Content of selected elements and low-molecular-weight organic acids in fruiting bodies of edible mushroom Boletus badius (Fr.) Fr. from unpolluted and polluted areas

Blusher mushroom (Amanita rubescens Pers.): A Study of Mercury Content in Substrate and Mushroom Samples from Slovakia with Respect to Locality and Developmental Stages

The edible mushroom Amanita rubescens Pers., regularly collected and consumed in Slovakia, was assessed for health risk due to the mercury content in its fruiting body parts. For this purpose, 364 both from the soil/substrate and mushroom samples from 40 localities in Slovakia were evaluated. At the same time, 21 samples of 7 developmental stages of the fruiting body of A. rubescens were taken in the Žakýlske pleso locality. The total mercury content in the soil and mushroom samples was determined using an AMA-254 analyzer. The contamination factor (Cf) and index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) were used to detect the level of soil pollution by mercury. The ability of A. rubescens to accumulate mercury from the soil environment was evaluated using the bioconcentration factor (BCF), and the distribution of mercury in the mushroom body was evaluated using the translocation quotient (Qc/s). To determine the health risks resulting from mushroom consumption, the percentages of provisional tolerable weekly intake (%PTWI) and target hazard quotient (THQ) were used. The obtained results have confirmed serious content of mercury soil pollution, especially in former mining areas, where the situation is alarming from a health risk point of view. Consumption of A. rubescens was found to be risky, not only in former mining areas, but higher values of mercury were also detected in other parts of Slovakia. Evaluation of the developmental stages of the fruiting body of A. rubescens showed that the highest bioconcentration factor was determined at developmental stage no. VI for caps with a value of 2.47 mg kg-1 and developmental stage VII for stipes with a value of 1.65 mg kg-1 DW.

Differences in Carbon Sequestration Ability of Diverse Tartary Buckwheat Genotypes in Barren Soil Caused by Microbial Action

Planting plants to increase soil carbon input has been widely used to achieve carbon neutrality goals. Tartary buckwheat not only has good barren tolerance but is also rich in nutrients and very suitable for planting in barren areas. However, the effects of different genotypes of Tartary buckwheat roots and rhizosphere microorganisms on soil carbon input are still unclear. In this study, ozone sterilization was used to distinguish the sources of soil organic acids and C-transforming enzymes, and the contribution of root and rhizosphere microorganisms to soil carbon storage during the growth period of two genotypes of tartary buckwheat was studied separately to screen suitable varieties. Through the analysis of the experimental results, the conclusions are as follows: (1) The roots of Diqing tartary buckwheat have stronger carbon sequestration ability in a barren environment than Heifeng, and the microorganisms in Diqing tartary buckwheat soil will also increase soil carbon input. Therefore, Diqing tartary buckwheat is more suitable for carbon sequestration than Heifeng tartary buckwheat in barren soil areas. (2) In the absence of microorganisms, the rhizosphere soil of tartary buckwheat can regulate the storage of soil organic carbon by secreting extracellular enzymes and organic acids. (3) The structural equation model showed that to promote carbon sequestration, Heifeng tartary buckwheat needed to inhibit microbial action when planted in the barren area of Loess Plateau, while Diqing tartary buckwheat needed to use microbial-promoting agents. Adaptive strategies should focus more on cultivar selection to retain carbon in soil and to assure the tolerance of fineness in the future.

Biochemical, nutritional, and toxicological properties of the edible species Phlebopus beniensis with ethnomycological notes from Paraguay

Abstract In recent decades, mushrooms have been recognized as an important resource and efforts to characterize their potential to aid nutrition and human health have increased. Phlebopus beniensis specimen from a semi-urban community in Paraguay were analyzed for its biochemical properties, nutritional value, and toxicity. The species was identified by morpho-anatomical and molecular tools. Analyses for antioxidants by Ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) and nutritional content revealed that P. beniensis is a favorable source of antioxidants, proteins, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, and fats. Spectrometry through Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) further showcased other mycochemicals such as the specific phenolic, antioxidant, and fatty acid compounds that serve important biological roles in human diets. Applying an ethnomycological framework across local Paraguayan populations, we also report accounts of histories, knowledge, and usage of P. beniensis in South America among settlers and Paraguayan people.

Elucidating Heavy Metals Concentration and Distribution in Wild Edible Morels and the Associated Soil at Different Altitudinal Zones of Pakistan: a Health Risk Implications Study

This study evaluates macro-nutrient (MN) and prevailing heavy metal (HM) concentrations in wild edible morels (WEM) species viz., Morchella crassipes, Morchella pulchella, and Morchella eohespera and the associated soil that were collected from different altitudinal zones (Azad Kashmir, Murree, Swat, and Skardu) of Pakistan. A special emphasis on potential health risk analysis for HM in WEM consumption was also explored. In general, MN concentration in fruiting bodies and their associated soil samples were in the following order: potassium (K) > magnesium (Mg) > calcium (Ca) > sodium (Na) and Ca > Mg > K > Na, respectively. The concentration for HM in WEM ranged between 20.0 and 78.0 mg/kg, 1.09 and 22.1 mg/kg, 2.1 and 22.1 mg/kg, 0.26 and 13.1 mg/kg, 0.43 and 9.1 mg/kg, 1.07 and 7.0 mg/kg, 1.01 and 5.4 mg/kg, and BDL and 3.1 mg/kg for zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd), respectively, and those in underlying soil samples, lowest and highest HM concentration were recorded for Zn (33.7-113.6 mg/kg), Cu (13.0-40.8 mg/kg), Ni (3.1-23.0 mg/kg), Pb (1.3-22.0 mg/kg), Co (2.9-5.6 mg/kg), Cr (2.7-11.1 mg/kg), Mn (2.0-7.1 mg/kg), and Cd (1.1 mg/kg 7.6). Although, Cd, Pb, and Zn concentrations in some of the WEM samples and Cd in the soil had exceeded the permissible limits set by different organizations. The greater accumulation/or transfer potential for Zn, Co, Ni, and Cu were recorded in WEM from their associated soil. The health risk index (HRI) for HM in all assessed samples of WEM was < 1, predicting no risk to the consuming population. Furthermore, the correlation analyses depicted that the power of hydrogen (pH), low organic matter contents, and sandy texture are likely to be responsible for HM transfer to the lower pool of soil. But the increasing concentration of HM in WEM warrants threats and suggests further monitoring and future policy plan and implementation to avoid the potential health risks via its regular consumption.

Bioaccumulation and physiological changes in the fruiting body of Agaricus bisporus (Large) sing in response to cadmium

The bioremediation of heavy metals contaminated soils with macrofungi is a new and promising approach; hence Agaricus bisporus (Large) sing has potentially shown accumulating ability to Cd contamination. This study focused on the tolerance response by A. bisporus to different contents of Cd in the closed cup and the flat stage of fruiting body development. The contents of Cd, soluble protein, sugar, low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs), and antioxidant activity were investigated. The bioaccumulation factor and transfer factor results revealed that Cd accumulated in the cap of A. bisporus more than that in the stipe with the highest content being 18.38 mg kg^-1 dry weight at the closed cup stage under 414.28 mg kg^-1 Cd stress. High Cd content stress increased soluble protein, proline, and malonaldehyde contents at both stages; while higher peroxidase, catalase, ascorbic acid peroxidase activities, and LMWOAs contents were only recorded at the closed cup stage. On the other hand, Superoxide dismutase activities and soluble sugar content showed a complex trend. Overall, these results have successfully established that A. bisporus could resort to modulating its metabolism to avoid the destructive effects of Cd stress and could successfully accumulate Cd in the soil, which is a promising prospect for the remediation of Cd-contaminated soils.

Comparison of non-volatile flavor compounds in Stropharia rugosoannulata soup processed by different methods

In this study, we investigated the non-volatile flavor compounds (5'-nucleotides, free amino acids, organic acids and soluble sugars) in Stropharia rugosoannulata soup under different processing treatments. S. rugosoannulata soups were first obtained from S. rugosoannulata powder of three different particle sizes under both thermal and non-thermal treatments. Then, the effects of processing methods on non-volatile compounds in these S. rugosoannulata soups were investigated. Specifically, the non-thermal treatment of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) resulted in high levels of equivalent umami concentration (EUC, 827.44-1411.79 mg/100 g DM); ultrasonic treatment (UT) and homogenization (HG) led to high concentrations of soluble sugars (15.58-30.48 mg/g DM); while hot treatment (HT) contributed to high contents of total organic acids (65.52-98.39 mg/g DM). Besides, moderate fine grinding of S. rugosoannulata powder (P2) facilitated the release FAAs (free amino acids) and soluble sugars in the soup. These results suggested that HHP-P2 is beneficial to the preservation of non-volatile compounds in S. rugosoannulata soup. Our findings may improve the utilization of S. rugosoannulata in the soup industry.

Research Progress on Elements of Wild Edible Mushrooms

Wild edible mushrooms are distributed all over the world and are delicious seasonal foods, rich in polysaccharides, amino acids, vitamins, and other components. At the same time, they contain many essential trace elements and are highly enriched in heavy metals (compared to green plants and cultivated edible mushrooms). Consumers may be exposed to health risks due to excessive heavy metals in the process of consumption. This is also one of the important factors affecting the import and export of edible mushrooms, which is of great concern to consumers and entry and exit inspection and quarantine departments. In this paper, the contents of four essential trace elements of iron, manganese, zinc, and copper and four harmful heavy metals of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in nearly 400 species of wild edible mushrooms from 10 countries are reviewed. It was found that the factors affecting the elemental content of edible mushrooms are mainly divided into internal and external factors. Internal is mainly the difference in species element-enrichment ability, and external is mainly environmental pollution and geochemical factors. The aim is to provide a reference for the risk assessment of edible mushrooms and their elemental distribution characteristics.

Road traffic and abiotic parameters of underlying soils determine the mineral composition and nutritive value of the mushroom Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer

The effectiveness of accumulating mineral elements by wild-growing mushrooms depends mainly on species, their growth place, and the underlying soil's chemical characteristics. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of road traffic and the role of chemical characteristics of soil on the mineral composition of Macrolepiota procera fruit bodies growing in close proximity to a road and an adjacent forest during a four-year period. The concentrations of the majority elements (mainly Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ti, and Zn) in the soil near the road were significantly higher than those in the forest soil, which was reflected in the fruit bodies which contained a higher amount of these elements. While the accumulation of heavy metals and other elements in the M. procera fruit bodies did not depend on the total soil organic carbon content, the degree of their decomposition determined by the C:N ratio and the individual fractions of organic carbon had a significant influence. Our studies show that soil properties are highly variable in the natural habitats of M. procera, which affects the efficiency of element accumulation. Macrolepiota procera fruit bodies growing in soil with similar chemical properties were characterized by different mineral compositions. Moreover, the obtained results indicate that the fruit bodies of edible M. procera, not only those close to roads but also at a greater distance, may contain significant amounts of toxic As and Cd, which could pose a health risk if consumed. Although most studies describing the mineral composition of M. procera fruit bodies have found no evidence to question the safety of their consumption, this species can effectively accumulate selected elements when growing immediately beside roads or in their close proximity.

Dried Wild-Grown Mushrooms Can Be Considered a Source of Selected Minerals

Dried mushrooms might be a source of mineral components, which are indispensable for human health. The aim of this study was to determine the contents of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and selenium (Se) in dried wild-grown mushrooms (Boletus edulis and Xerocomus badius) available for sale, and to evaluate these mushrooms’ contribution to the daily reference intake of the studied bioelements. The concentrations of mineral components in the mushroom samples were determined by the flame method (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn) and the electrothermal (Se) atomic absorption spectrometry method. The mean Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn (in mg/kg), and Se concentrations (in µg/kg) in B. edulis were 82.1, 964.1, 233.4, 97.9, 25.3, 22.1, and 6501.6, respectively, whereas in X. badius: 67.5, 1060.2, 87.8, 197.2, 33.9, 19.8, and 282.4, respectively. We have shown that dried B. edulis can be considered a source of Se. In the case of the other microelements, the tested mushrooms may serve only as additional supplements. Therefore, the studied species of mushrooms cannot be regarded as potential nutritional sources of the macroelements in question. Consumers should be properly informed about this, which should be guaranteed by appropriate legal regulations.

Occurrence and Health Risk Assessment of Cadmium Accumulation in Three Tricholoma Mushroom Species Collected from Wild Habitats of Central and Coastal Croatia

This study deals with the biomonitoring of cadmium (Cd) heavy metal in the three selected Tricholoma mushroom species collected from wild habitats of central and coastal Croatia. For this, mushroom (T. columbetta: n = 38, T. portentosum: n = 35, and T. terreum: n = 34) and surface soil samples were collected from nine forest localities of Croatia and analyzed for Cd concentration using inductively coupled plasma−optical emission spectrometry (ICP−OES) through the acid digestion method. The findings revealed that Cd was present in Tricholoma spp. and surface soil. However, the maximum mean Cd concentration (mg/kg dry weight) was recorded in T. portentosum (cap: 0.98; stipe: 0.72), followed by T. columbetta (cap: 0.96; stipe: 0.73) and T. terreum (cap: 0.81; stipe: 0.63). The bioconcentration factor (BCF) value (>1) revealed that the selected Tricholoma spp. had the potential for Cd accumulation. Moreover, the principal component (PC) and hierarchical cluster (HC) analyses were used to derive the interactions and similarities between Cd levels Tricholoma spp. and sampling localities. The multivariate analysis suggested that central sampling localities had higher Cd levels as compared to coastal localities. However, the daily intake of metals (DIM < 0.426) and health risk index (HRI < 1) showed that there was no potential health risk associated with the consumption of selected Tricholoma spp. The findings of this study are helpful to understand the Cd accumulation behavior of wild edible Tricholoma spp. collected from Croatia.

The protective role of selenium against uptake and accumulation of cadmium and lead in white oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus) and pink oyster (Pleurotus djamor) mushrooms

Mushrooms are bioaccumulators and have been used to produce Se-enriched foods. However, these fungi can also bioaccumulate potentially toxic metals, producing food dangerous to human health. It is known that co-exposure to Se plays a protective role against metal accumulation and toxicity in some organisms due to its antioxidant properties. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of Se(IV) and Se(VI) on elemental uptake and accumulation as well as proteins and protein-bound Se, Cd, and Pb distribution in Pleurotus mushrooms. Pink oyster and white oyster mushrooms showed high ability to bioaccumulate Se (19-205 µg g^-1), Cd (4.5 to 18.8 µg g^-1), and Pb (1.6 to 7.0 µg g^-1). Growth substrate supplementation with Se(IV) or Se(VI) decreased the Cd total concentration in mushrooms by 4 to 89%, while Se(VI) increased the Pb total concentration by 9% to 187%, compared to growth in absence of Se. It was found that despite molecular weights distributions of mushrooms grown on Se(IV) and Se(VI)-supplemented substrates being similar, Se(VI) supplementation favoured Se interaction with proteins of medium molecular weight (17-44 kDa), when compared to supplementation with Se(IV). Therefore, we propose the supplementation of growth substrates with Se(VI) to reduce eventual Cd accumulation and produce Se-enriched oyster mushrooms.

Effect of Cordyceps militaris on formation of short-chain fatty acids as postbiotic metabolites

The aim of the current study was to determine the growth-promoting-effect of Cordyceps militaris, known as a medicinal mushroom, on Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus acidophilus. To evaluate the best growth-promoting activity of the test substrates including glucose, inulin, and at different concentrations of C. militaris (0.5%, 1%, and 2%), the cell counts, optical density (OD), prebiotic activity scores, and postbiotics (lactic, acetic, butyric, and propionic acids) were determined. The highest cell count was found for L. casei in media containing 0.5% C. militaris and for L. acidophilus in media containing 1% C. militaris. In the case of both strains, the OD values of the medium with C. militaris (1%) and (2%) increased similar to those of glucose. The prebiotic activity scores for both strains were positive. The concentration of lactic acid ranged from 0.56 to 8.07 g L^-1 for L. casei and 0.82 to 5.38 g L^-1 for L. acidophilus. Moreover, propionic acid was the highest among short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by both strains. According to the results of the present study, the tested Lactobacillus species can utilize C. militaris as carbon source and is able to form postbiotics in the media.

The importance of Cu × Pb interactions to Lentinula edodes yield, major/trace elements accumulation and antioxidants

Due to the use of various substrates in the production of edible mushrooms which may contain metals, including Cu and Pb, it is important to understand the influence of mutual interactions between them in the process of their accumulation in fruit bodies. For this reason, the effects of Cu, Pb, and Cu × Pb on yield, accumulation of five major elements (Ca, K, Mg, Na and P), trace elements (Cu, Pb and Fe) and some bioactive compounds in Lentinula edodes fruit bodies were studied. Both the metals were added in doses of 0.1 and 0.5 mM (Cu0.1, Cu0.5, Pb0.1, Pb0.5 and their combinations). The addition of the metals resulted in a reduction in size, amount and finally yield of fruit bodies. Depending on the presence of Cu and or Pb and their concentration in the substrate, both antagonism and synergism may occur. The influence on the accumulation of other determining elements was also recorded. Among phenolic compounds, phenolic acids and flavonoids were detected. 2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic acid dominated in fruit bodies in the control variant, Pb0.1, Pb0.5 and all experimental variants enriched with Cu + Pb, while gallic acid was the major phenolic after Cu0.1 and Cu0.5 addition. Only protocatechuic acid content increased in all combinations. A significant decrease of all aliphatic acid contents in comparison to the control variant was observed in the Cu0.1 and Pb0.1 variants. Significant stimulation of aliphatic acid synthesis was recorded in Cu0.5 and Pb0.5 variants and in the mixture of both the metals. The additions pointed to the possible role of the determined molecules in detoxification mechanisms.

The level of selected organochlorine compounds residues in popular edible mushrooms from north-eastern Poland

Although DDT, γ-HCH and PCBs have been almost completely withdrawn from world production and use, they are still present in the environment. Mushrooms are eagerly collected and consumed local raw material in north-eastern part of Poland. The aim of the study was to determine the content of DDT, γ-HCH and PCB residues in popular species (Boletus badius, Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius) and to estimate the human exposure of uptaking of these compounds with mushrooms. The content of γ-HCH, DDT and PCB was determined using gas chromatography. The presence of analyzed compounds was observed in all the species under study. The highest content of γ-HCH and ΣDDT was determined in C. cibarius - 7.19 and 180.37 µg/kg of lipids, respectively, whereas the highest amount of ΣPCB was observed in B. edulis - 20.89 µg/kg of lipids. The contents were low and did not pose a threat to human health.

Role of temperature, wind, and precipitation in heavy metal contamination at copper mines: a review

The increasing demand for minerals pressurizing the mining authorities to extract low-grade ore results in more mining waste and degradation of the environment. The main aim of review was to understand the role of climatic factors (temperature, wind, and precipitation) in dispersal and mobility of heavy metals in soil, water, and vegetation in Cu mining region. The major source of contamination in the mining sector is tailings, overburden rocks, and abandoned mines. The contaminates or fine particles of sulfide-rich mining waste follow two major pathways for the dispersal: aerial and leaching. Sulfides on exposure to oxygen and water generate acid mine drainage which results in leaching of heavy metals. The pit water of abandoned mines is also a cause of concern which contaminates the groundwater resources. Climatic factors such as temperature, precipitation, and wind significantly influence the paths of contaminate dispersal. In arid/semi-arid regions, high temperature forms fine-grained efflorescence salts on tailings or exposed surficial mines which are carried away by strong winds/water and contaminates the surroundings. In wet regions, the leaching of heavy metals from both tailings and overburden rocks sulfides results in environmental contamination. The application of impermeable layers is highly recommended. The climatic factors (temperature, wind, and precipitation) significantly control the dispersal and mobility of heavy metals in Cu mining region. The implementation of waste management policies and pollution control technologies is recommended after considering the climatic factors.

Multiannual monitoring (1974-2019) of rare earth elements in wild growing edible mushroom species in Polish forests

There is a growing demand for rare earth elements (REEs) due to their use in modern technologies, and this may result in their emission to the environment. This is the first long-term study to monitor the content of REEs in four edible mushroom species. Over 21,900 samples of fruit bodies (sporocarps) of Boletus edulis, Imleria badia, Leccinum scabrum and Macrolepiota procera and their underlying soils, collected between 1974 and 2019 from 42 forest sites in Poland were examined in an attempt to understand the time evolution of the presence of REEs in the environment. In general, I. badia and B. edulis displayed a greater total content of REEs on mg per kg basis than L. scabrum and M. procera. A gradual increase in REEs in the studied mushrooms as well as associated forest soil samples was observed over the monitored period. Both levels were also highly correlated. Regardless of the considered period, human consumption of these mushrooms would not contribute significantly to dietary exposure to REEs. Wild growing mushroom species studied over a long time period may be a good bioindicator of REE migration to the environment.

Mineral Composition of Three Popular Wild Mushrooms from Poland

The region of Warmia and Mazury is characterized by the special diversity and richness of its natural environment, including large forest complexes, where wild mushrooms are commonly collected and consumed. This study aimed to examine the differences in mineral content (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese) of three species of mushrooms collected in north-eastern Poland. The research material consisted of dried samples of king bolete (Boletus edulis), bay bolete (Boletus badius), and chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius) collected in the region of Warmia and Mazury. The content of the above-mentioned elements in mushroom fruit bodies was determined using the flame atomic absorption spectrometry (acetylene-air flame) and the emission technique (acetylene-air flame) for sodium and potassium. For the majority of micro- and macroelements, the studies confirmed the presence of significant differences in their content, depending on the species of fungi. The studied mushrooms cover a significant percentage of daily demand for many of the minerals. This concerns mainly copper, zinc, and potassium, although none of the species was a good source of calcium and sodium. Among the analyzed mushrooms, chanterelle is the best source of most minerals.

Contamination, bioconcentration and distribution of mercury in Tricholoma spp. mushrooms from southern and northern regions of Europe

The contamination, bio-concentration and distribution of mercury (Hg) in wild mushrooms of the genus Tricholoma such as T. equestre, T. portentosum, T. columbeta, and T. terreum were studied, and the possible dietary intake and risk for human consumers in Europe was estimated. Mushrooms, together with the associated forest topsoils were collected from 10 unpolluted and geographically distant areas, far from local or regional emission sources, in Poland (2 sites) and Croatia (8 sites). The Hg contents were in the range 0.10 ± 0.06 to 0.71 ± 0.34 mg kg^-1 dry matter in caps and 0.04 ± 0.02 to 0.38 ± 0.13 mg kg^-1 in stems. The corresponding topsoil concentrations varied over a relatively narrow range between sites, from 0.013 ± 0.003 to 0.028 ± 0.006 mg kg^-1 dry matter. Overall, the study results showed low levels of mercury both, in edible Tricholoma mushrooms and forest topsoils from background (unpolluted) forested areas in Croatia and Poland. The morphological distribution showed considerably greater concentrations of mercury in the caps relative to the stems with ratios ranging from 1.6 ± 0.6 to 3.9 ± 1.8. T. equestre showed good ability to bioconcentrate Hg, with bioconcentration factors (BCF) values in the range 18 ± 7 to 37 ± 18. The data suggests that Tricholoma mushrooms from unpolluted areas in southern and northern regions of Europe can be considered as a low risk food from the point of view of the tolerable Hg intake.

Bibliometric analysis of European publications between 2001 and 2016 on concentrations of selected elements in mushrooms

This article presents a bibliometric study of 200 European publications released between 2001 and 2016, about the contamination of mushrooms by selected elements. The analysis includes figures on the type of analyte, its concentration, the species of fungi, and its country of origin. In the literature review, 492 species of mushrooms (wild-growing and cultured) found in 26 European countries and their concentration of 74 associated elements were analysed. The papers, which dealt mainly with the heavy metal (Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn) concentrations of mushrooms, primarily came from Turkey, Poland, Spain, and the Czech Republic. More than 50% of the publications provided data about edible mushrooms. The results of the bibliometric analysis showed that over the 16 years, European research on fungal contamination by selected analytes has not lessened in popularity and is ongoing. Many of the studies underlined the need to assess the risk to human health arising from the consumption of contaminated mushrooms taken from various habitats. These results were the effect of, among other things, the strong interest in studies carried out on edible species, in which concentrations of mainly heavy metals that are dangerous to health and are marked were indicated (Cd, Pb, and Hg).

The Effect of Mushroom Extracts on Human Platelet and Blood Coagulation: In vitro Screening of Eight Edible Species

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading global cause of mortality indicating the need to identify all possible factors reducing primary and secondary risk. This study screened the in vitro antiplatelet and anticoagulant activities of hot water extracts of eight edible mushroom species (Agaricus bisporus, Auricularia auricularia-judae, Coprinuscomatus, Ganodermalucidum, Hericium erinaceus, Lentinulaedodes, Pleurotuseryngii, and Pleurotusostreatus) increasingly cultivated for human consumption, and compared them to those evoked by acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). The antioxidant capacity and concentration of polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, organic acids, ergosterol, macro elements, and trace elements were also characterized. The most promising antiplatelet effect was exhibited by A. auricularia-judae and P. eryngii extracts as demonstrated by the highest rate of inhibition of adenosine-5′-diphosphate (ADP)-induced and arachidonic acid (AA)-induced aggregation. The response to both extracts exceeded the one evoked by 140 µmol/L of ASA in the ADP test and was comparable to it in the case of the AA test. Such a dual effect was also observed for G. lucidum extract, even though it was proven to be cytotoxic in platelets and leukocytes. The extract of P. ostreatus revealed an additive effect on AA-induced platelet aggregation. None of the mushroom extracts altered the monitored coagulation parameters (prothrombin time, prothrombin ratio, and International Normalized Ratio). The effect of mushroom extracts on platelet function was positively related to their antioxidative properties and concentration of polysaccharides and ergosterol, and inversely related to zinc concentration. The study suggests that selected mushrooms may exert favorable antiplatelet effects, highlighting the need for further experimental and clinical research in this regard.

The activation and extraction systems using organic acids and Lentinus edodes to remediate cadmium contaminated soil

To develop a high efficient and eco-friendly approach to remediate cadmium (Cd) contaminated soil, we designed the activation and extraction systems, on the basis of combined effects between the ability of organic acids to activate Cd and the ability of mushroom accumulator (Lentinus edodes) to extract Cd. The results showed that the proportion of acetic acid-extractable Cd significant increased with the application of exogenous organic acids. Additionally, soil microecology analysis indicated that exogenous organic acids evidently enhanced the numbers of microbial cells and the activities of soil enzymes. Besides, high throughput sequencing analysis revealed exogenous organic acids improved the diversity and structure of soil bacterial community after remediation. Particularly, the combination application of mushroom and exogenous citric acid had highest accumulation efficiency of Cd, and its efficiency was 59.19% higher than single mushroom treatment. Hence, exogenous organic acids could alleviate soil microecology and increase mycoextraction efficiency, which suggested it was a feasible route to remediate Cd contaminated soil by the activation and extraction systems.

Copper, Manganese, Selenium and Zinc in Wild-Growing Edible Mushrooms from the Eastern Territory of "Green Lungs of Poland": Nutritional and Toxicological Implications

The aims of this study were to determine Cu, Mn, Se, and Zn content in wild mushrooms collected from unpolluted areas of the eastern Green Lungs of Poland (GLP) territory, to compare them to some popular species of cultivated mushrooms, evaluate mushroom contribution to the daily intake of the studied bioelements, and to determine their possible toxic effect resulting from potentially excessive mushroom consumption from areas recognized as ecologically uncontaminated. Bioelements were determined in 21 species of edible mushrooms: eighteen species of wild mushrooms and three species of popular cultivated mushrooms. The mean Cu, Mn, Se, and Zn content (in µg/g, dry mass DM) ranged from 10.6–123.1, 12.2–41, 0.13–13.3, and 68.3–184, respectively. A comparison with recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for Cu, Se, and Zn as well as adequate intake (AI) for Mn demonstrated that a 100 g fresh mass (FM) portion of mushroom species with the highest content of a given element can meet the demand for Cu, Mn, Se and Zn at 203%, 14–17%, 211%, and 16–22%, respectively. A comparison of the content of the examined bioelements contained in one portion of mushrooms (100 g FM) against the toxicological intake limits for different chemical elements with the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) and upper intake level (UL) showed no risk of toxicity for the evaluated mushroom species.

Subcellular distribution, chemical forms and physiological responses involved in cadmium tolerance and detoxification in Agrocybe Aegerita

A pot experiment was conducted to investigate the detoxification mechanism of Agrocybe aegerita (A. aegerita). The physiological responses, subcellular distribution and chemical forms of cadmium (Cd) in A. aegerita grown in Cd stress were analyzed. The results showed that the biomass was decreased under Cd stress, while the production of malonaldehyde, thiols, and low-molecular-weight organic acids (LWMOAs) as well as the antioxidant enzymes in A. aegerita was increased compared with control group. The HPLC results showed that nine LWMOAs were found in A. aegerita with critic acid as the dominant and they played important role in the detoxification and accumulation of Cd in A. aegerita. More Cd was accumulated in pileus than in stipe. Differential centrifugation technique showed that the majority of Cd was compartmentalized in the soluble fraction (53-75%) and bound to the cell wall (19-42%). The proportion of Cd in the cell wall increased with the increase of the accumulation of Cd in the fruiting body, but in the soluble fraction showed an opposite trend. Furthermore, most of the Cd in A. aegerita was mainly in the forms of NaCl- (29-49%) and ethanol-extractable Cd (20-40%). The ethanol- and water-extractable Cd in stipe (60-66%) was higher than in pileus (43-49%). Thus intracellular detoxification mechanisms of Cd in A. aegerita is related to subcellular partitioning and chemical forms of Cd and well-coordinated physiological responses.

Mechanisms into the removal and translocation of cadmium by Oudemansiella radicata in soil

This study investigated the removal and translocation mechanism of cadmium (Cd) by Oudemansiella radicata (O. radicata) in mushroom-soil rhizosphere and the fruiting body of mushroom. For this, the biomass, physiochemical parameters, and Cd distribution of O. radicata were examined in the soil spiked with 0, 10, 20, and 30 mg kg^-1 Cd. The soil microecology and the Cd fractionation in the soil rhizosphere were also measured. Results showed that, O. radicata possesses high capability to tolerate Cd, although its surface phenotypic structure was influenced by high concentrations of Cd. The observed concentrations of Cd in O. radicata were in the following order: root (the part of stipe in soil) > pileus > stipe. The presence of Cd led to an increase in the production of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione (GSH). These results suggested that antioxidant enzymes and GSH assisted detoxification and accumulation of Cd within the mushroom. Meanwhile, in the soil rhizosphere, the concentrations of oxalic, citric, and malic acids were enhanced with the treatment of Cd, indicating that the production of these acids was closely related to the presence of Cd in soils. Additionally, the proportion of acid-soluble Cd was increased and the soil microecology (microbial counts, urease, and acid phosphatase activities) also enhanced with the inoculation of O. radicata. Overall, this study demonstrated that O. radicata is a promising candidate for the remediation of Cd-contaminated soil.

Determination of mineral contents of wild Boletus edulis mushroom and its edible safety assessment

This study aimed to determine the contents of main mineral elements of wild Boletus edulis and to assess its edible safety, which may provide scientific evidence for the utilization of this species. Fourteen mineral contents (Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Sr, V and Zn) in the caps and stipes of B. edulis as well as the corresponding surface soils collected from nine different geographic regions in Yunnan Province, southwest China were determined. The analyses were performed using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (ICP-AES) after microwave digestion. Measurement data were analyzed using variance and Pearson correlation analysis. Edible safety was evaluated according to the provisionally tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of heavy metals recommended by United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization (FAO/WHO). Mineral contents were significantly different with the variance of collection areas. B. edulis showed relative abundant contents of Ca, Fe, Mg and Na, followed by Ba, Cr, Cu, Mn and Zn, and the elements with the lower content less were Cd, Co, Ni, Sr and V. The elements accumulation differed significantly in caps and stipes. Among them, Cd and Zn were bioconcentrated (BCF > 1) while others were bioexcluded (BCF < 1). The mineral contents in B. edulis and its surface soil were positively related, indicating that the elements accumulation level was related to soil background. In addition, from the perspective of food safety, if an adult (60 kg) eats 300 g fresh B. edulis per week, the intake of Cd in most of tested mushrooms were lower than PTWI value whereas the Cd intakes in some other samples were higher than this standard. The results indicated that the main mineral contents in B. edulis were significantly different with respect to geographical distribution, and the Cd intake in a few of regions was higher than the acceptable intakes with a potential risk.

Components in Lentinus edodes mushroom with anti-biofilm activity directed against bacteria involved in caries and gingivitis

The present study investigated the compounds present in the low molecular mass fraction of Lentinus edodes mushroom (shiitake) extract and their anti-virulence activity against oral pathogens.

Characteristics of organic acid profiles in 16 species of wild growing edible mushrooms

The aim of study was to determine 9 organic acids in nine aboveground and seven wood-growing wild edible mushroom species originated from an area under the direct influence of a busy trunk road in Poland. The organic acids in the extracts of samples were identified by reversed-phase column liquid chromatography (RPLC). The presented results show that all the mushroom species were characterized by high variation in the profile and content of the analyzed acids. Each of mushroom species contained oxalic acid, the profiles of the other acids strictly depended on mushroom species. Among aboveground species, the highest total content of organic acids was found in Lepista gilva (267.5 ± 26.6 mg g^-1 dry weight (DW)), while Laccaria amethystina was characterized by the lowest content (37.7 ± 6.5 mg g^-1 DW). Within wood-growing species, the highest content of organic acids was determined in Flammulina velutipes (171.9 ± 26.7 mg g^-1 DW), whereas the lowest content (34.2 ± 2.9 mg g^-1 DW) of the studied acids was observed in Grifola frondosa.

Mushrooms: from nutrition to mycoremediation

Mushrooms are well known as important food items. The uses of mushrooms in the cuisine are manifolds and are being utilized for thousands of years in both Oriental and Occidental cultures. Medicinal properties of mushrooms show an immense potential as drugs for the treatment of various diseases as they are rich in a great variety of phytochemicals. In this review, we attempted to encompass the recent knowledge and scientific advancement about mushrooms and their utilization as food or curative properties, along with their natural ability to accumulate (heavy) metals/radionuclides, which leads to an important aspect of bioremediation. However, accumulation of heavy metals and radionuclides from natural or anthropogenic sources also involves potential nutritional hazards upon consumption. These hazards have been pointed out in this review incorporating a selection of the most recently published literature.

Analysis of some metallic elements and metalloids composition and relationships in parasol mushroom Macrolepiota procera

The aim of the study was to characterise the multi-elemental composition and associations between a group of 32 elements and 16 rare earth elements collected by mycelium from growing substrates and accumulated in fruiting bodies of Macrolepiota procera from 16 sites from the lowland areas of Poland. The elements were quantified by inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometry using validated method. The correlation matrix obtained from a possible 48 × 16 data matrix has been used to examine if any association exits between 48 elements in mushrooms foraged from 16 sampling localizations by multivariate approach using principal component (PC) analysis. The model could explain up to 93% variability by eight factors for which an eigenvalue value was ≥1. Absolute values of the correlation coefficient were above 0.72 (significance at p < 0.05) for 43 elements. From a point of view by consumer, the absolute content of Cd, Hg, Pb in caps of M. procera collected from background (unpolluted) areas could be considered elevated while sporadic/occasional ingestion of this mushroom is considered safe. The multivariate functional analysis revealed on associated accumulation of many elements in this mushroom. M. procera seem to possess some features of a bio-indicative species for anthropogenic Pb but also for some geogenic metals.