Impact of maritime traffic on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and particulate matter in Venice air

Spatiotemporal Gradients of PAH Concentrations in Greek Cities and Associated Exposure Impacts

To study the spatiotemporal variability of particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and assess their carcinogenic potential in six contrasting urban environments in Greece, a total of 305 filter samples were collected and analyzed. Sampling sites included a variety of urban background, traffic (Athens, Ioannina and Heraklion), rural (Xanthi) and near-port locations (Piraeus and Volos). When considering the sum of 16 U.S. EPA priority PAHs, as well as that of the six EU-proposed members, average concentrations observed across locations during summer varied moderately (0.4-2.2 ng m-3) and independently of the population of each site, with the highest values observed in the areas of Piraeus and Volos that are affected by port and industrial activities. Winter levels were significantly higher and more spatially variable compared to summer, with the seasonal enhancement ranging from 7 times in Piraeus to 98 times in Ioannina, indicating the large impact of PAH emissions from residential wood burning. Regarding benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), an IARC Group 1 carcinogen and the only EU-regulated PAH, the winter/summer ratios were 24-33 in Athens, Volos, Heraklion and Xanthi; 60 in Piraeus; and 480 in Ioannina, which is afflicted by severe wood-burning pollution events. An excellent correlation was observed between organic carbon (OC) and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) during the cold period at all urban sites (r2 > 0.8) with stable BaP/OC slopes (0.09-0.14 × 10-3), highlighting the potential use of OC as a proxy for the estimation of BaP in winter conditions. The identified spatiotemporal contrasts, which were explored for the first time for PAHs at such a scale in the Eastern Mediterranean, provide important insights into sources and controlling atmospheric conditions and reveal large deviations in exposure risks among cities that raise the issue of environmental injustice on a national level.

Air monitoring of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in Bursa Türkiye: Levels, temporal trends and risk assessment

Monitoring concentration levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is required to evaluate the effectiveness of international regulations to minimize the emissions of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment. In this manner, we evaluated the spatial and temporal variations of 22 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) using polyurethane foam passive air samplers at ten stations in Bursa in 2017 and 2018. The highest concentration value for Σ22OCPs was detected in Ağaköy (775 pg/m3) and Demirtaş (678 pg/m3) sampling sites, while the lowest value was observed in Uludağ University Campus (UUC, 284 pg/m3) site. HCB, γ-HCH, Endo I, and Mirex were the most frequently detected OCPs, which shows their persistence. Diagnostic ratios of β-/(α + γ)-HCH have pointed to historical and possible illegal OCP usage in the study area. The seasonality of air concentrations (with spring and summer concentrations higher than winter and autumn concentrations) was well exhibited by α-HCH, β-HCH, ɣ-HCH, HCB, Endo I, and Mirex but not aldrin, dieldrin, and α-chlordane (CC). Levels of OCPs detected in ambient air in the current study were relatively similar to or lower than those reported in previous studies conducted in Türkiye. Back trajectory analysis was applied to identify the possible sources of OCPs detected in the sampling regions. The Clausius-Clapeyron approach was used to investigate the temperature dependence of OCP gas-phase atmospheric concentrations. The data showed that long-range atmospheric transport affects ambient air OCP concentrations in the study area.

Emission characteristics of naphthalene from ship exhausts under global sulfur cap

The global sulfur limit regulation mandates the use of 0.5 % low sulfur fuel oil (LSFO) to reduce emissions of sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). However, the addition of naphthalene (Nap) to LSFO to stabilize its quality has led to an increase in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), with Nap being the main pollutant. This study investigates the effects of Nap in ship exhaust by analyzing the emission concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and Nap in the exhaust of 16 ships, including 2 container ships, 6 bulk carriers, 1 tanker, 2 ferries, 3 fishing vessels, and 2 harbor crafts, based on USEPA method TO-15A. The results show that the percentage of Nap emissions in the exhaust gases of the 16 ship engines ranged from 77 % to 97 % of the total volatile organic compound (TVOC). The Nap concentration in the exhaust of fishing vessels, tanker, and harbor craft exceeded the occupational exposure limit of 50,000 μg/m3, with fishing vessels having the highest TVOC and Nap concentrations. The enhanced Nap emission in the air degrades air quality in port cities and poses an obvious potential public health risk. While the benefits of the global sulfur cap are being secured, additional efforts should be made to reduce the undetected side effects. Alternative stabilizers of LSFO should be considered, or Nap emission control should be boosted to mitigate the potential negative impact on harbor air quality.

An unneglected source to ambient brown carbon and VOCs at harbor area: LNG tractor truck

The ambient air quality of harbors area in Asia is commonly more polluted compared to other continents. The airborne pollutant is directly or indirectly related to a significant impact of traffic emissions. This study for the first time assessed the impacts on brown carbon (BrC) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from in-port liquid natural gas (LNG) tractor truck at harbor areas, via conducting real-time monitoring of VOCs characteristic and sampling for ambient air at a harbor (named as W harbor) in Shanghai, China, collecting emissions of in-port LNG tractor truck and miniCast in laboratory, as well as statistics of external container diesel trucks in the port for further validation. HPLC/DAD/Q-Tof MS was adopted for sample analysis. Results showed that many CHO compounds were associated with vehicle exhausts. Among of them, aliphatic CHO compounds with low degree of unsaturation were identified as fatty acids and fatty acid methyl esters extensively existing in fuel combustion emissions. And non-aliphatic CHO compounds characterized by low O/C ratios (<0.17) identified for the harbor air came from the emissions of in-port LNG power trucks with low-speed driving and idling. The ambient average non-methane total hydrocarbons (NMHC) concentration (0.59 ppm) at W harbor was much greater than that for other areas in Shanghai. The higher ratios of toluene/benzene (3.30) and m/p-xylene/ethylbenzene (3.11) observed at W harbor implied instead of external container diesel trucks, the dominating contributing of internal LNG tractor trucks to ambient VOCs cannot be neglected. This study concluded that LNG is not as clean as it was expected. The LNG-fueled vehicles can produce strong light-absorption chromophores as well as high concentration of VOCs.

BTEX profile and health risk at the largest bulk port in Latin America, Paranaguá Port

Port-related activities have a detrimental impact on the air quality both at the point of source and for considerable distances beyond. These activities include, but are not limited to, heavy cargo traffic, onboard, and at-berth emissions. Due to differences in construction, operation, location, and policies at ports, the site-specific air pollution cocktail could result in different human health risks. Thus, monitoring and evaluating such emissions are essential to predict the risk to the community. Environmental agencies often monitor key pollutants (PM_2.5, PM₁₀, NO₂, SO₂), but the volatile organic carbons (VOCs) most often are not, due to its analytical challenging. This study intends to fill that gap and evaluate the VOC emissions caused by activities related to the port of Paranaguá - one of the largest bulk ports in Latin America - by characterizing BTEX concentrations at the port and its surroundings. At seven different sites, passive samplers were used to measure the dispersion of BTEX concentrations throughout the port and around the city at weekly intervals from November 2018 to January 2019. The average and uncertainty of BTEX concentrations (µg m^-3) were 0.60 ± 0.43, 5.58 ± 3.80, 3.30 ± 2.41, 4.66 ± 3.67, and 2.82 ± 1.95 for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, m- and p-xylene, and o-xylene, respectively. Relationships between toluene and benzene and health risk analysis were used to establish the potential effects of BTEX emissions on the population of the city of Paranaguá. Ratio analysis (T/B, B/T, m,p X/Et, and m,p X/B) indicate that the BTEX levels are mainly from fresh emission sources and that photochemical ageing was at minimum. The cancer risk varied across the sampling trajectory, whereas ethylbenzene represented a moderate cancer risk development for the exposed population in some of the locations. This study provided the necessary baseline data to support policymakers on how to change the circumstances of those currently at risk, putting in place a sustainable operation.

Environmental assessment model for scrubbers versus alternative mitigation systems for feeder vessels in liner shipping

Implementation of the Global Sulphur Cap (GSC), in January 2020, boosted scrubber installation in vessels to fulfill the new air emission limitations. This increase in scrubbers' use has intensified concern about its environmental performance. Even though achievement of GSC requirements through this mitigation system has been widely proven, the impact of wash water discharge on the marine environment remains under discussion. In this paper, an assessment environmental model is introduced to quantify in monetary terms the performance of feeder vessels that operate with several mitigation systems. This model attempts to improve traditional air emission evaluations by including the impact of scrubbers' discharges on the marine environmental. In this way, the analysis not only allows different mitigations systems to be ranked by considering their capacity to reduce air emissions, but also provides further information about the marine eutrophication and ecotoxicity impact from scrubbers' discharge. Through the model's application to a regular shipping line between the Canary Islands and the Iberian Peninsula, it was found that, the scrubber, regardless of its operation mode (open- or closed loop), is the most efficient mitigation option after the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) fuel shift. The impact of scrubbers' discharge was not as significant as expected on the feeder vessel's total pollution since this provides similar relative weight to the methane emissions from a dual-engine option by operating with LNG. The results also show the need to more closely research the marine eutrophication impact of closed-loop scrubbers. Finally, this paper warns about a significant dispersion on the monetary values of marine ecotoxicity and eutrophication, due to a high dependence of the results on the frameworks' localization. Consequently, further research is needed on the homogenization of pollution monetization in the marine environment.

Preparation of Monoclonal Antibody against Pyrene and Benzo [a]pyrene and Development of Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Fish, Shrimp and Crab Samples

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are significant environmental and food pollutants that can cause cancer. In this work, a specific monoclonal antibody (mAb) to identify pyrene (PYR) and benzo [a]pyrene (BaP) was prepared, and an indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay (ic-ELISA) was established to detect PYR and BaP residues in living aquatic products for the first time. The effects of complete antigens with different coupling ratios on the production of high-sensitivity mAb was explored. Under the optimal conditions, the IC₅₀ value was 3.73 ± 0.43 µg/L (n = 5). The limits of detection (LODs) for PYR and BaP in fish, shrimp, and crab ranged from 0.43 to 0.98 µg/L. The average recoveries of the spiked samples ranged from 81.5–101.9%, and the coefficient of variation (CV) was less than 11.7%. The validation of the HPLC-FLD method indicated that the ELISA method set up in this experiment provided a trustworthy tool for PAHs residues detection in aquatic products.

Possible influence of shipping emissions on metals in size-segregated particulate matter in Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)

In the world of growing maritime fleets, ships powered by fossil fuels are being widely used that are responsible for atmospheric emissions such as particulate matter (PM). When inhaled, these can cause serious injury to the body and affect internal organs, because the particle size is on a tiny scale. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) regulates the standards for emissions from marine diesel engines. However, although they pose risks to human health and the environment, the metals present in PM are not covered by Brazilian national current legislation. This study is based on the results of sampling of PM in the atmosphere of Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, by means of the MOUDI cascade impactor, followed by acid opening of the collected PM and subsequent chemical analysis by ICP-MS for the determination of Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn. In coarse particles, the mean values ranged from 0.11 ng m^-3 for Ba to 24.9 ng m^-3 for Fe; in fine particles, from 0.07 ng m^-3 for Co to 25.0 ng m^-3 for Fe; and in ultrafine particles, from 0.11 ng m^-3 for Ba to 9.71 ng m^-3 for Fe. Finally, the nanoparticles (Ba and Ca) were not detected and the maximum value obtained was 5.32 ng m^-3 for Mn.

The environmental benefit of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei coal banning area for North China

In order to achieve the targets specified in the Action Plan for Air Pollution Prevention and Control (APAPPC), a limited coal banning area (10,000 km2) was designated in the heavily polluted Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region (BTH) for the first time in 2017. PM2.5 and elements were sampled by the network of BTH to evaluate the effectiveness of this policy. This study found that the fine days with PM2.5 < 75 μg m-3 accounted for 74.3% in the autumn and winter of 2017, which was significantly higher than that in 2016 (43%). The heavily polluted days (PM2.5 > 150 μg m-3) also decreased from 32.2% in 2016 to 4.9% in 2017. Arsenic (As) is an important tracer in coal consumption, which can be used to reflect the influence of the establishment of coal banning areas on north China. The cluster analysis of air mass forward trajectory identified that the number of polluted trajectories with PM2.5 and As in 2017 decreased by 47.6% and 49.7%, respectively. Under the implementation of the coal banning policy, the weighted concentration of PM2.5 and As decreased by 94.2 μg m-3 and 5.1 ng m-3 in the coal banning area, 60.9 μg m-3 and 3.4 ng m-3 in the no coal banning area in BTH, respectively. The influence of weighted concentration of PM2.5 and As in coal banning area on North China were 1.6-49.2 μg m-3 and 0.15-2.8 ng m-3, respectively, which was 38.8% and 29.7% lower than 2016. In coal banning area, BTH and other parts of North China, the reduction of the weight concentration of PM2.5 in 2017 accounted for 41.4%, 26.8% and 31.8% of the total reduction, respectively, so was the As in 39%, 26.3% and 34.6%, indicating that setting up a coal banning area scientifically in limited areas can produce remarkable regional benefit.

Chemical characterisation of PM10 from ship emissions: a study on samples from hydrofoil exhaust stacks

A chemical characterization of PM10 collected at hydrofoil exhaust stacks was performed conducting two on-board measuring campaigns, with the aim of assessing the ship emission impact on PM10 collected in the coastal area of Naples (Southern Italy) and providing information about the characteristics of this important PM emission source.Samples were analysed determining the contribution of different chemical parameters to PM10's mass, which consisted of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (0.10 ± 0.12%), total carbon (61.9% ± 20.0%, with 40.4% of organic carbon, OC, and 21.5% of elemental carbon, EC) and elemental fraction (0.44% ± 1.00%). Differences in terms of composition and chemical parameter profiles were observed between samples collected during offshore navigation (Off) and samples collected during shunting operations (SO), the latter of higher concern on a local scale. For SO samples, lower contributions of OC and EC were observed (39.7% and 19.6% respectively) compared to Off samples (41.5% and 24.2%), and an increase in terms of elements (from 0.32 to 0.51%) and PAHs (from 0.06 to 0.12%) concentrations was observed. In addition, enrichment factors (EFs) for some elements such as V, Zn, Cd, Cu, Ag and Hg as well as PAHs profile varied significantly between SO and Off. Data presented here were compared with data on chemical composition of PM10 sampled in a tunnel, in a background site and in an urban site in the city of Naples. Results indicated that shipping activities contributed significantly to the emission of V and, in some extent, Zn and Cd; in addition, PAH profiles indicated a greater contribution to urban PM10 from vehicular traffic than shipping emissions. These results can significantly contribute to the correct evaluation of the influence of shipping emission on PM10 generation in urban coastal areas and can be a useful reference for similar studies. The coastal area of Naples is an important example of the coexistence of residential, touristic and natural areas with pollutants emission sources including, among the others, shipping emissions. In this and similar contexts, it is important to distinguish the contribution of each emission source to clearly define environmental control policies.

Sources of airborne particulates (PM10) in the port city of Rijeka, Croatia

The air quality monitoring in Rijeka started in the early 1970s and has been oriented to air pollution caused by the big industrial sources (new petroleum refinery, oil burning power plant, coke plant), while maritime traffic was neglected. First emission inventory comprising port emission was done only in 2008 indicating similar level of emissions as road traffic. Further analyses on maritime impact were done within MED project POSEIDON. This was the good opportunity to perform positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis on airborne particulate data and identify principal sources of pollution within the Rijeka urban area. PMF analyses of PM₁₀ collected from the urban background site in the period 2008-2010 identified 5 factors: biomass burning, secondary sulphates, sea spray, road/soil dust and metal industry/traffic. Condition probability functions (CPF) obtained from PMF factors of dust and secondary sulphates indicate that Ca, Fe, Zn and Cu originate from harbour area due to reloading of fertilizers and metal waste, as well as SO₄^2- and NH₄⁺ pointing to maritime corridor leading to the Rijeka harbour. These data could not quantify the maritime impact on the air quality, but gave the first estimation of contribution of various sources to air pollution within the Rijeka Bay area. The maritime contribution to air quality was estimated in other part of the same project, as primary PM_2.5 emission obtained from vanadium. Both primary PM_2.5 emission and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon profiles indicated reduced economic activity, including maritime traffic, during economic crisis in the period 2008-2012.

Shipping and Air Quality in Italian Port Cities: State-of-the-Art Analysis of Available Results of Estimated Impacts

Populated coastal areas are exposed to emissions from harbour-related activities (ship traffic, loading/unloading, and internal vehicular traffic), posing public health issues and environmental pressures on climate. Due to the strategic geographical position of Italy and the high number of ports along coastlines, an increasing concern about maritime emissions from Italian harbours has been made explicit in the EU and IMO (International Maritime Organization, London, UK) agenda, also supporting the inclusion in a potential Mediterranean emission control area (MedECA). This work reviews the main available outcomes concerning shipping (and harbours’) contributions to local air quality, particularly in terms of concentration of particulate matter (PM) and gaseous pollutants (mainly nitrogen and sulphur oxides), in the main Italian hubs. Maritime emissions from literature and disaggregated emission inventories are discussed. Furthermore, estimated impacts to air quality, obtained with dispersion and receptor modeling approaches, which are the most commonly applied methodologies, are discussed. Results show a certain variability that suggests the necessity of harmonization among methods and input data in order to compare results. The analysis gives a picture of the effects of this pollution source, which could be useful for implementing effective mitigation strategies at a national level.

Levels, distributions, and seasonal variations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient air and pine components

Pine tree (Pinus pinea) components have been used as passive air samples for determining atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations. Our results indicated that pine needles and branches were found to be statistically successful in describing the ambient air. Monthly pine needles, branches (1- and 2-year-old) and ambient air samples were collected for 1 year to identify molecular distributions and temporal concentrations of PAHs in a suburban-industrial area. Annual average Σ₁₄PAH concentrations for pine needles, 1- and 2-year-old branches, and ambient air were 756 ± 232 ng/g DW, 685 ± 350 ng/g DW, 587 ± 361 ng/g DW, and 28.29 ± 32.33 ng/m³, respectively. The order of average Σ₁₄PAH concentrations in the pine tree components was determined as needle > 1-year-old branch > 2-year-old branch. In general, concentrations increased with the rise in the surface area of tree components. In the samples, 3- and 4-ring PAHs were dominant compounds in the ambient air, pine needles, and branches. The annual total fraction of 3- and 4-ring PAHs in the air was 98.5%, while the fraction of 5- and 6-ring PAHs was 1.5%. On the other hand, 3- and 4-ring PAHs in pine needles and branches were 30% or more. The fraction and level of PAHs change with the season. Although needle samples did not show any seasonal trend, PAH levels in other tree components changed with the air temperature. Generally, lower values were observed in warmer seasons in the branch samples. Similarly, ambient air PAH concentrations were higher in the winter season due to heating and adverse meteorological conditions.

Occurrence and source apportionment of organic pollutants in deep sediment cores of the Venice Lagoon

In this study, recent and aged inputs of five classes of organic contaminants (i.e. PCBs, OCPs, PCDD/Fs, PAHs, and n-Alkanes) were evaluated in eight deep sediment cores of the Venice Lagoon, collected along the path of a new waterway whose excavation is under evaluation by local authorities, to assess the environmental quality status of the area. Diagnostic indices were calculated for identifying pollutant distribution patterns and their major emission sources, whose relative contribution was quantified by a Positive Matrix Factorization source apportionment model. Sedimentary depth profiles highlighted higher contamination in the top layer, mainly related to ship traffic combustion and vehicular/industrial emissions from the mainland. Nevertheless, a significant level of pollution has been detected also in the deeper layers, probably due to the transport of particulate matter through the aquifers underlying the lagoon seabed. The results underlined the threat posed by the possible resuspension of pollutants in the water column during contaminated sediment dredging.

Recent Advances in Studying Air Quality and Health Effects of Shipping Emissions

The increase of global commerce and tourism makes the shipping sector an important contributor of atmospheric particles and gaseous pollutants. These have impacts on both health and climate, especially in populated coastal areas. Maritime activities could be an important driver for economic and social development, however, they are also an environmental pressure. Several policies were implemented in the last decades, at local/regional or international levels, mainly focused on reducing the content of sulphur in marine fuels. The last international IMO-2020 regulation was enforced on 1 January 2020. This work reviews some recent studies on this topic delineating current knowledge of the impacts of maritime emissions on air quality and health and the future projections relative to the benefits of the implementation of the new IMO-2020 regulation. In addition, future perspectives for further mitigation strategies are discussed.

Comparison of the impact of ships to size-segregated particle concentrations in two harbour cities of northern Adriatic Sea

Detailed information on in-harbour shipping contribution to size segregated particles in coastal cities are scarce, especially in the busy Mediterranean basin. This poses issues for human exposure and air quality in urban harbour agglomerates, where only criteria pollutants (i.e. PM₁₀ and/or PM_2.5) are usually monitored. In this work, particle number and mass size distributions, in a large size range (0.01-31 μm), were obtained in two coastal cities of northern Adriatic Sea: Venice (Italy) and Rijeka (Croatia). Three size ranges were investigated: nanoparticles (diameter D < 0.25 μm); fine particles (0.25<D < 1 μm), and coarse particles (D > 1 μm). Absolute concentrations were larger in Venice for all size ranges showing, using analysis of daily trends, a large influence of local meteorology and boundary-layer dynamics. Contribution of road transport was larger (in relative terms) in Rijeka compared to Venice. The highest contributions of shipping were in Venice, mainly because of the larger ship traffic. Maximum impact was on nanoparticles 7.4% (Venice) and 1.8% (Rijeka), the minimum was on fine range 1.9% (Venice) and <0.2% (Rijeka) and intermediate values were found in the coarse fraction 1.8% (Venice) and 0.5% (Rijeka). Contribution of shipping to mass concentration was not distinguishable from uncertainty in Rijeka (<0.2% for PM₁, PM_2.5, and PM₁₀) and was about 2% in Venice. Relative contributions as function of particles size show remarkable similitudes: a maximum for nanoparticles, a quick decrease and a successive secondary maximum (2-3 times lower than the first) in the fine range. For larger diameters, the relative contributions reach a minimum at 1-1.5 μm and there is a successive increase in the coarse range. Size distributions showed a not negligible contribution of harbour emissions to nanoparticle and fine particle number concentrations, compared to PM_2.5 or PM₁₀, indicating them as a better metric to monitor shipping impacts compared to mass concentrations (PM_2.5 or PM₁₀).

Evaluation of air quality and mobility policies in 14 large Italian cities from 2006 to 2016

Despite a connection between road traffic and air pollution has been clearly identified, few integrated analyses on air quality and mobility policies are currently available worldwide. Aim of this work is to build a framework for the evaluation of the impact of mobility policies on air quality in 14 major Italian cities, on a long-time scale (2006-2016). Air quality data was collected from all PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and NO₂ monitoring stations, installed in compliance with the European directive 2008/50/EC. A large dataset was collected, including public transport, environmental, and fuel categorization of the private vehicular fleet, low emissions zones and modal split. In the analyzed time period, both public transportation use and private motorization decreased. Considering the environmental classification standards of vehicles, Northern cities are more readily switching to newer and less polluting cars (e.g. Euro 5 and Euro 6). There has been a general reduction in PM and NO₂ concentration. Nevertheless, exceedances are still above the targeted limit value, mainly in some Northern cities who made major investments in sustainable and shared mobility: this highlights a strong influence of climatic conditions and other sources. Dramatic variations in the CO/NO ratio were observed in Turin, while smaller changes are observed in Milan, Rome and Palermo.

Impact of harbour activities on local air quality: A review

Several harbour activities cause negative environmental impacts in the harbours' surrounding areas, namely the degradation of air quality. This paper intends to comprehensively review the status of the air quality measured in harbour areas. The published studies show a limited number of available air quality monitoring data in harbours areas, mostly located in Europe (71%). Measured concentrations of the main air pollutants were compiled and intercompared, for different countries worldwide allowing a large spatial representativeness. The higher NO₂ and PM₁₀ concentrations were found in Europe - ranging between 12 and 107 μg/m³ and 2-50 μg/m³, respectively, while the higher concentrations of PM_2.5 were found in Asia (25-70 μg/m³). In addition, the lower levels of SO₂ monitored in recent years suggest that current mitigation strategies adopted across Europe were very efficient in promoting the reduction of SO₂ concentrations. Part of the reviewed studies also estimated the contributions from ship emissions to PM concentration through the application of source apportionment methods, with an average of 5-15%. In some specific harbour areas in Asia, ships can contribute up to 7-26% to the local fine particulate matter concentrations. This review confirms that emissions from the maritime transport sector should be considered as a significant source of particulate matter in harbour areas, since this pollutant concentrations are frequently exceeding the established standard legal limit values. Therefore, the results from this review boost the implementation of mitigation measures, aiming to reduce, in particular, particulate matter emissions.

Characterization of PM2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives (nitro-and oxy-PAHs) emissions from two ship engines under different operating conditions

Emissions from ship exhaust have been recognized as an important source of air pollution in coastal areas. To investigate the impacts of engine type, fuel and operating conditions on polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) emissions, particle matter (PM_2.5) samples emitted from an inland-river bulk freighter (BF) using marine diesel oil (MDO) and an ocean-going passenger vessel (PV) using heavy fuel oil (HFO) were collected under five operation conditions (preheating, leaving, cruising, entering and berthing). The concentrations of 17 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 12 nitro-PAHs (NPAHs) and 4 oxygenated-PAHs species were determined. The concentrations of ΣPAHs, ΣNPAHs and ΣOPAHs measured on the BF and PV exhausts ranged from 1.95 to 417 μg/m³, 86.5 to 6.89 × 10³ ng/m³ and 2.00-102 μg/m³, respectively. Both ships showed a high proportion of four-ring PAHs, while the BF had more three-ring PAHs (34.00-70.38%) and the PV had more five-ring PAHs (30.02-35.95%). The calculation of indicatory PACs are able to increase the precision of source appointment. The emission factors (EFs) of PACs under maneuvering (including preheating, leaving, entering and berthing) was much higher than those under cruising, which might be due to the engine load, fuel consumption, and secondary reactions. Compared with HFO, combustion with MDO decreased the power-based ΣPAH EFs by 82-99%, power-based ΣNPAH EFs by 86-98%, and power-based ΣOPAHs EFs by 50-82%. These data highlight the importance of quantifying and monitoring ship emissions in close proximity to port area, and are useful for enhancing the relevant databases and improving the accuracy of ship emission inventories.

Organic molecular markers in marine aerosols over the Western Mediterranean Sea

A scientific campaign was undertaken along the Western sector of the Mediterranean Sea in the summer 2015 (26th Jun to 13th Jul), with the goal of gathering information about organic contaminants affecting marine aerosol over the Italian seas and with a special focus on changes in composition due to sources. 24 PM₁₀ atmospheric samples in total were chemically characterized, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), aliphatic hydrocarbons (n-alkanes) and phthalate esters. Contemporarily, regulated gaseous toxicants (i.e. ozone, nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide) and meteorological parameters were recorded. Samplings were carried out inshore in front of harbors (N = 7) and along the cruise, both during the vessel shipping (N = 11, transects) and at its stops offshore (N = 6). Total PAH concentrations ranged from 0.03 to 1.94 ng/m³ and raised close to harbors and coastal sites, confirming that continental sources were responsible for the strong increase of pollution levels there compared to offshore. The percent composition and diagnostic ratio rates of PAHs were different for harbors, while transects were in agreement with offshore stops, possibly due to the different impact of pollution sources. n-Alkanes (C₂₁C₃₈) and the corresponding carbon preference index rates (CPI) were assessed; their values ranged 8.7-90 ng/m³ and 1.1-2.9 respectively, which suggested that fossil fuel combustion was the dominant source, though biogenic emission could contribute. Alkyl phthalates revealed wide variability in concentrations among aerosol samples. Moreover, long-range atmospheric transport and particle ageing effect induced by photo-oxidants were important factors controlling the composition of organic aerosols in the Mediterranean Sea air.

Using multi-site data to apportion PM-bound metal(loid)s: Impact of a manganese alloy plant in an urban area

The identification and quantification of the PM emission sources influencing a specific area is vital to better assess the potential health effects related to the PM exposure of the local population. In this work, a multi-site PM₁₀ sampling campaign was performed in seven sites located in the southern part of the Santander Bay (northern Spain), an urban area characterized by the proximity of some metal(loid) industrial sources (mainly a manganese alloy plant). The total content of V, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Mo, Cd, Sb and Pb was determined by ICP-MS. This multi-site dataset was evaluated by positive matrix factorization (PMF) in order to identify the main anthropogenic metal(loid) sources impacting the studied area, and to quantify their contribution to the measured metal(loid) levels. The attribution of the sources was done by comparing the factor profiles obtained by the PMF analysis with representative profiles from known metal(loid) sources in the area, included in both the European database SPECIEUROPE (V2.0) and the US database EPA-SPECIATE (V4.5) or calculated from literature data. In addition, conditional bivariate probability functions (CBPF)s were used to assist in the identification of the sources. Four metal(loid) sources were identified: Fugitive and point source emissions from the manganese alloy plant (49.9% and 9.9%, respectively), non-exhaust traffic emissions (38.3%) and a minor source of mixed origin (1.8%). The PMF analysis was able to make a clear separation between two different sources from the manganese alloy plant, which represented almost 60% of the total measured metal(loid) levels, >80% of these emissions being assigned to fugitive emissions. These results will be useful for the assessment of the health risk associated with PM₁₀-bound metal(loid) exposure and for the design of efficient abatement strategies in areas impacted by similar industries.

Elemental composition of PM2.5 in the urban environment of San Juan, Argentina

This study contributes to the current knowledge about air pollution in the province of San Juan, Argentina. Sampling was carried out to measure the fine particulate matter in the atmosphere (PM_2.5) of the city of San Juan. PM_2.5 was collected continuously during the winter and spring seasons of 2014 and 2015, and the concentrations of 14 elements (Pb, Ca, K, Cd, Ni, Cr, Mn, V, Cu, Ti, Ba, Co, Sr, and Fe) were determined in PM_2.5 filters using the technique of X-ray fluorescence by synchrotron radiation (SR-XRF). The results revealed that PM_2.5 presented annual and seasonal variations, showing a higher concentration during the winter seasons. In addition, for the elements quantified in the filters, a multivariate analysis (Positive Matrix Factorization) was performed to identify the main sources of emission of these elements in the study area, with a series of components being obtained that corresponded to their compositions, which were assigned physical meanings. The first factor, which was the most important in contribution of the sum of the measured elements (45%), was determined mainly by the elements K, Ti, V, Mn, and Fe, which came predominantly from soil particles. The second factor contributed 30% to the measured species in PM_2.5, with higher Ba and Zn content perhaps being related to emissions from vehicular traffic. Finally, the third factor, in which Pb, Cr, and Ca predominated, may be an indicator of industrial activity and contributed 25% of the sum of the measured elements of PM_2.5. The results of this study provide the first PM composition database in the province, and this can now be used in the development of mitigation and prevention programs.

Seasonal variability of PM2.5 and PM10 composition and sources in an urban background site in Southern Italy

Comparison of fine and coarse fractions in terms of sources and dynamics is scarce in southeast Mediterranean countries; differences are relevant because of the importance of natural sources like sea spray and Saharan dust advection, because most of the monitoring networks are limited to PM₁₀. In this work, the main seasonal variabilities of sources and processes involving fine and coarse PM (particulate matter) were studied at the Environmental-Climate Observatory of Lecce (Southern Italy). Simultaneous PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ samples were collected between July 2013 and July 2014 and chemically analysed to determine concentrations of several species: OC (organic carbon) and EC (elemental carbon) via thermo-optical analysis, 9 major ions via IC, and 23 metals via ICP-MS. Data was processed through mass closure analysis and Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) receptor model characterizing seasonal variabilities of nine sources contributions. Organic and inorganic secondary aerosol accounts for 43% of PM_2.5 and 12% of PM_2.5-10 with small seasonal changes. SIA (secondary inorganic aerosol) seasonal pattern is opposite to that of SOC (secondary organic carbon). SOC is larger during the cold period, sulphate (the major contributor to SIA) is larger during summer. Two forms of nitrate were identified: NaNO₃, correlated with chloride depletion and aging of sea-spray, mainly present in PM_2.5-10; NH₄NO₃ more abundant in PM_2.5. Biomass burning is a relevant source with larger contribution during autumn and winter because of the influence of domestic heating, however, is not negligible in spring and summer, because of the contributions of fires and agricultural practices. Mass closure analysis and PMF results identify two soil sources: crustal associated to long range transport and carbonates associated to local resuspended dust. Both sources contributes to the coarse fraction and have different dynamics with crustal source contributing mainly in high winds from SE conditions and carbonates during high winds from North direction.

Air quality study in the coastal city of Crotone (Southern Italy) hosting a small-size harbor

Particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), n-alkanes, and gaseous pollutants were collected from the harbor and the urban area of Crotone (Southern Italy) in October 2015. The atmospheric concentrations of organic substances associated to PM₁₀ were determined daily, while gaseous pollutants (BTEX, O₃, SO_2, NO_x, NO₂, and NH₃) were monitored on monthly basis by means of diffusive sampling. Total PAHs reached, on the average, 1.56 ± 0.72, 0.33 ± 0.14, and 0.59 ± 0.37 ng/m³ at the urban monitoring stations (Fiore, Fermi) and at the harbor, respectively. The percent distribution and diagnostic concentration ratios of PAHs were similar at Fermi and harbor, whereas differences were found through comparison with Fiore site. Biogenic n-alkanes (n-C₂₉, and n-C₃₁) were the most abundant components, indicating the important impact of terrestrial higher plants in all sites. On the other hand, n-C₂₃-n-C₂₅ homologs originated from incomplete combustion of fossil fuel were not negligible (CPI_2.5 = 2.4) in harbor, confirming the role of anthropogenic sources there. Inside the harbor, SO₂ concentrations ranged from 5.6 to 14.8 μg/m³ showing the maximum value within the old part of the harbor (touristic port). A statistical significant difference between the harbor and the surroundings was indeed observed for this pollutant, which is a specific marker of ship emissions. The other gaseous species monitored did not exhibit the same distribution, with exception of NH₃ and benzene, whose concentration values ranged from 2.8 to 6.9 μg/m³ and 0.3 to 1.4 μg/m³, respectively, and peaked at the same harbor site. Similarities were found in NO_x, NO₂, and O₃ concentration distributions, showing high values in the New Port area.