

Sex Differences in Mitochondrial Function Following a Controlled Cortical Impact Traumatic Brain Injury in Rodents

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex disease to study due to the multifactorial injury cascades occurring after the initial blow to the head. One of the most vital players in this secondary injury cascade, and therapeutic target of interest, is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria are important for the generation of cellular energy, regulation of cell death, and modulation of intracellular calcium which leaves these “powerhouses” especially susceptible to damage and dysfunction following traumatic brain injury. Most of the existing studies involving mitochondrial dysfunction after TBI have been performed in male rodent models, leaving a gap in knowledge on these same outcomes in females. This mini-review intends to highlight the available data on mitochondrial dysfunction in male and female rodents after controlled cortical impact (CCI) as a common model of TBI.

Rescuing mitochondria in traumatic brain injury and intracerebral hemorrhages - A potential therapeutic approach

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles responsible for cellular energy production. Besides, regulating energy homeostasis, mitochondria are responsible for calcium homeostasis, signal transmission, and the fate of cellular survival in case of injury and pathologies. Accumulating reports have suggested multiple roles of mitochondria in neuropathologies, neurodegeneration, and immune activation under physiological and pathological conditions. Mitochondrial dysfunction, which occurs at the initial phase of brain injury, involves oxidative stress, inflammation, deficits in mitochondrial bioenergetics, biogenesis, transport, and autophagy. Thus, development of targeted therapeutics to protect mitochondria may improve functional outcomes following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and intracerebral hemorrhages (ICH). In this review, we summarize mitochondrial dysfunction related to TBI and ICH, including the mechanisms involved, and discuss therapeutic approaches with special emphasis on past and current clinical trials.

Concussion/Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Induces Brain Insulin Resistance: A Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scanning Study

Brain injury/concussion is a growing epidemic throughout the world. Although evidence supports association between traumatic brain injury (TBI) and disturbance in brain glucose metabolism, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not well established. Previously, we reported the release of cellular prion protein (PrPc) from the brain to circulation following TBI. The PrPc level was also found to be decreased in insulin-resistant rat brains. In the present study, we investigated the molecular link between PrPc and brain insulin resistance in a single and repeated mild TBI-induced mouse model. Mild TBI was induced in mice by dropping a weight (~95 g at 1 m high) on the right side of the head. The procedure was performed once and thrice (once daily) for single (SI) and repeated induction (RI), respectively. Micro PET/CT imaging revealed that RI mice showed significant reduction in cortical, hippocampal and cerebellum glucose uptake compared to SI and control. Mice that received RI also showed significant motor and cognitive deficits. In co-immunoprecipitation, the interaction between PrPc, flotillin and Cbl-associated protein (CAP) observed in the control mice brains was disrupted by RI. Lipid raft isolation showed decreased levels of PrPc, flotillin and CAP in the RI mice brains. Based on observation, it is clear that PrPc has an interaction with CAP and the dislodgment of PrPc from cell membranes may lead to brain insulin resistance in a mild TBI mouse model. The present study generated a new insight into the pathogenesis of brain injury, which may result in the development of novel therapy.

Methamphetamine exacerbates pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury at high altitude. Neuroprotective effects of nanodelivery of a potent antioxidant compound H-290/51

Military personnel are often exposed to high altitude (HA, ca. 4500-5000m) for combat operations associated with neurological dysfunctions. HA is a severe stressful situation and people frequently use methamphetamine (METH) or other psychostimulants to cope stress. Since military personnel are prone to different kinds of traumatic brain injury (TBI), in this review we discuss possible effects of METH on concussive head injury (CHI) at HA based on our own observations. METH exposure at HA exacerbates pathophysiology of CHI as compared to normobaric laboratory environment comparable to sea level. Increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown, edema formation and reductions in the cerebral blood flow (CBF) following CHI were exacerbated by METH intoxication at HA. Damage to cerebral microvasculature and expression of beta catenin was also exacerbated following CHI in METH treated group at HA. TiO2-nanowired delivery of H-290/51 (150mg/kg, i.p.), a potent chain-breaking antioxidant significantly enhanced CBF and reduced BBB breakdown, edema formation, beta catenin expression and brain pathology in METH exposed rats after CHI at HA. These observations are the first to point out that METH exposure in CHI exacerbated brain pathology at HA and this appears to be related with greater production of oxidative stress induced brain pathology, not reported earlier.

Cell-Based Therapies for Traumatic Brain Injury: Therapeutic Treatments and Clinical Trials

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) represents physical damage to the brain tissue that induces transitory or permanent neurological disabilities. TBI contributes to 50% of all trauma deaths, with many enduring long-term consequences and significant medical and rehabilitation costs. There is currently no therapy to reverse the effects associated with TBI. An increasing amount of research has been undertaken regarding the use of different stem cells (SCs) to treat the consequences of brain damage. Neural stem cells (NSCs) (adult and embryonic) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have shown efficacy in pre-clinical models of TBI and in their introduction to clinical research. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of TBI and the state of clinical trials aimed at evaluating the use of stem cell-based therapies in TBI. The primary aim of these studies is to investigate the safety and efficacy of the use of SCs to treat this disease. Although an increasing number of studies are being carried out, few results are currently available. In addition, we present our research regarding the use of cell therapy in TBI. There is still a significant lack of understanding regarding the cell therapy mechanisms for the treatment of TBI. Thus, future studies are needed to evaluate the feasibility of the transplantation of SCs in TBI.

Enhancing Metabolic Imaging of Energy Metabolism in Traumatic Brain Injury Using Hyperpolarized [1-13C]Pyruvate and Dichloroacetate

Hyperpolarized magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) of [1-¹³C]pyruvate metabolism has previously been used to assess the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rats. Here, we show that MRSI can be used in conjunction with dichloroacetate to measure the phosphorylation state of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) following mild-to-moderate TBI, and that measurements can be repeated in a longitudinal study to monitor the course of injury progression and recovery. We found that the level of ¹³C-bicarbonate and the bicarbonate-to-lactate ratio decreased on the injured side of the brain four hours after injury and continued to decrease through day 7. Levels recovered to normal by day 28. Measurements following dichloroacetate administration showed that PDH was inhibited equally by PDH kinase (PDK) on both sides of the brain. Therefore, the decrease in aerobic metabolism is not due to inhibition by PDK.

Relationship Between Glycosylated Hemoglobin and Short-Term Mortality of Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Background: The relationship between glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and prognosis of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (SICH) patients has not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to reveal the relationship between HbA1c levels and short-term mortality after patient admission with SICH. Methods: It was a large-scale, multicenter, cross-sectional study. From August 1, 2015, to July 31, 2019, a total of 41910 SICH patients were included in the study from the Chinese Stroke Center Alliance (CSCA) program. Finally, we comprehensively analyzed the data from 21,116 patients with SICH. HbA1c was categorized into four groups by quartile. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to assess the association between HbA1c levels and short-term mortality in SICH patients. Results: The average age of the 21,116 patients was 62.8 ± 13.2 years; 13,052 (61.8%) of them were male, and 507 (2.4%) of them died. Compared to the higher three quartiles of HbA1c, the lowest quartile (≤5.10%) had higher short-term mortality. In subgroup analysis with or without diabetes mellitus (DM) patients, the mortality of the Q3 group at 5.60-6.10% was significantly lower than that of the Q1 group at ≤5.10%. After adjustment for potential influencing factors, the ROC curve of HbA1c can better predict the short-term mortality of patients with SICH (AUC = 0.6286 P < 0.001). Conclusions: Therefore, we concluded that low or extremely low HbA1c levels (≤5.10%) after stroke were associated with higher short-term mortality in SICH patients, with or without DM.

Characterising the dynamics of cerebral metabolic dysfunction following traumatic brain injury: A microdialysis study in 619 patients

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability, particularly amongst young people. Current intensive care management of TBI patients is targeted at maintaining normal brain physiology and preventing secondary injury. Microdialysis is an invasive monitor that permits real-time assessment of derangements in cerebral metabolism and responses to treatment. We examined the prognostic value of microdialysis parameters, and the inter-relationships with other neuromonitoring modalities to identify interventions that improve metabolism. This was an analysis of prospective data in 619 adult TBI patients requiring intensive care treatment and invasive neuromonitoring at a tertiary UK neurosciences unit. Patients had continuous measurement of intracranial pressure (ICP), arterial blood pressure (ABP), brain tissue oxygenation (PbtO2), and cerebral metabolism and were managed according to a standardized therapeutic protocol. Microdialysate was assayed hourly for metabolites including glucose, pyruvate, and lactate. Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) and cerebral autoregulation (PRx) were derived from the ICP and ABP. Outcome was assessed with the Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS) at 6 months. Relationships between monitoring variables was examined with generalized additive mixed models (GAMM). Lactate/Pyruvate Ratio (LPR) over the first 3 to 7 days following injury was elevated amongst patients with poor outcome and was an independent predictor of ordinal GOS (p<0.05). Significant non-linear associations were observed between LPR and cerebral glucose, CPP, and PRx (p<0.001 to p<0.05). GAMM models suggested improved cerebral metabolism (i.e. reduced LPR with CPP >70mmHg, PRx <0.1, PbtO2 >18mmHg, and brain glucose >1mM. Deranged cerebral metabolism is an important determinant of patient outcome following TBI. Variations in cerebral perfusion, oxygenation and glucose supply are associated with changes in cerebral LPR and suggest therapeutic interventions to improve cerebral metabolism. Future prospective studies are required to determine the efficacy of these strategies.

Imaging Acute Metabolic Changes in Patients with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Using Hyperpolarized [1-13C]Pyruvate

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) involves complex secondary injury processes following the primary injury. The secondary injury is often associated with rapid metabolic shifts and impaired brain function immediately after the initial tissue damage. Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) coupled with hyperpolarization of ¹³C-labeled substrates provides a unique opportunity to map the metabolic changes in the brain after traumatic injury in real-time without invasive procedures. In this report, we investigated two patients with acute mild TBI (Glasgow coma scale 15) but no anatomical brain injury or hemorrhage. Patients were imaged with hyperpolarized [1-¹³C]pyruvate MRSI 1 or 6 days after head trauma. Both patients showed significantly reduced bicarbonate (HCO₃^–) production, and one showed hyperintense lactate production at the injured sites. This study reports the feasibility of imaging altered metabolism using hyperpolarized pyruvate in patients with TBI, demonstrating the translatability and sensitivity of the technology to cerebral metabolic changes after mild TBI.

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Clinical translation of hyperpolarized pyruvate to TBI was demonstrated

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Patients with mild TBI were imaged with hyperpolarized [1-¹³C]pyruvate

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Altered lactate and HCO₃^– production in the brain nearest the site of trauma

Nutrition Therapy, Glucose Control, and Brain Metabolism in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Multimodal Monitoring Approach

The goal of neurocritical care in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) is to prevent secondary brain damage. Pathophysiological mechanisms lead to loss of body mass, negative nitrogen balance, dysglycemia, and cerebral metabolic dysfunction. All of these complications have been shown to impact outcomes. Therapeutic options are available that prevent or mitigate their negative impact. Nutrition therapy, glucose control, and multimodality monitoring with cerebral microdialysis (CMD) can be applied as an integrated approach to optimize systemic immune and organ function as well as adequate substrate delivery to the brain. CMD allows real-time bedside monitoring of aspects of brain energy metabolism, by measuring specific metabolites in the extracellular fluid of brain tissue. Sequential monitoring of brain glucose and lactate/pyruvate ratio may reveal pathologic processes that lead to imbalances in supply and demand. Early recognition of these patterns may help individualize cerebral perfusion targets and systemic glucose control following TBI. In this direction, recent consensus statements have provided guidelines and recommendations for CMD applications in neurocritical care. In this review, we summarize data from clinical research on patients with severe TBI focused on a multimodal approach to evaluate aspects of nutrition therapy, such as timing and route; aspects of systemic glucose management, such as intensive vs. moderate control; and finally, aspects of cerebral metabolism. Research and clinical applications of CMD to better understand the interplay between substrate supply, glycemic variations, insulin therapy, and their effects on the brain metabolic profile were also reviewed. Novel mechanistic hypotheses in the interpretation of brain biomarkers were also discussed. Finally, we offer an integrated approach that includes nutritional and brain metabolic monitoring to manage severe TBI patients.

Traumatic Brain Injury and Stem Cells: An Overview of Clinical Trials, the Current Treatments and Future Therapeutic Approaches

Traumatic brain injury represents physical damage to the brain tissue that induces transitory or permanent neurological disabilities. The traumatic injury activates an important inflammatory response, followed by a cascade of events that lead to neuronal loss and further brain damage. Maintaining proper ventilation, a normal level of oxygenation, and adequate blood pressure are the main therapeutic strategies performed after injury. Surgery is often necessary for patients with more serious injuries. However, to date, there are no therapies that completely resolve the brain damage suffered following the trauma. Stem cells, due to their capacity to differentiate into neuronal cells and through releasing neurotrophic factors, seem to be a valid strategy to use in the treatment of traumatic brain injury. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of clinical trials, aimed to evaluate the use of stem cell-based therapy in traumatic brain injury. These studies aim to assess the safety and efficacy of stem cells in this disease. The results available so far are few; therefore, future studies need in order to evaluate the safety and efficacy of stem cell transplantation in traumatic brain injury.

(-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate provides neuroprotection via AMPK activation against traumatic brain injury in a mouse model

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) has shown robust neuroprotective effects on various brain injury models in rodents. Herein, we aimed to investigate if EGCG protects against TBI and unravel the underlying mechanisms. A total of 102 mice were used for this study. TBI was induced by controlled cortical impact (CCI). EGCG was given immediately after TBI injury. Neurological functions were accessed by corner test, paw placement, modified neurological severity score, rotarod test, and Morris water maze test. AMPK inhibitor and AMPKα1-knockout mice were used to further study the signaling pathways involved in the observed effects. Our results show that EGCG significantly ameliorated CCI-induced neurological impairment, including spatial learning and memory. EGCG suppressed CCI-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. Furthermore, EGCG downregulated the phosphorylation of IKKα/β, IκBα, and nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65; upregulated AMPK phosphorylation; and altered corresponding changes in the phosphorylation of the downstream target's ribosomal protein S6, AS160, and CaMKKß. Our data demonstrate that EGCG protects against CCI-induced TBI through the activation of the AMPK pathway in mice, suggesting that EGCG might be a promising therapeutic intervention preventing locomotor and cognitive impairments after TBI.

Hypoxia preconditioning protects neuronal cells against traumatic brain injury through stimulation of glucose transport mediated by HIF-1α/GLUTs signaling pathway in rat

Hypoxia preconditioning (HPC), a well-established preconditioning model, has been shown to protect the brain against severe hypoxia or ischemia caused by traumatic brain injury (TBI), but the mechanism has not been well elucidated. Anaerobic glycolysis is the major way for neurons to produce energy under cerebral ischemia and hypoxia after TBI, and it requires large amounts of glucose. We hypothesized that glucose transport, as a rate-limiting step of glucose metabolism, may play key roles in the neuroprotective effects of HPC on cerebral cortex tissue against TBI. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of HPC on glucose transport activity of rat cerebral cortex tissue after TBI through examining the gene expression of two major glucose transporters (GLUT1 and GLUT3) and their upstream target gene hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α). Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with HPC (50.47 kPa, 3 h/d, 3d). Twenty-four hours after the last treatment, the rats were injured using the Feeney free falling model. Cortex tissues of injured rats were removed at 1 h, 4 h, 8 h, 12 h, 1 day, 3 days, 7 d, and 14 days post-injury for histological analysis. Compared with TBI alone, HPC before TBI resulted in the expression of HIF-1α, GLUT1, and GLUT3 to increase at 1 h; they were markedly increased at 4 h, 8 h, 12 h, 1 day, and 3 days and decreased thereafter (p < 0.05). HPC before TBI could improve neuronal survival in rats by examining NeuN staining and observing reduced apoptosis by examining TUNEL staining. The result showed that HPC before TBI could increase the expression of GLUT1 and GLUT3. And through double immunofluorescence staining for GLUT3 and NeuN, the results strongly suggest that HPC improved glucose transport activity of neurons in rats with TBI. In summary, our results further support that HPC can improve hypoxia tolerance and attenuate neuronal loss of cerebral cortex in rats after TBI. The mechanism is mainly related to the increase of glucose transport activity through inducing GLUT1 and GLUT3 expression through upregulating HIF-1α expression.

Real-time in vivo detection techniques for neurotransmitters: a review

Functional synapses in the central nervous system depend on a chemical signal exchange process that involves neurotransmitter delivery between neurons and receptor cells in the neuro system.

Hypertonic Lactate to Improve Cerebral Perfusion and Glucose Availability After Acute Brain Injury

OBJECTIVES

Lactate promotes cerebral blood flow and is an efficient substrate for the brain, particularly at times of glucose shortage. Hypertonic lactate is neuroprotective after experimental brain injury; however, human data are limited.

DESIGN

Prospective study (clinicaltrials.gov NCT01573507).

SETTING

Academic ICU.

PATIENTS

Twenty-three brain-injured subjects (13 traumatic brain injury/10 subarachnoid hemorrhage; median age, 59 yr [41-65 yr]; median Glasgow Coma Scale, 6 [3-7]).

INTERVENTIONS

Three-hour IV infusion of hypertonic lactate (sodium lactate, 1,000 mmol/L; concentration, 30 µmol/kg/min) administered 39 hours (26-49 hr) from injury.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

We examined the effect of hypertonic lactate on cerebral perfusion (using transcranial Doppler) and brain energy metabolism (using cerebral microdialysis). The majority of subjects (13/23 = 57%) had reduced brain glucose availability (baseline pretreatment cerebral microdialysis glucose, < 1 mmol/L) despite normal baseline intracranial pressure (10 [7-15] mm Hg). Hypertonic lactate was associated with increased cerebral microdialysis lactate (+55% [31-80%]) that was paralleled by an increase in middle cerebral artery mean cerebral blood flow velocities (+36% [21-66%]) and a decrease in pulsatility index (-21% [13-26%]; all p < 0.001). Cerebral microdialysis glucose increased above normal range during hypertonic lactate (+42% [30-78%]; p < 0.05); reduced brain glucose availability correlated with a greater improvement of cerebral microdialysis glucose (Spearman r = -0.53; p = 0.009). No significant changes in cerebral perfusion pressure, mean arterial pressure, systemic carbon dioxide, and blood glucose were observed during hypertonic lactate (all p > 0.1).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first clinical demonstration that hypertonic lactate resuscitation improves both cerebral perfusion and brain glucose availability after brain injury. These cerebral vascular and metabolic effects appeared related to brain lactate supplementation rather than to systemic effects.

Vascular and non-vascular contributors to memory reduction during traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an increasing health problem. It is a complex, progressive disease that consists of many factors affecting memory. Studies have shown that increased blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability initiates pathological changes in neuro-vascular network but the role of cerebrovascular dysfunction and its mediated mechanisms associated with memory reduction during TBI are still not well understood. Changes in BBB, inflammation, extravasation of blood plasma components, activation of neuroglia lead to neurodegeneration. Extravasated proteins such as amyloid-beta, fibrinogen, and cellular prion protein may form degradation resistant complexes that can lead to neuronal dysfunction and degeneration. They also have the ability to activate astrocytes, and thus, can be involved in memory impairment. Understanding the triggering mechanisms and the places they originate in vasculature or in extravascular tissue may help to identify potential therapeutic targets to ameliorate memory reduction during TBI. The goal of this review is to discuss conceptual mechanisms that lead to short-term memory reduction during non-severe TBI considering distinction between vascular and non-vascular effects on neurons. Some aspects of these mechanisms need to be confirmed further. Therefore, we hope that the discussion presented bellow may lead to experiments that may clarify the triggering mechanisms of memory reduction after head trauma.

Discovery and validation of temporal patterns involved in human brain ketometabolism in cerebral microdialysis fluids of traumatic brain injury patients

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is recognized as a metabolic disease, characterized by acute cerebral glucose hypo-metabolism. Adaptive metabolic responses to TBI involve the utilization of alternative energy substrates, such as ketone bodies. Cerebral microdialysis (CMD) has evolved as an accurate technique allowing continuous sampling of brain extracellular fluid and assessment of regional cerebral metabolism. We present the successful application of a combined hypothesis- and data-driven metabolomics approach using repeated CMD sampling obtained routinely at patient bedside. Investigating two patient cohorts (n = 26 and n = 12), we identified clinically relevant metabolic patterns at the acute post-TBI critical care phase.

Methods

Clinical and CMD metabolomics data were integrated and analysed using in silico and data modelling approaches. We used both unsupervised and supervised multivariate analysis techniques to investigate structures within the time series and associations with patient outcome.

Findings

The multivariate metabolite time series exhibited two characteristic brain metabolic states that were attributed to changes in key metabolites: valine, 4-methyl-2-oxovaleric acid (4-MOV), isobeta-hydroxybutyrate (iso-bHB), tyrosyine, and 2-ketoisovaleric acid (2-KIV). These identified cerebral metabolic states differed significantly with respect to standard clinical values. We validated our findings in a second cohort using a classification model trained on the cerebral metabolic states. We demonstrated that short-term (therapeutic intensity level (TIL)) and mid-term patient outcome (6-month Glasgow Outcome Score (GOS)) can be predicted from the time series characteristics.

Interpretation

We identified two specific cerebral metabolic patterns that are closely linked to ketometabolism and were associated with both TIL and GOS. Our findings support the view that advanced metabolomics approaches combined with CMD may be applied in real-time to predict short-term treatment intensity and long-term patient outcome.

Comprehensive Profile of Acute Mitochondrial Dysfunction in a Preclinical Model of Severe Penetrating TBI

Mitochondria constitute a central role in brain energy metabolism, and play a pivotal role in the development of secondary pathophysiology and subsequent neuronal cell death following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Under normal circumstances, the brain consumes glucose as the preferred energy source for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production over ketones. To understand the comprehensive picture of substrate-specific mitochondrial bioenergetics responses following TBI, adult male rats were subjected to either 10% unilateral penetrating ballistic-like brain injury (PBBI) or sham craniectomy (n = 5 animals per group). At 24 h post-injury, mitochondria were isolated from pooled brain regions (frontal cortex and striatum) of the ipsilateral hemisphere. Mitochondrial bioenergetics parameters were measured ex vivo in the presence of four sets of metabolic substrates: pyruvate+malate (PM), glutamate+malate (GM), succinate (Succ), and β-hydroxybutyrate+malate (BHBM). Additionally, mitochondrial matrix dehydrogenase activities [i.e., pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC), alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (α-KGDHC), and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH)] and mitochondrial membrane-bound dehydrogenase activities [i.e., electron transport chain (ETC) Complex I, II, and IV] were compared between PBBI and sham groups. Furthermore, mitochondrial coenzyme contents, including NAD_(t) and FAD_(t), were quantitatively measured in both groups. Collectively, PBBI led to an overall significant decline in the ATP synthesis rates (43-50%; ^* p < 0.05 vs. sham) when measured using each of the four sets of substrates. The PDHC and GDH activities were significantly reduced in the PBBI group (42-53%; ^* p < 0.05 vs. sham), whereas no significant differences were noted in α-KGDHC activity between groups. Both Complex I and Complex IV activities were significantly reduced following PBBI (47-81%; ^* p < 0.05 vs. sham), whereas, Complex II activity was comparable between groups. The NAD_(t) and FAD_(t) contents were significantly decreased in the PBBI group (27-35%; ^* p < 0.05 vs. sham). The decreased ATP synthesis rates may be due to the significant reductions in brain mitochondrial dehydrogenase activities and coenzyme contents observed acutely following PBBI. These results provide a basis for the use of "alternative biofuels" for achieving higher ATP production following severe penetrating brain trauma.

Metabolic perturbations after pediatric TBI: It's not just about glucose

Improved patient survival following pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) has uncovered a currently limited understanding of both the adaptive and maladaptive metabolic perturbations that occur during the acute and long-term phases of recovery. While much is known about the redundancy of metabolic pathways that provide adequate energy and substrates for normal brain growth and development, the field is only beginning to characterize perturbations in these metabolic pathways after pediatric TBI. To date, the majority of studies have focused on dysregulated oxidative glucose metabolism after injury; however, the immature brain is well-equipped to use alternative substrates to fuel energy production, growth, and development. A comprehensive understanding of metabolic changes associated with pediatric TBI cannot be limited to investigations of glucose metabolism alone. All energy substrates used by the brain should be considered in developing nutritional and pharmacological interventions for pediatric head trauma. This review summarizes post-injury changes in brain metabolism of glucose, lipids, ketone bodies, and amino acids with discussion of the therapeutic potential of altering substrate utilization to improve pediatric TBI outcomes.

Quantifying normal human brain metabolism using hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate and magnetic resonance imaging

Hyperpolarized 13C Magnetic Resonance Imaging (13C-MRI) provides a highly sensitive tool to probe tissue metabolism in vivo and has recently been translated into clinical studies. We report the cerebral metabolism of intravenously injected hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate in the brain of healthy human volunteers for the first time. Dynamic acquisition of 13C images demonstrated 13C-labeling of both lactate and bicarbonate, catalyzed by cytosolic lactate dehydrogenase and mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase respectively. This demonstrates that both enzymes can be probed in vivo in the presence of an intact blood-brain barrier: the measured apparent exchange rate constant (kPL) for exchange of the hyperpolarized 13C label between [1-13C]pyruvate and the endogenous lactate pool was 0.012 ± 0.006 s-1 and the apparent rate constant (kPB) for the irreversible flux of [1-13C]pyruvate to [13C]bicarbonate was 0.002 ± 0.002 s-1. Imaging also revealed that [1-13C]pyruvate, [1-13C]lactate and [13C]bicarbonate were significantly higher in gray matter compared to white matter. Imaging normal brain metabolism with hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate and subsequent quantification, have important implications for interpreting pathological cerebral metabolism in future studies.

Oxidative stress induces release of 2'-AMP from microglia

BACKGROUND

Microglia metabolize exogenous 2'-AMP and 3'-AMP (non-canonical nucleotides) to adenosine and exogenous 2'-AMP and 3'-AMP (via conversion to adenosine) inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines by microglia. This suggests that if microglia release endogenous 2'-AMP and/or 3'-AMP in response to injurious stimuli, this would complete an autocrine/paracrine mechanism that attenuates the over-activation of microglia during brain injury. Here we investigated in microglia (and for comparison astrocytes and neurons) the effects of injurious stimuli on extracellular and intracellular levels of 2',3'-cAMP (2'-AMP and 3'-AMP precursor), 2'-AMP, and 3'-AMP.

METHODS

Experiments were conducted in primary cultures of rat microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. Cells were exposed to oxygen/glucose deprivation, iodoacetate plus 2,4-dinitrophenol (metabolic inhibitors), glutamate, or H₂O₂ for one hour, and extracellular and intracellular 2',3'-cAMP, 2'-AMP, and 3'-AMP were measured by UPLC-MS/MS.

KEY RESULTS

In microglia, H₂O₂ increased extracellular levels of 2'-AMP, but not 3'-AMP, by ∼16-fold (from 0.17 ± 0.11 to 2.78 ± 0.27 ng/10⁶ cells; n = 13; mean ± SEM; P < 0.000005). H₂O₂ also induced oxidative changes in cellular proteins as detected by an increased number of carbonyl groups in protein side chains. In contrast, oxygen/glucose deprivation, metabolic inhibitors, or glutamate had no effect on either extracellular 2'-AMP or 3'-AMP levels. In astrocytes and neurons, none of the injurious stimuli increased extracellular 2'-AMP or 3'-AMP.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxidative stress (but not oxygen/glucose deprivation, energy deprivation, or excitotoxicity) induces microglia (but not astrocytes or neurons) to release 2'-AMP, but not 3'-AMP. The 2',3'-cAMP/2'-AMP/adenosine pathway mechanism may serve to prevent over-activation of microglia in response to oxidative stress.

Traumatic brain injury associated with dementia risk among people with type 1 diabetes

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between traumatic brain injury (TBI) and dementia risk among a cohort of middle-aged and elderly individuals with type 1 diabetes (T1D).

METHODS

We evaluated 4,049 members of an integrated health care system with T1D ≥50 years old between January 1, 1996, and September 30, 2015. Dementia and TBI diagnoses throughout the study period were abstracted from medical records. Cox proportional hazards models estimated associations between time-dependent TBI and dementia adjusting for demographics, HbA1c, nephropathy, neuropathy, stroke, peripheral artery disease, depression, and dysglycemic events. Fine and Gray regression models evaluated the association between baseline TBI and dementia risk accounting for competing risk of death.

RESULTS

A total of 178 individuals (4.4%) experienced a TBI and 212 (5.2%) developed dementia. In fully adjusted models, TBI was associated with 3.6 times the dementia risk (hazard ratio [HR] 3.64; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.34, 5.68). When accounting for the competing risk of death, TBI was associated with almost 3 times the risk of dementia (HR 2.91; 95% CI 1.29, 5.68).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates a marked increase in risk of dementia associated with TBI among middle-aged and elderly people with T1D. Given the complexity of self-care for individuals with T1D, and the comorbidities that predispose them to trauma and falls, future work is needed on interventions protecting brain health in this vulnerable population, which is now living to old age.

Therapeutic effect of intensive glycemic control therapy in patients with traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemia is associated with dismal outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), which is frequently treated with insulin therapy. In this study, a systematic review and meta-analysis of the published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was performed to assess the safety and efficacy of intensive glycemic control (IGC) versus conventional glycemic control (CGC) for patients following TBI.

METHODS

Databases, including PubMed, Embase, and the Cochran database, were retrieved up to January 2018. The outcomes evaluated in this study included mortality, neurological outcome, infection rate, hypoglycemia episode, and length of stay (LOS) in intensive care unit (ICU). The enrolled trials were analyzed using the Review Manager 5.3 software.

RESULTS

A total of 7 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 1013 cases were enrolled in this study, and the results indicated no significant difference in 6-month mortality (risk ratio [RR], 0.92; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.76-1.10; P = .34). Subsequently, IGC was associated with a better neurological outcome (RR, 1.22; 95% CI 1.05-1.43; P = .01), lower infection rate (RR, 0.65; 95% CI 0.51-0.82; P = .0003) and shorter LOS in ICU (mean difference [MD] = -1.37; 95%CI = -2.11, -0.63; P = .0003). In addition, IGC would also increase the risk of hypoglycemia episode (RR, 4.53; 95% CI 2.18-9.42; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

IGC plays a protective role in improving neurological outcome, decreasing infection rate and reducing the LOS in ICU. However, IGC therapy can also remarkably increase the risk of hypoglycemia, but it will not affect the mortality in TBI patients.

An investigation of neuroinjury biomarkers after sport-related concussion: from the subacute phase to clinical recovery

OBJECTIVES

To characterise a panel of neuroinjury-related blood biomarkers after sport-related concussion (SRC). We hypothesised significant differences in biomarker profiles between athletes with SRC and healthy controls at both subacute and medical clearance time points.

METHODS

Thirty-eight interuniversity athletes were recruited over two athletic seasons (n = 19 SRC; n = 19 healthy matched-control). High-sensitivity immunoassay was used to evaluate 11 blood analytes at both the subacute phase after SRC and at medical clearance.

RESULTS

Univariate analysis identified elevated circulating peroxiredoxin-6 (PRDX-6) in athletes with SRC compared to healthy controls at the subacute time point. Multivariate analyses yielded similar results in the subacute phase, but identified both PRDX-6 and T-tau as significant contributors to class separation between athletes with SRC and controls at medical clearance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results are consistent with the increasing recognition that physiological recovery after SRC extends beyond clinical recovery. Blood biomarkers appear to be useful in elucidating the biology of brain restitution after SRC. However, their implementation requires mindfulness of factors such as academic stress, exercise, and injury heterogeneity.