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Wang Y, Muraleetharan A, Langiu M, Gregory KJ, Hellyer SD. SCA44- and SCAR13-associated GRM1 mutations affect metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 function through distinct mechanisms. Br J Pharmacol 2024. [PMID: 39030902 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGlu1) is a promising therapeutic target for neurodegenerative CNS disorders including spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs). Clinical reports have identified naturally-occurring mGlu1 mutations in rare SCA subtypes and linked symptoms to mGlu1 mutations. However, how mutations alter mGlu1 function remains unknown, as does amenability of receptor function to pharmacological rescue. Here, we explored SCA-associated mutation effects on mGlu1 cell surface expression, canonical signal transduction and allosteric ligand pharmacology. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Orthosteric agonists, positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) and negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) were assessed at two functional endpoints (iCa2+ mobilisation and inositol 1-phosphate [IP1] accumulation) in FlpIn Trex HEK293A cell lines expressing five mutant mGlu1 subtypes. Key pharmacological parameters including ligand potency, affinity and cooperativity were derived using operational models of agonism and allostery. KEY RESULTS mGlu1 mutants exhibited differential impacts on mGlu1 expression, with a C-terminus truncation significantly reducing surface expression. Mutations differentially influenced orthosteric ligand affinity, efficacy and functional cooperativity between allosteric and orthosteric ligands. Loss-of-function mutations L454F and N885del reduced orthosteric affinity and efficacy, respectively. A gain-of-function Y792C mutant mGlu1 displayed enhanced constitutive activity in IP1 assays, which manifested as reduced orthosteric agonist activity. The mGlu1 PAMs restored glutamate potency in iCa2+ mobilisation for loss-of-function mutations and mGlu1 NAMs displayed enhanced inverse agonist activity at Y792C relative to wild-type mGlu1. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Collectively, these data highlight distinct mechanisms by which mGlu1 mutations affect receptor function and show allosteric modulators may present a therapeutic strategy to restore aberrant mGlu1 function in rare SCA subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyang Wang
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashwin Muraleetharan
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Monica Langiu
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Karen J Gregory
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- ARC Centre for Cryo-electron Microscopy of Membrane Proteins, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Shane D Hellyer
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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2
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Henriques C, Lopes MM, Silva AC, Lobo DD, Badin RA, Hantraye P, Pereira de Almeida L, Nobre RJ. Viral-based animal models in polyglutamine disorders. Brain 2024; 147:1166-1189. [PMID: 38284949 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Polyglutamine disorders are a complex group of incurable neurodegenerative disorders caused by an abnormal expansion in the trinucleotide cytosine-adenine-guanine tract of the affected gene. To better understand these disorders, our dependence on animal models persists, primarily relying on transgenic models. In an effort to complement and deepen our knowledge, researchers have also developed animal models of polyglutamine disorders employing viral vectors. Viral vectors have been extensively used to deliver genes to the brain, not only for therapeutic purposes but also for the development of animal models, given their remarkable flexibility. In a time- and cost-effective manner, it is possible to use different transgenes, at varying doses, in diverse targeted tissues, at different ages, and in different species, to recreate polyglutamine pathology. This paper aims to showcase the utility of viral vectors in disease modelling, share essential considerations for developing animal models with viral vectors, and provide a comprehensive review of existing viral-based animal models for polyglutamine disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Henriques
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel M Lopes
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana C Silva
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Diana D Lobo
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Romina Aron Badin
- CEA, DRF, Institute of Biology François Jacob, Molecular Imaging Research Center (MIRCen), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
- CNRS, CEA, Paris-Sud University, Université Paris-Saclay, Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory (UMR9199), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Philippe Hantraye
- CEA, DRF, Institute of Biology François Jacob, Molecular Imaging Research Center (MIRCen), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
- CNRS, CEA, Paris-Sud University, Université Paris-Saclay, Neurodegenerative Diseases Laboratory (UMR9199), 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rui Jorge Nobre
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), Gene and Stem Cell Therapies for the Brain Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), Vectors, Gene and Cell Therapy Group, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- ViraVector-Viral Vector for Gene Transfer Core Facility, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (III), University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
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3
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Kumar M, Tyagi N, Faruq M. The molecular mechanisms of spinocerebellar ataxias for DNA repeat expansion in disease. Emerg Top Life Sci 2023; 7:289-312. [PMID: 37668011 DOI: 10.1042/etls20230013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogenous group of neurodegenerative disorders which commonly inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. They cause muscle incoordination due to degeneration of the cerebellum and other parts of nervous system. Out of all the characterized (>50) SCAs, 14 SCAs are caused due to microsatellite repeat expansion mutations. Repeat expansions can result in toxic protein gain-of-function, protein loss-of-function, and/or RNA gain-of-function effects. The location and the nature of mutation modulate the underlying disease pathophysiology resulting in varying disease manifestations. Potential toxic effects of these mutations likely affect key major cellular processes such as transcriptional regulation, mitochondrial functioning, ion channel dysfunction and synaptic transmission. Involvement of several common pathways suggests interlinked function of genes implicated in the disease pathogenesis. A better understanding of the shared and distinct molecular pathogenic mechanisms in these diseases is required to develop targeted therapeutic tools and interventions for disease management. The prime focus of this review is to elaborate on how expanded 'CAG' repeats contribute to the common modes of neurotoxicity and their possible therapeutic targets in management of such devastating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Kumar
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mall Road, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Nishu Tyagi
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mall Road, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Mohammed Faruq
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mall Road, Delhi 110007, India
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4
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Murase S, Sakitani N, Maekawa T, Yoshino D, Takano K, Konno A, Hirai H, Saito T, Tanaka S, Shinohara K, Kishi T, Yoshikawa Y, Sakai T, Ayaori M, Inanami H, Tomiyasu K, Takashima A, Ogata T, Tsuchimochi H, Sato S, Saito S, Yoshino K, Matsuura Y, Funamoto K, Ochi H, Shinohara M, Nagao M, Sawada Y. Interstitial-fluid shear stresses induced by vertically oscillating head motion lower blood pressure in hypertensive rats and humans. Nat Biomed Eng 2023; 7:1350-1373. [PMID: 37414976 PMCID: PMC10651490 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-023-01061-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms by which physical exercise benefits brain functions are not fully understood. Here, we show that vertically oscillating head motions mimicking mechanical accelerations experienced during fast walking, light jogging or treadmill running at a moderate velocity reduce the blood pressure of rats and human adults with hypertension. In hypertensive rats, shear stresses of less than 1 Pa resulting from interstitial-fluid flow induced by such passive head motions reduced the expression of the angiotensin II type-1 receptor in astrocytes in the rostral ventrolateral medulla, and the resulting antihypertensive effects were abrogated by hydrogel introduction that inhibited interstitial-fluid movement in the medulla. Our findings suggest that oscillatory mechanical interventions could be used to elicit antihypertensive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuhei Murase
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoyoshi Sakitani
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
- Department of Cell Biology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Japan
| | - Takahiro Maekawa
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Daisuke Yoshino
- Division of Advanced Applied Physics, Institute of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Japan
| | - Kouji Takano
- Department of Rehabilitation for Brain Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Taku Saito
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sakae Tanaka
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keisuke Shinohara
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takuya Kishi
- Department of Cardiology, Graduate School of Medicine, International University of Health and Welfare, Okawa, Japan
| | - Yuki Yoshikawa
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takamasa Sakai
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Hirohiko Inanami
- Inanami Spine & Joint Hospital/Iwai Orthopaedic Medical Hospital, Iwai Medical Foundation, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Koji Tomiyasu
- Center of Sports Science and Health Promotion, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Atsushi Takashima
- Department of Assistive Technology, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Toru Ogata
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hirotsugu Tsuchimochi
- Department of Cardiac Physiology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Japan
| | - Shinya Sato
- Department of Advanced Medical Technologies, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Japan
| | - Shigeyoshi Saito
- Department of Medical Physics and Engineering, Division of Health Sciences, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Suita, Japan
| | - Kohzoh Yoshino
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Kwansei Gakuin University, Sanda, Japan
| | - Yuiko Matsuura
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | | | - Hiroki Ochi
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Masahiro Shinohara
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Motoshi Nagao
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Sawada
- Department of Rehabilitation for Motor Functions, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan.
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
- Department of Cell Biology, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Japan.
- Division of Advanced Applied Physics, Institute of Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Japan.
- Department of Clinical Research, National Rehabilitation Center for Persons with Disabilities, Tokorozawa, Japan.
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5
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Kapfhammer JP, Shimobayashi E. Viewpoint: spinocerebellar ataxias as diseases of Purkinje cell dysfunction rather than Purkinje cell loss. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1182431. [PMID: 37426070 PMCID: PMC10323145 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1182431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a group of hereditary neurodegenerative diseases mostly affecting cerebellar Purkinje cells caused by a wide variety of different mutations. One subtype, SCA14, is caused by mutations of Protein Kinase C gamma (PKCγ), the dominant PKC isoform present in Purkinje cells. Mutations in the pathway in which PKCγ is active, i.e., in the regulation of calcium levels and calcium signaling in Purkinje cells, are the cause of several other variants of SCA. In SCA14, many of the observed mutations in the PKCγ gene were shown to increase the basal activity of PKCγ, raising the possibility that increased activity of PKCγ might be the cause of most forms of SCA14 and might also be involved in the pathogenesis of SCA in related subtypes. In this viewpoint and review article we will discuss the evidence for and against such a major role of PKCγ basal activity and will suggest a hypothesis of how PKCγ activity and the calcium signaling pathway may be involved in the pathogenesis of SCAs despite the different and sometimes opposing effects of mutations affecting these pathways. We will then widen the scope and propose a concept of SCA pathogenesis which is not primarily driven by cell death and loss of Purkinje cells but rather by dysfunction of Purkinje cells which are still present and alive in the cerebellum.
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6
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Osório C, White JJ, Lu H, Beekhof GC, Fiocchi FR, Andriessen CA, Dijkhuizen S, Post L, Schonewille M. Pre-ataxic loss of intrinsic plasticity and motor learning in a mouse model of SCA1. Brain 2023; 146:2332-2345. [PMID: 36352508 PMCID: PMC10232256 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awac422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias are neurodegenerative diseases, the hallmark symptom of which is the development of ataxia due to cerebellar dysfunction. Purkinje cells, the principal neurons of the cerebellar cortex, are the main cells affected in these disorders, but the sequence of pathological events leading to their dysfunction is poorly understood. Understanding the origins of Purkinje cells dysfunction before it manifests is imperative to interpret the functional and behavioural consequences of cerebellar-related disorders, providing an optimal timeline for therapeutic interventions. Here, we report the cascade of events leading to Purkinje cells dysfunction before the onset of ataxia in a mouse model of spinocerebellar ataxia 1 (SCA1). Spatiotemporal characterization of the ATXN1[82Q] SCA1 mouse model revealed high levels of the mutant ATXN1[82Q] weeks before the onset of ataxia. The expression of the toxic protein first caused a reduction of Purkinje cells intrinsic excitability, which was followed by atrophy of Purkinje cells dendrite arborization and aberrant glutamatergic signalling, finally leading to disruption of Purkinje cells innervation of climbing fibres and loss of intrinsic plasticity of Purkinje cells. Functionally, we found that deficits in eyeblink conditioning, a form of cerebellum-dependent motor learning, precede the onset of ataxia, matching the timeline of climbing fibre degeneration and reduced intrinsic plasticity. Together, our results suggest that abnormal synaptic signalling and intrinsic plasticity during the pre-ataxia stage of spinocerebellar ataxias underlie an aberrant cerebellar circuitry that anticipates the full extent of the disease severity. Furthermore, our work indicates the potential for eyeblink conditioning to be used as a sensitive tool to detect early cerebellar dysfunction as a sign of future disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Osório
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
| | - Joshua J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
| | - Heiling Lu
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
| | - Gerrit C Beekhof
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Stephanie Dijkhuizen
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Post
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn Schonewille
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam 3015CN, The Netherlands
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7
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Wu QW, Kapfhammer JP. The Emerging Key Role of the mGluR1-PKCγ Signaling Pathway in the Pathogenesis of Spinocerebellar Ataxias: A Neurodevelopmental Viewpoint. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169169. [PMID: 36012439 PMCID: PMC9409119 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogeneous group of autosomal dominantly inherited progressive disorders with degeneration and dysfunction of the cerebellum. Although different subtypes of SCAs are classified according to the disease-associated causative genes, the clinical syndrome of the ataxia is shared, pointing towards a possible convergent pathogenic pathway among SCAs. In this review, we summarize the role of SCA-associated gene function during cerebellar Purkinje cell development and discuss the relationship between SCA pathogenesis and neurodevelopment. We will summarize recent studies on molecules involved in SCA pathogenesis and will focus on the mGluR1-PKCγ signaling pathway evaluating the possibility that this might be a common pathway which contributes to these diseases.
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8
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Indirect Negative Effect of Mutant Ataxin-1 on Short- and Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity in Mouse Models of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 1. Cells 2022; 11:cells11142247. [PMID: 35883691 PMCID: PMC9317252 DOI: 10.3390/cells11142247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is an intractable progressive neurodegenerative disease that leads to a range of movement and motor defects and is eventually lethal. Purkinje cells (PC) are typically the first to show signs of degeneration. SCA1 is caused by an expansion of the polyglutamine tract in the ATXN1 gene and the subsequent buildup of mutant Ataxin-1 protein. In addition to its toxicity, mutant Ataxin-1 protein interferes with gene expression and signal transduction in cells. Recently, it is evident that ATXN1 is not only expressed in neurons but also in glia, however, it is unclear the extent to which either contributes to the overall pathology of SCA1. There are various ways to model SCA1 in mice. Here, functional deficits at cerebellar synapses were investigated in two mouse models of SCA1 in which mutant ATXN1 is either nonspecifically expressed in all cell types of the cerebellum (SCA1 knock-in (KI)), or specifically in Bergmann glia with lentiviral vectors expressing mutant ATXN1 under the control of the astrocyte-specific GFAP promoter. We report impairment of motor performance in both SCA1 models. In both cases, prominent signs of astrocytosis were found using immunohistochemistry. Electrophysiological experiments revealed alteration of presynaptic plasticity at synapses between parallel fibers and PCs, and climbing fibers and PCs in SCA1 KI mice, which is not observed in animals expressing mutant ATXN1 solely in Bergmann glia. In contrast, short- and long-term synaptic plasticity was affected in both SCA1 KI mice and glia-targeted SCA1 mice. Thus, non-neuronal mechanisms may underlie some aspects of SCA1 pathology in the cerebellum. By combining the outcomes of our current work with our previous data from the B05 SCA1 model, we further our understanding of the mechanisms of SCA1.
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9
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Chakravorty A, Sharma A, Sheeba V, Manjithaya R. Glutamatergic Synapse Dysfunction in Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions Can Be Rescued by Proteostasis Modulation. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:842772. [PMID: 35909443 PMCID: PMC9337869 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.842772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, and the Drosophila glutamatergic neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) offer a tractable platform to understand excitatory synapse biology both in health and disease. Synaptopathies are neurodegenerative diseases that are associated with synaptic dysfunction and often display compromised proteostasis. One such rare, progressive neurodegenerative condition, Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3 (SCA3) or Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD), is characterized by cerebellar ataxia, Parkinsonism, and degeneration of motor neuron synapses. While the polyQ repeat mutant protein ataxin-3 is implicated in MJD, it is unclear how it leads to impaired synaptic function. In this study, we indicated that a Drosophila model of MJD recapitulates characteristics of neurodegenerative disorders marked by motor neuron dysfunction. Expression of 78 polyQ repeats of mutant ataxin-3 protein in Drosophila motor neurons resulted in behavioral defects, such as impaired locomotion in both larval and adult stages. Furthermore, defects in eclosion and lifespan were observed in adult flies. Detailed characterization of larval glutamatergic neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) revealed defects in morphological features along with compromised NMJ functioning. Autophagy, one of the key proteostasis pathways, is known to be impaired in the case of several synaptopathies. Our study reveals that overexpression of the autophagy-related protein Atg8a rescued behavioral defects. Thus, we present a model for glutamatergic synapse dysfunction that recapitulates synaptic and behavioral deficits and show that it is an amenable system for carrying out genetic and chemical biology screens to identify potential therapeutic targets for synaptopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anushka Chakravorty
- Autophagy Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, India
| | - Ankit Sharma
- Chronobiology and Behavioural Neurogenetics Laboratory, Neuroscience Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, India
| | - Vasu Sheeba
- Chronobiology and Behavioural Neurogenetics Laboratory, Neuroscience Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, India
- *Correspondence: Vasu Sheeba
| | - Ravi Manjithaya
- Autophagy Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, India
- Neuroscience Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore, India
- Ravi Manjithaya
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10
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Protective roles of MITOL against myocardial senescence and ischemic injury partly via Drp1 regulation. iScience 2022; 25:104582. [PMID: 35789860 PMCID: PMC9249672 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal mitochondrial fragmentation by dynamin-related protein1 (Drp1) is associated with the progression of aging-associated heart diseases, including heart failure and myocardial infarction (MI). Here, we report a protective role of outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM)-localized E3 ubiquitin ligase MITOL/MARCH5 against cardiac senescence and MI, partly through Drp1 clearance by OMM-associated degradation (OMMAD). Persistent Drp1 accumulation in cardiomyocyte-specific MITOL conditional-knockout mice induced mitochondrial fragmentation and dysfunction, including reduced ATP production and increased ROS generation, ultimately leading to myocardial senescence and chronic heart failure. Furthermore, ischemic stress-induced acute downregulation of MITOL, which permitted mitochondrial accumulation of Drp1, resulted in mitochondrial fragmentation. Adeno-associated virus-mediated delivery of the MITOL gene to cardiomyocytes ameliorated cardiac dysfunction induced by MI. Our findings suggest that OMMAD activation by MITOL can be a therapeutic target for aging-associated heart diseases, including heart failure and MI. MITOL is essential for maintaining cardiac function partly via Drp1 clearance MITOL deficiency causes cardiac aging partly via Drp1 accumulation Ischemic stress induces a rapid downregulation of MITOL MITOL expression attenuates cardiac dysfunction in acute myocardial infarction
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11
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Rezende Filho FM, Jurkute N, de Andrade JBC, Marianelli BF, Ferraz Sallum JM, Yu-Wai-Man P, Barsottini OG, Pedroso JL. Characterization of Retinal Architecture in Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3 and Correlation with Disease Severity. Mov Disord 2022; 37:758-766. [PMID: 34936137 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurodegeneration affects the brain and peripheral nervous system in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3). As the retina is also involved, studying the retinal architecture in a cohort of patients could reveal clinically relevant biomarkers. OBJECTIVE The aim is to investigate retinal architecture in SCA3 to identify potential biomarkers. METHODS We evaluated 38 patients with SCA3 and 25 healthy age-matched controls, who underwent visual acuity assessment, intraocular pressure measurement, and fundoscopy and macular and peripapillary spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). We measured the peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer (pRNFL) thickness in each quadrant of the temporal-superior-nasal-inferior-temporal chart and the macular layer thicknesses in each sector of the inner circle of the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (IC-ETDRS) grid. Linear regression analysis was employed to test the associations between retinal parameters and age, disease duration, CAG repeats, and SARA (Scale of the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia) and ICARS (International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale) scores in SCA3. RESULTS In all sectors, except for the temporal quadrant, pRNFL was significantly thinner in SCA3 patients than in controls. Average total macular, ganglion cell layer (GCL), and inner plexiform layer (IPL) thicknesses were significantly decreased in SCA3 patients in comparison to controls. The average total macular thickness and the average thicknesses of RNFL, GCL, and IPL negatively correlated with ICARS scores, whereas average GCL and IPL thicknesses negatively correlated with SARA scores. CONCLUSIONS The retinal ganglion cells, their dendrites, and axons are selectively affected in SCA3 patients. The RNFL, GCL, and IPL thicknesses in SD-OCT correlate with the clinical phenotype and represent potential biomarkers for future clinical trials and natural history studies. © 2021 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flávio Moura Rezende Filho
- Division of General Neurology and Ataxia Unit, Department of Neurology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Neringa Jurkute
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - João Brainer Clares de Andrade
- Division of General Neurology and Ataxia Unit, Department of Neurology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Patrick Yu-Wai-Man
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair and MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Cambridge Eye Unit, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Orlando G Barsottini
- Division of General Neurology and Ataxia Unit, Department of Neurology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - José Luiz Pedroso
- Division of General Neurology and Ataxia Unit, Department of Neurology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Cendelin J, Cvetanovic M, Gandelman M, Hirai H, Orr HT, Pulst SM, Strupp M, Tichanek F, Tuma J, Manto M. Consensus Paper: Strengths and Weaknesses of Animal Models of Spinocerebellar Ataxias and Their Clinical Implications. THE CEREBELLUM 2021; 21:452-481. [PMID: 34378174 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-021-01311-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) represent a large group of hereditary degenerative diseases of the nervous system, in particular the cerebellum, and other systems that manifest with a variety of progressive motor, cognitive, and behavioral deficits with the leading symptom of cerebellar ataxia. SCAs often lead to severe impairments of the patient's functioning, quality of life, and life expectancy. For SCAs, there are no proven effective pharmacotherapies that improve the symptoms or substantially delay disease progress, i.e., disease-modifying therapies. To study SCA pathogenesis and potential therapies, animal models have been widely used and are an essential part of pre-clinical research. They mainly include mice, but also other vertebrates and invertebrates. Each animal model has its strengths and weaknesses arising from model animal species, type of genetic manipulation, and similarity to human diseases. The types of murine and non-murine models of SCAs, their contribution to the investigation of SCA pathogenesis, pathological phenotype, and therapeutic approaches including their advantages and disadvantages are reviewed in this paper. There is a consensus among the panel of experts that (1) animal models represent valuable tools to improve our understanding of SCAs and discover and assess novel therapies for this group of neurological disorders characterized by diverse mechanisms and differential degenerative progressions, (2) thorough phenotypic assessment of individual animal models is required for studies addressing therapeutic approaches, (3) comparative studies are needed to bring pre-clinical research closer to clinical trials, and (4) mouse models complement cellular and invertebrate models which remain limited in terms of clinical translation for complex neurological disorders such as SCAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Cendelin
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 75, 323 00, Plzen, Czech Republic. .,Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 75, 323 00, Plzen, Czech Republic.
| | - Marija Cvetanovic
- Department of Neuroscience, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Mandi Gandelman
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, 175 North Medical Drive East, Salt Lake City, UT, 84132, USA
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan.,Viral Vector Core, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research (GIAR), Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Harry T Orr
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Stefan M Pulst
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, 175 North Medical Drive East, Salt Lake City, UT, 84132, USA
| | - Michael Strupp
- Department of Neurology and German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders, Hospital of the Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Campus Grosshadern, Marchioninistr. 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Filip Tichanek
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 75, 323 00, Plzen, Czech Republic.,Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disorders, Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 75, 323 00, Plzen, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Tuma
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine in Pilsen, Charles University, alej Svobody 75, 323 00, Plzen, Czech Republic.,The Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, MC 7843, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Mario Manto
- Unité des Ataxies Cérébelleuses, Service de Neurologie, CHU-Charleroi, Charleroi, Belgium.,Service des Neurosciences, Université de Mons, UMons, Mons, Belgium
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13
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Ohta T, Morikawa Y, Sato M, Konno A, Hirai H, Kurauchi Y, Hisatsune A, Katsuki H, Seki T. Therapeutic potential of d-cysteine against in vitro and in vivo models of spinocerebellar ataxia. Exp Neurol 2021; 343:113791. [PMID: 34157318 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is a group of autosomal-dominantly inherited ataxia and is classified into SCA1-48 by the difference of causal genes. Several SCA-causing proteins commonly impair dendritic development in primary cultured Purkinje cells (PCs). We assume that primary cultured PCs expressing SCA-causing proteins are available as in vitro SCA models and that chemicals that improve the impaired dendritic development would be effective for various SCAs. We have recently revealed that D-cysteine enhances the dendritic growth of primary cultured PCs via hydrogen sulfide production. In the present study, we first investigated whether D-cysteine is effective for in vitro SCA models. We expressed SCA1-, SCA3-, and SCA21-causing mutant proteins to primary cultured PCs using adeno-associated viral serotype 9 (AAV9) vectors. D-Cysteine (0.2 mM) significantly ameliorated the impaired dendritic development commonly observed in primary cultured PCs expressing these three SCA-causing proteins. Next, we investigated the therapeutic effect of long-term treatment with D-cysteine on an in vivo SCA model. SCA1 model mice were established by the cerebellar injection of AAV9 vectors, which express SCA1-causing mutant ataxin-1, to ICR mice. Long-term treatment with D-cysteine (100 mg/kg/day) significantly inhibited the progression of motor dysfunction in SCA1 model mice. Immunostaining experiments revealed that D-cysteine prevented the reduction of mGluR1 and glial activation at the early stage after the onset of motor dysfunction in SCA1 model mice. These findings strongly suggest that D-cysteine has therapeutic potential against in vitro and in vivo SCA models and may be a novel therapeutic agent for various SCAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Ohta
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yuri Morikawa
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sato
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan; Laboratory for Mechanistic Chemistry of Biomolecules, Department of Chemistry, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yuki Kurauchi
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Akinori Hisatsune
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Katsuki
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Takahiro Seki
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan.
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14
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mGluR1 signaling in cerebellar Purkinje cells: Subcellular organization and involvement in cerebellar function and disease. Neuropharmacology 2021; 194:108629. [PMID: 34089728 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum is essential for the control, coordination, and learning of movements, and for certain aspects of cognitive function. Purkinje cells are the sole output neurons in the cerebellar cortex and therefore play crucial roles in the diverse functions of the cerebellum. The type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1) is prominently enriched in Purkinje cells and triggers downstream signaling pathways that are required for functional and structural plasticity, and for synaptic responses. To understand how mGluR1 contributes to cerebellar functions, it is important to consider not only the operational properties of this receptor, but also its spatial organization and the molecular interactions that enable its proper functioning. In this review, we highlight how mGluR1 and its related signaling molecules are organized into tightly coupled microdomains to fulfill physiological functions. We also describe emerging evidence that altered mGluR1 signaling in Purkinje cells underlies cerebellar dysfunction in ataxias of human patients and mouse models.
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15
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Sato M, Ohta T, Morikawa Y, Konno A, Hirai H, Kurauchi Y, Hisatsune A, Katsuki H, Seki T. Ataxic phenotype and neurodegeneration are triggered by the impairment of chaperone-mediated autophagy in cerebellar neurons. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2021; 47:198-209. [PMID: 32722888 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) is a pathway involved in the autophagy lysosome protein degradation system. CMA has attracted attention as a contributing factor to neurodegenerative diseases since it participates in the degradation of disease-causing proteins. We previously showed that CMA is generally impaired in cells expressing the proteins causing spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs). Therefore, we investigated the effect of CMA impairment on motor function and the neural survival of cerebellar neurons using the micro RNA (miRNA)-mediated knockdown of lysosome-associated protein 2A (LAMP2A), a CMA-related protein. METHODS We injected adeno-associated virus serotype 9 vectors, which express green fluorescent protein (GFP) and miRNA (negative control miRNA or LAMP2A miRNA) under neuron-specific synapsin I promoter, into cerebellar parenchyma of 4-week-old ICR mice. Motor function of mice was evaluated by beam walking and footprint tests. Immunofluorescence experiments of cerebellar slices were conducted to evaluate histological changes in cerebella. RESULTS GFP and miRNA were expressed in interneurons (satellite cells and basket cells) in molecular layers and granule cells in the cerebellar cortices, but not in cerebellar Purkinje cells. LAMP2A knockdown in cerebellar neurons triggered progressive motor impairment, prominent loss of cerebellar Purkinje cells, interneurons, granule cells at the late stage, and astrogliosis and microgliosis from the early stage. CONCLUSIONS CMA impairment in cerebellar interneurons and granule cells triggers the progressive ataxic phenotype, gliosis and the subsequent degeneration of cerebellar neurons, including Purkinje cells. Our present findings strongly suggest that CMA impairment is related to the pathogenesis of various SCAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Sato
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
- Laboratory for Mechanistic Chemistry of Biomolecules, Department of Chemistry, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ohta
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yuri Morikawa
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yuki Kurauchi
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Akinori Hisatsune
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Katsuki
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Takahiro Seki
- Department of Chemico-Pharmacological Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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16
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Robinson KJ, Watchon M, Laird AS. Aberrant Cerebellar Circuitry in the Spinocerebellar Ataxias. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:707. [PMID: 32765211 PMCID: PMC7378801 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a heterogeneous group of neurodegenerative diseases that share convergent disease features. A common symptom of these diseases is development of ataxia, involving impaired balance and motor coordination, usually stemming from cerebellar dysfunction and neurodegeneration. For most spinocerebellar ataxias, pathology can be attributed to an underlying gene mutation and the impaired function of the encoded protein through loss or gain-of-function effects. Strikingly, despite vast heterogeneity in the structure and function of disease-causing genes across the SCAs and the cellular processes affected, the downstream effects have considerable overlap, including alterations in cerebellar circuitry. Interestingly, aberrant function and degeneration of Purkinje cells, the major output neuronal population present within the cerebellum, precedes abnormalities in other neuronal populations within many SCAs, suggesting that Purkinje cells have increased vulnerability to cellular perturbations. Factors that are known to contribute to perturbed Purkinje cell function in spinocerebellar ataxias include altered gene expression resulting in altered expression or functionality of proteins and channels that modulate membrane potential, downstream impairments in intracellular calcium homeostasis and changes in glutamatergic input received from synapsing climbing or parallel fibers. This review will explore this enhanced vulnerability and the aberrant cerebellar circuitry linked with it in many forms of SCA. It is critical to understand why Purkinje cells are vulnerable to such insults and what overlapping pathogenic mechanisms are occurring across multiple SCAs, despite different underlying genetic mutations. Enhanced understanding of disease mechanisms will facilitate the development of treatments to prevent or slow progression of the underlying neurodegenerative processes, cerebellar atrophy and ataxic symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Angela S. Laird
- Centre for Motor Neuron Disease Research, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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17
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Mendonça LS, Nóbrega C, Tavino S, Brinkhaus M, Matos C, Tomé S, Moreira R, Henriques D, Kaspar BK, Pereira de Almeida L. Ibuprofen enhances synaptic function and neural progenitors proliferation markers and improves neuropathology and motor coordination in Machado-Joseph disease models. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 28:3691-3703. [PMID: 31127937 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease or spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 is an inherited neurodegenerative disease associated with an abnormal glutamine over-repetition within the ataxin-3 protein. This mutant ataxin-3 protein affects several cellular pathways, leading to neuroinflammation and neuronal death in specific brain regions resulting in severe clinical manifestations. Presently, there is no therapy able to modify the disease progression. Nevertheless, anti-inflammatory pharmacological intervention has been associated with positive outcomes in other neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, the present work aimed at investigating whether ibuprofen treatment would alleviate Machado-Joseph disease. We found that ibuprofen-treated mouse models presented a significant reduction in the neuroinflammation markers, namely Il1b and TNFa mRNA and IKB-α protein phosphorylation levels. Moreover, these mice exhibited neuronal preservation, cerebellar atrophy reduction, smaller mutant ataxin-3 inclusions and motor performance improvement. Additionally, neural cultures of Machado-Joseph disease patients' induced pluripotent stem cells-derived neural stem cells incubated with ibuprofen showed increased levels of neural progenitors proliferation and synaptic markers such as MSI1, NOTCH1 and SYP. These findings were further confirmed in ibuprofen-treated mice that display increased neural progenitor numbers (Ki67 positive) in the subventricular zone. Furthermore, interestingly, ibuprofen treatment enhanced neurite total length and synaptic function of human neurons. Therefore, our results indicate that ibuprofen reduces neuroinflammation and induces neuroprotection, alleviating Machado-Joseph disease-associated neuropathology and motor impairments. Thus, our findings demonstrate that ibuprofen treatment has the potential to be used as a neuroprotective therapeutic approach in Machado-Joseph disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana S Mendonça
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Clévio Nóbrega
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Silvia Tavino
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maximilian Brinkhaus
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Carlos Matos
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sandra Tomé
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Moreira
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Daniel Henriques
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Brian K Kaspar
- The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Ohio State University School of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio 43205, USA
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- Vectors and Gene Therapy Group, Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
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18
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Chen YS, Hong ZX, Lin SZ, Harn HJ. Identifying Therapeutic Targets for Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3/Machado-Joseph Disease through Integration of Pathological Biomarkers and Therapeutic Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21093063. [PMID: 32357546 PMCID: PMC7246822 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21093063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3/Machado-Joseph disease (SCA3/MJD) is a progressive motor disease with no broadly effective treatment. However, most current therapies are based on symptoms rather than the underlying disease mechanisms. In this review, we describe potential therapeutic strategies based on known pathological biomarkers and related pathogenic processes. The three major conclusions from the current studies are summarized as follows: (i) for the drugs currently being tested in clinical trials; a weak connection was observed between drugs and SCA3/MJD biomarkers. The only two exceptions are the drugs suppressing glutamate-induced calcium influx and chemical chaperon. (ii) For most of the drugs that have been tested in animal studies, there is a direct association with pathological biomarkers. We further found that many drugs are associated with inducing autophagy, which is supported by the evidence of deficient autophagy biomarkers in SCA3/MJD, and that there may be more promising therapeutics. (iii) Some reported biomarkers lack relatively targeted drugs. Low glucose utilization, altered amino acid metabolism, and deficient insulin signaling are all implicated in SCA3/MJD, but there have been few studies on treatment strategies targeting these abnormalities. Therapeutic strategies targeting multiple pathological SCA3/MJD biomarkers may effectively block disease progression and preserve neurological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Shuan Chen
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.C.); (H.-J.H.); Tel.: +886-3-856-1825 (Y.-S.C. & H.-J.H.); Fax: +886-3-856-0977 (H.-J.H.)
| | - Zhen-Xiang Hong
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
| | - Horng-Jyh Harn
- Bioinnovation Center, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Department of Pathology, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Tzu Chi University, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Hualien 97002, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.C.); (H.-J.H.); Tel.: +886-3-856-1825 (Y.-S.C. & H.-J.H.); Fax: +886-3-856-0977 (H.-J.H.)
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19
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Yasui H, Matsuzaki Y, Konno A, Hirai H. Global Knockdown of Retinoid-related Orphan Receptor α in Mature Purkinje Cells Reveals Aberrant Cerebellar Phenotypes of Spinocerebellar Ataxia. Neuroscience 2020; 462:328-336. [PMID: 32278059 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Retinoid-related orphan receptor α (RORα) is a transcription factor expressed in a variety of tissues throughout the body. Knockout of RORα leads to various impairments, including defects in cerebellar development, circadian rhythm, lipid metabolism, immune function, and bone development. Previous studies have shown significant reduction of RORα expression in Purkinje cells (PCs) of spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) type 1 and type 3/MJD (Machado-Joseph disease) model mice. However, it remains unclear to what extent the RORα reduction in PCs is involved in the disease pathology. Here, RORα expression was downregulated specifically in mature mouse PCs by intravenous infusion of blood-brain barrier-permeable adeno-associated virus (AAV), expressing a microRNA against RORα (miR-RORα) under the control of the PC-specific L7-6 promoter. The systemic AAV infusion led to extensive transduction of PCs. The RORα knock-down caused degeneration of PCs including disruption of the PC monolayer alignment and dendrite atrophy. In behavioral experiments, mice expressing miR-RORα showed motor learning deficits, and later, overt cerebellar ataxia. Thus, RORα in mature PCs plays pivotal roles in maintenance of PC dendrites and the monolayer alignment, and consequently, motor learning and motor function. Decrease in RORα expression in PCs could be a primary etiology of the cerebellar symptoms in patients with SCA1 and SCA3/MJD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Yasui
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Yasunori Matsuzaki
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan; Viral Vector Core, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research (GIAR), Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan; Viral Vector Core, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research (GIAR), Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan; Viral Vector Core, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research (GIAR), Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan.
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20
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Binda F, Pernaci C, Saxena S. Cerebellar Development and Circuit Maturation: A Common Framework for Spinocerebellar Ataxias. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:293. [PMID: 32300292 PMCID: PMC7145357 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) affect the cerebellum and its afferent and efferent systems that degenerate during disease progression. In the cerebellum, Purkinje cells (PCs) are the most vulnerable and their prominent loss in the late phase of the pathology is the main characteristic of these neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the constant advancement in the discovery of affected molecules and cellular pathways, a comprehensive description of the events leading to the development of motor impairment and degeneration is still lacking. However, in the last years the possible causal role for altered cerebellar development and neuronal circuit wiring in SCAs has been emerging. Not only wiring and synaptic transmission deficits are a common trait of SCAs, but also preventing the expression of the mutant protein during cerebellar development seems to exert a protective role. By discussing this tight relationship between cerebellar development and SCAs, in this review, we aim to highlight the importance of cerebellar circuitry for the investigation of SCAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Binda
- Department of Neurology, Center for Experimental Neurology, University Hospital of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Carla Pernaci
- Department of Neurology, Center for Experimental Neurology, University Hospital of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Smita Saxena
- Department of Neurology, Center for Experimental Neurology, University Hospital of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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21
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Prestori F, Moccia F, D’Angelo E. Disrupted Calcium Signaling in Animal Models of Human Spinocerebellar Ataxia (SCA). Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010216. [PMID: 31892274 PMCID: PMC6981692 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 12/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) constitute a heterogeneous group of more than 40 autosomal-dominant genetic and neurodegenerative diseases characterized by loss of balance and motor coordination due to dysfunction of the cerebellum and its efferent connections. Despite a well-described clinical and pathological phenotype, the molecular and cellular events that underlie neurodegeneration are still poorly undaerstood. Emerging research suggests that mutations in SCA genes cause disruptions in multiple cellular pathways but the characteristic SCA pathogenesis does not begin until calcium signaling pathways are disrupted in cerebellar Purkinje cells. Ca2+ signaling in Purkinje cells is important for normal cellular function as these neurons express a variety of Ca2+ channels, Ca2+-dependent kinases and phosphatases, and Ca2+-binding proteins to tightly maintain Ca2+ homeostasis and regulate physiological Ca2+-dependent processes. Abnormal Ca2+ levels can activate toxic cascades leading to characteristic death of Purkinje cells, cerebellar atrophy, and ataxia that occur in many SCAs. The output of the cerebellar cortex is conveyed to the deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) by Purkinje cells via inhibitory signals; thus, Purkinje cell dysfunction or degeneration would partially or completely impair the cerebellar output in SCAs. In the absence of the inhibitory signal emanating from Purkinje cells, DCN will become more excitable, thereby affecting the motor areas receiving DCN input and resulting in uncoordinated movements. An outstanding advantage in studying the pathogenesis of SCAs is represented by the availability of a large number of animal models which mimic the phenotype observed in humans. By mainly focusing on mouse models displaying mutations or deletions in genes which encode for Ca2+ signaling-related proteins, in this review we will discuss the several pathogenic mechanisms related to deranged Ca2+ homeostasis that leads to significant Purkinje cell degeneration and dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Prestori
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Francesco Moccia
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
| | - Egidio D’Angelo
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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22
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Da Silva JD, Teixeira-Castro A, Maciel P. From Pathogenesis to Novel Therapeutics for Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3: Evading Potholes on the Way to Translation. Neurotherapeutics 2019; 16:1009-1031. [PMID: 31691128 PMCID: PMC6985322 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-019-00798-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3), also known as Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the ATXN3 gene. In spite of the identification of a clear monogenic cause 25 years ago, the pathological process still puzzles researchers, impairing prospects for an effective therapy. Here, we propose the disruption of protein homeostasis as the hub of SCA3 pathogenesis, being the molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways that are deregulated in SCA3 downstream consequences of the misfolding and aggregation of ATXN3. Moreover, we attempt to provide a realistic perspective on how the translational/clinical research in SCA3 should evolve. This was based on molecular findings, clinical and epidemiological characteristics, studies of proposed treatments in other conditions, and how that information is essential for their (re-)application in SCA3. This review thus aims i) to critically evaluate the current state of research on SCA3, from fundamental to translational and clinical perspectives; ii) to bring up the current key questions that remain unanswered in this disorder; and iii) to provide a frame on how those answers should be pursued.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Diogo Da Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Andreia Teixeira-Castro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.
- ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.
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23
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Watanave M, Hoshino C, Konno A, Fukuzaki Y, Matsuzaki Y, Ishitani T, Hirai H. Pharmacological enhancement of retinoid-related orphan receptor α function mitigates spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 pathology. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 121:263-273. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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24
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Lysosomal dysfunction and early glial activation are involved in the pathogenesis of spinocerebellar ataxia type 21 caused by mutant transmembrane protein 240. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 120:34-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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25
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Hsieh J, Liu JW, Harn HJ, Hsueh KW, Rajamani K, Deng YC, Chia CM, Shyu WC, Lin SZ, Chiou TW. Human Olfactory Ensheathing Cell Transplantation Improves Motor Function in a Mouse Model of Type 3 Spinocerebellar Ataxia. Cell Transplant 2018; 26:1611-1621. [PMID: 29251109 PMCID: PMC5753984 DOI: 10.1177/0963689717732578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects the cerebellum and spinal cord. Among the 40 types of SCA, SCA type 3 (SCA3), also referred to as Machado–Joseph disease, is the most common. In the present study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of intracranial transplantation of human olfactory ensheathing cells (hOECs) in the ATXN3-84Q mouse model of SCA3. Motor function begins to decline in ATXN3-84Q transgenic mice at approximately 13 weeks of age. ATXN3-84Q mice that received intracranial hOEC transplantation into the dorsal raphe nucleus of the brain exhibited significant improvements in motor function, as measured by the rotarod performance test and footprint pattern analysis. In addition, intracranial hOEC transplantation alleviated cerebellar inflammation, prohibited Purkinje cells from dying, and enhanced the neuroplasticity of cerebellar Purkinje cells. The protein levels of tryptophan hydroxylase 2, the rate-limiting enzyme for serotonin synthesis in the cerebellum, and ryanodine receptor (RYR) increased in mice that received intracranial hOEC transplantation. Because both serotonin and RYR can enhance Purkinje cell maturation, these effects may account for the therapeutic benefits mediated by intracranial hOEC transplantation in SCA3 mice. These results indicate that intracranial hOEC transplantation has potential value as a novel strategy for treating SCA3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne Hsieh
- 1 Molecular Medicine Program, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.,2 Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jen-Wei Liu
- 2 Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China.,3 Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Horng-Jyh Harn
- 4 Bioinnovation center, Buddhist Tzu Chi foundation, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China.,5 Department of Pathology, Buddhist Tzu Chi General hospital, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Kuo-Wei Hsueh
- 4 Bioinnovation center, Buddhist Tzu Chi foundation, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China.,6 Department of Department of Medical Research, Buddhist Hualien Tzu Chi General Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Karthyayani Rajamani
- 3 Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yu-Chen Deng
- 2 Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chih-Min Chia
- 2 Everfront Biotech Inc., New Taipei City, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Woei-Cheang Shyu
- 7 Center for Neuropsychiatry, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shinn-Zong Lin
- 4 Bioinnovation center, Buddhist Tzu Chi foundation, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China.,8 Department of Neurosurgery, Buddhist Tzu Chi General hospital, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Tzyy-Wen Chiou
- 3 Department of Life Science and Graduate Institute of Biotechnology, National Dong-Hwa University, Hualien, Taiwan, Republic of China
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26
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Oliveira Miranda C, Marcelo A, Silva TP, Barata J, Vasconcelos-Ferreira A, Pereira D, Nóbrega C, Duarte S, Barros I, Alves J, Sereno J, Petrella LI, Castelhano J, Paiva VH, Rodrigues-Santos P, Alves V, Nunes-Correia I, Nobre RJ, Gomes C, Castelo-Branco M, Pereira de Almeida L. Repeated Mesenchymal Stromal Cell Treatment Sustainably Alleviates Machado-Joseph Disease. Mol Ther 2018; 26:2131-2151. [PMID: 30087083 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD) or spinocerebellar ataxia type 3, the most common dominant spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) worldwide, is caused by over-repetition of a CAG repeat in the ATXN3/MJD1 gene, which translates into a polyglutamine tract within the ataxin-3 protein. There is no treatment for this fatal disorder. Despite evidence of the safety and efficacy of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in delaying SCA disease progression in exploratory clinical trials, unanticipated regression of patients to the status prior to treatment makes the investigation of causes and solutions urgent and imperative. In the present study, we compared the efficacy of a single intracranial injection with repeated systemic MSC administration in alleviating the MJD phenotype of two strongly severe genetic rodent models. We found that a single MSC transplantation only produces transient effects, whereas periodic administration promotes sustained motor behavior and neuropathology alleviation, suggesting that MSC therapies should be re-designed to get sustained beneficial results in clinical practice. Furthermore, MSC promoted neuroprotection, increased the levels of GABA and glutamate, and decreased the levels of Myo-inositol, which correlated with motor improvements, indicating that these metabolites may serve as valid neurospectroscopic biomarkers of disease and treatment. This study makes important contributions to the design of new clinical approaches for MJD and other SCAs/polyglutamine disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Oliveira Miranda
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Adriana Marcelo
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Teresa Pereira Silva
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João Barata
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Vasconcelos-Ferreira
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Doctoral Programme of Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Dina Pereira
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Doctoral Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine, CNC - University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Faculdade de Medicina, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Clévio Nóbrega
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sónia Duarte
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Inês Barros
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Joana Alves
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José Sereno
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, Edifício do ICNAS, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Nuclear Science Applied to Health, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Lorena Itatí Petrella
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, Edifício do ICNAS, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Nuclear Science Applied to Health, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João Castelhano
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, Edifício do ICNAS, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Nuclear Science Applied to Health, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Vitor Hugo Paiva
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Paulo Rodrigues-Santos
- Immunology Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Immunology and Oncology Laboratory, Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504, Portugal; Center of Investigation in Environment, Genetics and Oncobiology, Apartado 9015, 3001-301, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Vera Alves
- Immunology Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Immunology and Oncology Laboratory, Center for Neurosciences and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504, Portugal; Center of Investigation in Environment, Genetics and Oncobiology, Apartado 9015, 3001-301, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Isabel Nunes-Correia
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rui Jorge Nobre
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão - Pólo II, Rua Dom Francisco de Lemos, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal; Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Célia Gomes
- Coimbra Institute for Clinical and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Castelo-Branco
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology - Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Life Science (CNC.IBILI), University of Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, Edifício do ICNAS, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Institute of Nuclear Science Applied to Health, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology (CNC), University of Coimbra, Faculdade de Medicina, Rua Larga, Pólo I, 1° andar, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo 3, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.
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27
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Abstract
Polyglutamine diseases are hereditary degenerative disorders of the nervous system that have remained, to this date, untreatable. Promisingly, investigation into their molecular etiology and the development of increasingly perfected tools have contributed to the design of novel strategies with therapeutic potential. Encouraging studies have explored gene therapy as a means to counteract cell demise and loss in this context. The current chapter addresses the two main focuses of research in the area: the characteristics of the systems used to deliver nucleic acids to cells and the molecular and cellular actions of the therapeutic agents. Vectors used in gene therapy have to satisfyingly reach the tissues and cell types of interest, while eliciting the lowest toxicity possible. Both viral and non-viral systems have been developed for the delivery of nucleic acids to the central nervous system, each with its respective advantages and shortcomings. Since each polyglutamine disease is caused by mutation of a single gene, many gene therapy strategies have tried to halt degeneration by silencing the corresponding protein products, usually recurring to RNA interference. The potential of small interfering RNAs, short hairpin RNAs and microRNAs has been investigated. Overexpression of protective genes has also been evaluated as a means of decreasing mutant protein toxicity and operate beneficial alterations. Recent gene editing tools promise yet other ways of interfering with the disease-causing genes, at the most upstream points possible. Results obtained in both cell and animal models encourage further delving into this type of therapeutic strategies and support the future use of gene therapy in the treatment of polyglutamine diseases.
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28
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Ca 2+ signaling and spinocerebellar ataxia. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2018; 1865:1733-1744. [PMID: 29777722 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia (SCA) is a neural disorder, which is caused by degenerative changes in the cerebellum. SCA is primarily characterized by gait ataxia, and additional clinical features include nystagmus, dysarthria, tremors and cerebellar atrophy. Forty-four hereditary SCAs have been identified to date, along with >35 SCA-associated genes. Despite the great diversity and distinct functionalities of the SCA-related genes, accumulating evidence supports the occurrence of a common pathophysiological event among several hereditary SCAs. Altered calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis in the Purkinje cells (PCs) of the cerebellum has been proposed as a possible pathological SCA trigger. In support of this, signaling events that are initiated from or lead to aberrant Ca2+ release from the type 1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R1), which is highly expressed in cerebellar PCs, seem to be closely associated with the pathogenesis of several SCA types. In this review, we summarize the current research on pathological hereditary SCA events, which involve altered Ca2+ homeostasis in PCs, through IP3R1 signaling.
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29
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Hoxha E, Balbo I, Miniaci MC, Tempia F. Purkinje Cell Signaling Deficits in Animal Models of Ataxia. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2018; 10:6. [PMID: 29760657 PMCID: PMC5937225 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2018.00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Purkinje cell (PC) dysfunction or degeneration is the most frequent finding in animal models with ataxic symptoms. Mutations affecting intrinsic membrane properties can lead to ataxia by altering the firing rate of PCs or their firing pattern. However, the relationship between specific firing alterations and motor symptoms is not yet clear, and in some cases PC dysfunction precedes the onset of ataxic signs. Moreover, a great variety of ionic and synaptic mechanisms can affect PC signaling, resulting in different features of motor dysfunction. Mutations affecting Na+ channels (NaV1.1, NaV1.6, NaVβ4, Fgf14 or Rer1) reduce the firing rate of PCs, mainly via an impairment of the Na+ resurgent current. Mutations that reduce Kv3 currents limit the firing rate frequency range. Mutations of Kv1 channels act mainly on inhibitory interneurons, generating excessive GABAergic signaling onto PCs, resulting in episodic ataxia. Kv4.3 mutations are responsible for a complex syndrome with several neurologic dysfunctions including ataxia. Mutations of either Cav or BK channels have similar consequences, consisting in a disruption of the firing pattern of PCs, with loss of precision, leading to ataxia. Another category of pathogenic mechanisms of ataxia regards alterations of synaptic signals arriving at the PC. At the parallel fiber (PF)-PC synapse, mutations of glutamate delta-2 (GluD2) or its ligand Crbl1 are responsible for the loss of synaptic contacts, abolishment of long-term depression (LTD) and motor deficits. At the same synapse, a correct function of metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (mGlu1) receptors is necessary to avoid ataxia. Failure of climbing fiber (CF) maturation and establishment of PC mono-innervation occurs in a great number of mutant mice, including mGlu1 and its transduction pathway, GluD2, semaphorins and their receptors. All these models have in common the alteration of PC output signals, due to a variety of mechanisms affecting incoming synaptic signals or the way they are processed by the repertoire of ionic channels responsible for intrinsic membrane properties. Although the PC is a final common pathway of ataxia, the link between specific firing alterations and neurologic symptoms has not yet been systematically studied and the alterations of the cerebellar contribution to motor signals are still unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eriola Hoxha
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Turin, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Ilaria Balbo
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Turin, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Maria Concetta Miniaci
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Filippo Tempia
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Turin, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience, University of Torino, Turin, Italy.,National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), Turin, Italy
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30
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Huang M, Verbeek DS. Why do so many genetic insults lead to Purkinje Cell degeneration and spinocerebellar ataxia? Neurosci Lett 2018; 688:49-57. [PMID: 29421540 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The genetically heterozygous spinocerebellar ataxias are all characterized by cerebellar atrophy and pervasive Purkinje Cell degeneration. Up to date, more than 35 functionally diverse spinocerebellar ataxia genes have been identified. The main question that remains yet unsolved is why do some many genetic insults lead to Purkinje Cell degeneration and spinocerebellar ataxia? To address this question it is important to identify intrinsic pathways important for Purkinje Cell function and survival. In this review, we discuss the current consensus on shared mechanisms underlying the pervasive Purkinje Cell loss in spinocerebellar ataxia. Additionally, using recently published cell type specific expression data, we identified several Purkinje Cell-specific genes and discuss how the corresponding pathways might underlie the vulnerability of Purkinje Cells in response to the diverse genetic insults causing spinocerebellar ataxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaozhen Huang
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Genetics, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Dineke S Verbeek
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Genetics, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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31
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Type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor and its signaling molecules as therapeutic targets for the treatment of cerebellar disorders. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Duarte-Silva S, Maciel P. Pharmacological Therapies for Machado-Joseph Disease. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1049:369-394. [PMID: 29427114 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71779-1_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Machado-Joseph disease (MJD), also known as Spinocerebellar Ataxia type 3 (SCA3), is the most common autosomal dominant ataxia worldwide. MJD integrates a large group of disorders known as polyglutamine diseases (polyQ). To date, no effective treatment exists for MJD and other polyQ diseases. Nevertheless, researchers are making efforts to find treatment possibilities that modify the disease course or alleviate disease symptoms. Since neuroimaging studies in mutation carrying individuals suggest that in nervous system dysfunction begins many years before the onset of any detectable symptoms, the development of therapeutic interventions becomes of great importance, not only to slow progression of manifest disease but also to delay, or ideally prevent, its onset. Potential therapeutic targets for MJD and polyQ diseases can be divided into (i) those that are aimed at the polyQ proteins themselves, namely gene silencing, attempts to enhance mutant protein degradation or inhibition/prevention of aggregation; and (ii) those that intercept the toxic downstream effects of the polyQ proteins, such as mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, transcriptional abnormalities, UPS impairment, excitotoxicity, or activation of cell death. The existence of relevant animal models and the recent contributions towards the identification of putative molecular mechanisms underlying MJD are impacting on the development of new drugs. To date only a few preclinical trials were conducted, nevertheless some had very promising results and some candidate drugs are close to being tested in humans. Clinical trials for MJD are also very few to date and their results not very promising, mostly due to trial design constraints. Here, we provide an overview of the pharmacological therapeutic strategies for MJD studied in animal models and patients, and of their possible translation into the clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Duarte-Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal. .,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal.
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Matsuzaki Y, Konno A, Mochizuki R, Shinohara Y, Nitta K, Okada Y, Hirai H. Intravenous administration of the adeno-associated virus-PHP.B capsid fails to upregulate transduction efficiency in the marmoset brain. Neurosci Lett 2017; 665:182-188. [PMID: 29175632 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Intravenous administration of adeno-associated virus (AAV)-PHP.B, a capsid variant of AAV9 containing seven amino acid insertions, results in a greater permeability of the blood brain barrier (BBB) than standard AAV9 in mice, leading to highly efficient and global transduction of the central nervous system (CNS). The present study aimed to examine whether the enhanced BBB penetrance of AAV-PHP.B observed in mice also occurs in non-human primates. Thus, a young adult (age, 1.6 years) and an old adult (age, 7.2 years) marmoset received an intravenous injection of AAV-PHP.B expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) under the control of the constitutive CBh promoter (a hybrid of cytomegalovirus early enhancer and chicken β-actin promoter). Age-matched control marmosets were treated with standard AAV9-capsid vectors. The animals were sacrificed 6 weeks after the viral injection. Based on the results, only limited transduction of neurons (0-2%) and astrocytes (0.1-2.5%) was observed in both AAV-PHP.B- and AAV9-treated marmosets. One noticeable difference between AAV-PHP.B and AAV9 was the marked transduction of the peripheral dorsal root ganglia neurons. Indeed, the soma and axons in the projection from the spinal cord to the nucleus cuneatus in the medulla oblongata were strongly labeled with EGFP by AAV-PHP.B. Thus, except for the peripheral dorsal root ganglia neurons, the AAV-PHP.B transduction efficiency in the CNS of marmosets was comparable to that of AAV9 vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasunori Matsuzaki
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Ryuta Mochizuki
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Yoichiro Shinohara
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Keisuke Nitta
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Okada
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan; Research Program for Neural Signalling, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Signal Research, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan.
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Halbach MV, Gispert S, Stehning T, Damrath E, Walter M, Auburger G. Atxn2 Knockout and CAG42-Knock-in Cerebellum Shows Similarly Dysregulated Expression in Calcium Homeostasis Pathway. THE CEREBELLUM 2017; 16:68-81. [PMID: 26868665 PMCID: PMC5243904 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-016-0762-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) is an autosomal dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disorder with preferential affection of Purkinje neurons, which are known as integrators of calcium currents. The expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) domain in the RNA-binding protein ataxin-2 (ATXN2) is responsible for this disease, but the causal roles of deficient ATXN2 functions versus aggregation toxicity are still under debate. Here, we studied mouse mutants with Atxn2 knockout (KO) regarding their cerebellar global transcriptome by microarray and RT-qPCR, in comparison with data from Atxn2-CAG42-knock-in (KIN) mouse cerebellum. Global expression downregulations involved lipid and growth signaling pathways in good agreement with previous data. As a novel effect, downregulations of key factors in calcium homeostasis pathways (the transcription factor Rora, transporters Itpr1 and Atp2a2, as well as regulator Inpp5a) were observed in the KO cerebellum, and some of them also occurred subtly early in KIN cerebellum. The ITPR1 protein levels were depleted from soluble fractions of cerebellum in both mutants, but accumulated in its membrane-associated form only in the SCA2 model. Coimmunoprecipitation demonstrated no association of ITPR1 with Q42-expanded or with wild-type ATXN2. These findings provide evidence that the physiological functions and protein interactions of ATXN2 are relevant for calcium-mediated excitation of Purkinje cells as well as for ATXN2-triggered neurotoxicity. These insights may help to understand pathogenesis and tissue specificity in SCA2 and other polyQ ataxias like SCA1, where inositol regulation of calcium flux and RORalpha play a role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Vanessa Halbach
- Experimental Neurology, Department of Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Building 89, 3rd floor, Theodor Stern Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Suzana Gispert
- Experimental Neurology, Department of Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Building 89, 3rd floor, Theodor Stern Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Tanja Stehning
- Experimental Neurology, Department of Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Building 89, 3rd floor, Theodor Stern Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Ewa Damrath
- Experimental Neurology, Department of Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Building 89, 3rd floor, Theodor Stern Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Michael Walter
- Institute for Medical Genetics, Eberhard-Karls-University of Tuebingen, 72076, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Georg Auburger
- Experimental Neurology, Department of Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Building 89, 3rd floor, Theodor Stern Kai 7, 60590, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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Prolonged Type 1 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Dependent Synaptic Signaling Contributes to Spino-Cerebellar Ataxia Type 1. J Neurosci 2017; 36:4910-6. [PMID: 27147646 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3953-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1)-dependent signaling at parallel fiber to Purkinje neuron synapses is critical for cerebellar function. In a mouse model of human spino-cerebellar ataxia type 1 (early SCA1, 12 weeks) we find prolonged parallel fiber mGluR1-dependent synaptic currents and calcium signaling. Acute treatment with a low dose of the potent and specific activity-dependent mGluR1-negative allosteric modulator JNJ16259685 shortened the prolonged mGluR1 currents and rescued the moderate ataxia. Our results provide exciting new momentum for developing mGluR1-based pharmacology to treat ataxia. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Ataxia is a progressive and devastating degenerative movement disorder commonly associated with loss of cerebellar function and with no known cure. In the early stages of a mouse model of human spinocerebellar ataxia type 1, SCA1, where mice exhibit only moderate motor impairment, we detect excess "gain of function" of metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling at an important cerebellar synapse. Because careful control of this type of signaling is critical for cerebellar function in mice and humans, we sought to remove the excess signaling with a powerful, readily available pharmacological modulator. Remarkably, this pharmacological treatment acutely restored normal motor function in the ataxic mice. Our results pave the way for exploring a new avenue for early treatment of human ataxias.
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36
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Nitta K, Matsuzaki Y, Konno A, Hirai H. Minimal Purkinje Cell-Specific PCP2/L7 Promoter Virally Available for Rodents and Non-human Primates. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2017; 6:159-170. [PMID: 28828391 PMCID: PMC5552061 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2017.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cell-type-specific promoters in combination with viral vectors and gene-editing technology permit efficient gene manipulation in specific cell populations. Cerebellar Purkinje cells play a pivotal role in cerebellar functions. Although the Purkinje cell-specific L7 promoter is widely used for the generation of transgenic mice, it remains unsuitable for viral vectors because of its large size (3 kb) and exceedingly weak promoter activity. Here, we found that the 0.8-kb region (named here as L7-6) upstream of the transcription initiation codon in the first exon was alone sufficient as a Purkinje cell-specific promoter, presenting a far stronger promoter activity over the original 3-kb L7 promoter with a sustained significant specificity to Purkinje cells. Intravenous injection of adeno-associated virus vectors that are highly permeable to the blood-brain barrier confirmed the Purkinje cell specificity of the L7-6 in the CNS. The features of the L7-6 were also preserved in the marmoset, a non-human primate. The high sequence homology of the L7-6 among mouse, marmoset, and human suggests the preservation of the promoter strength and Purkinje cell specificity features also in humans. These findings suggest that L7-6 will facilitate the cerebellar research targeting the pathophysiology and gene therapy of cerebellar disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Nitta
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan.,Department of Ophthalmology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Yasunori Matsuzaki
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan.,Research Program for Neural Signalling, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Signal Research, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
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37
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Kano M, Watanabe T. Type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling in cerebellar Purkinje cells in health and disease. F1000Res 2017; 6:416. [PMID: 28435670 PMCID: PMC5381626 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.10485.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum is a brain structure involved in coordination, control, and learning of movements, as well as certain aspects of cognitive function. Purkinje cells are the sole output neurons from the cerebellar cortex and therefore play crucial roles in the overall function of the cerebellum. The type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR1) is a key “hub” molecule that is critically involved in the regulation of synaptic wiring, excitability, synaptic response, and synaptic plasticity of Purkinje cells. In this review, we aim to highlight how mGluR1 controls these events in Purkinje cells. We also describe emerging evidence that altered mGluR1 signaling in Purkinje cells underlies cerebellar dysfunctions in several clinically relevant mouse models of human ataxias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanobu Kano
- Department of Neurophysiology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takaki Watanabe
- Department of Neurophysiology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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38
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Leto K, Arancillo M, Becker EBE, Buffo A, Chiang C, Ding B, Dobyns WB, Dusart I, Haldipur P, Hatten ME, Hoshino M, Joyner AL, Kano M, Kilpatrick DL, Koibuchi N, Marino S, Martinez S, Millen KJ, Millner TO, Miyata T, Parmigiani E, Schilling K, Sekerková G, Sillitoe RV, Sotelo C, Uesaka N, Wefers A, Wingate RJT, Hawkes R. Consensus Paper: Cerebellar Development. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2016; 15:789-828. [PMID: 26439486 PMCID: PMC4846577 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-015-0724-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The development of the mammalian cerebellum is orchestrated by both cell-autonomous programs and inductive environmental influences. Here, we describe the main processes of cerebellar ontogenesis, highlighting the neurogenic strategies used by developing progenitors, the genetic programs involved in cell fate specification, the progressive changes of structural organization, and some of the better-known abnormalities associated with developmental disorders of the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketty Leto
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi Montalcini, University of Turin, via Cherasco 15, 10026, Turin, Italy.
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri-Ottolenghi, University of Turin, Regione Gonzole 10, 10043, Orbassano, Torino, Italy.
| | - Marife Arancillo
- Departments of Pathology & Immunology and Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Esther B E Becker
- Medical Research Council Functional Genomics Unit, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PT, UK
| | - Annalisa Buffo
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi Montalcini, University of Turin, via Cherasco 15, 10026, Turin, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri-Ottolenghi, University of Turin, Regione Gonzole 10, 10043, Orbassano, Torino, Italy
| | - Chin Chiang
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, 4114 MRB III, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA
| | - Baojin Ding
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems and Program in Neuroscience, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605-2324, USA
| | - William B Dobyns
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Genetics Division, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Isabelle Dusart
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Univ Paris 06, Institut de Biologie Paris Seine, France, 75005, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, CNRS, UMR8246, INSERM U1130, Neuroscience Paris Seine, France, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Parthiv Haldipur
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mary E Hatten
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Mikio Hoshino
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular Biology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Alexandra L Joyner
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Masanobu Kano
- Department of Neurophysiology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Daniel L Kilpatrick
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems and Program in Neuroscience, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 368 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA, 01605-2324, USA
| | - Noriyuki Koibuchi
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Silvia Marino
- Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Salvador Martinez
- Department Human Anatomy, IMIB-Arrixaca, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Kathleen J Millen
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Center for Integrative Brain Research, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Thomas O Millner
- Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, 4 Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Takaki Miyata
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Elena Parmigiani
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi Montalcini, University of Turin, via Cherasco 15, 10026, Turin, Italy
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri-Ottolenghi, University of Turin, Regione Gonzole 10, 10043, Orbassano, Torino, Italy
| | - Karl Schilling
- Anatomie und Zellbiologie, Anatomisches Institut, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gabriella Sekerková
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Roy V Sillitoe
- Departments of Pathology & Immunology and Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute of Texas Children's Hospital, 1250 Moursund Street, Suite 1325, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Constantino Sotelo
- Institut de la Vision, UPMC Université de Paris 06, Paris, 75012, France
| | - Naofumi Uesaka
- Department of Neurophysiology, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Annika Wefers
- Center for Neuropathology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Richard J T Wingate
- MRC Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Richard Hawkes
- Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, T2N 4NI, AB, Canada
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Hoxha E, Tempia F, Lippiello P, Miniaci MC. Modulation, Plasticity and Pathophysiology of the Parallel Fiber-Purkinje Cell Synapse. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2016; 8:35. [PMID: 27857688 PMCID: PMC5093118 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2016.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The parallel fiber-Purkinje cell (PF-PC) synapse represents the point of maximal signal divergence in the cerebellar cortex with an estimated number of about 60 billion synaptic contacts in the rat and 100,000 billions in humans. At the same time, the Purkinje cell dendritic tree is a site of remarkable convergence of more than 100,000 parallel fiber synapses. Parallel fiber activity generates fast postsynaptic currents via α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, and slower signals, mediated by mGlu1 receptors, resulting in Purkinje cell depolarization accompanied by sharp calcium elevation within dendritic regions. Long-term depression (LTD) and long-term potentiation (LTP) have been widely described for the PF-PC synapse and have been proposed as mechanisms for motor learning. The mechanisms of induction for LTP and LTD involve different signaling mechanisms within the presynaptic terminal and/or at the postsynaptic site, promoting enduring modification in the neurotransmitter release and change in responsiveness to the neurotransmitter. The PF-PC synapse is finely modulated by several neurotransmitters, including serotonin, noradrenaline and acetylcholine. The ability of these neuromodulators to gate LTP and LTD at the PF-PC synapse could, at least in part, explain their effect on cerebellar-dependent learning and memory paradigms. Overall, these findings have important implications for understanding the cerebellar involvement in a series of pathological conditions, ranging from ataxia to autism. For example, PF-PC synapse dysfunctions have been identified in several murine models of spino-cerebellar ataxia (SCA) types 1, 3, 5 and 27. In some cases, the defect is specific for the AMPA receptor signaling (SCA27), while in others the mGlu1 pathway is affected (SCA1, 3, 5). Interestingly, the PF-PC synapse has been shown to be hyper-functional in a mutant mouse model of autism spectrum disorder, with a selective deletion of Pten in Purkinje cells. However, the full range of methodological approaches, that allowed the discovery of the physiological principles of PF-PC synapse function, has not yet been completely exploited to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms of diseases involving the cerebellum. We, therefore, propose to extend the spectrum of experimental investigations to tackle this problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eriola Hoxha
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO) and Department of Neuroscience, University of TorinoTorino, Italy
| | - Filippo Tempia
- Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO) and Department of Neuroscience, University of TorinoTorino, Italy
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40
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Farrar MA, Vucic S, Nicholson G, Kiernan MC. Motor cortical dysfunction develops in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. Clin Neurophysiol 2016; 127:3418-3424. [PMID: 27689815 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2016.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cerebellar ataxia and variable expression of clinical features beyond the cerebellum. To gain further insights into disease pathophysiology, the present study explored motor cortex function in SCA3 to determine whether cortical dysfunction was present and if this contributed to the development of clinical manifestations. METHODS Clinical phenotyping and longitudinal assessments were combined with central (threshold-tracking transcranial magnetic stimulation) and peripheral (nerve excitability) techniques in 11 genetically characterized SCA3 patients. RESULTS Short-interval intracortical inhibition was significantly reduced in presymptomatic and symptomatic SCA3 patients (-1.3±1.4%) compared to healthy controls (10.3±0.7%, P<0.0005), with changes evident prior to clinical onset of ataxia and related to worsening severity (R=-0.78, P<0.005). Central motor conduction time was also significantly prolonged in presymptomatic and symptomatic SCA3 patients (7.5±0.4ms) compared to healthy controls (5.3±0.2ms, P<0.0005) and related to clinical severity (R=0.81, P<0.005). Markers of peripheral motor neurodegeneration and excitability did not correlate with cortical hyperexcitability or ataxia. CONCLUSIONS Simultaneous investigation of clinical status, and central and peripheral nerve function has identified progressive cortical dysfunction in SCA3 patients related to the development of ataxia. SIGNIFICANCE These findings suggest alteration in cortical activity is associated with SCA3 pathogenesis and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Farrar
- Discipline of Paediatrics, School of Women's and Children's Health, UNSW Medicine, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Steve Vucic
- Department of Neurology, Westmead Hospital and Western Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Garth Nicholson
- ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Concord Hospital, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Matthew C Kiernan
- Sydney Medical School, Brain & Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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41
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Shuvaev AN, Hosoi N, Sato Y, Yanagihara D, Hirai H. Progressive impairment of cerebellar mGluR signalling and its therapeutic potential for cerebellar ataxia in spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 model mice. J Physiol 2016; 595:141-164. [PMID: 27440721 DOI: 10.1113/jp272950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease caused by a gene defect, leading to movement disorder such as cerebellar ataxia. It remains largely unknown which functional defect contributes to the cerebellar ataxic phenotype in SCA1. In this study, we report progressive dysfunction of metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) signalling, which leads to smaller slow synaptic responses, reduced dendritic Ca2+ signals and impaired synaptic plasticity at cerebellar synapses, in the early disease stage of SCA1 model mice. We also show that enhancement of mGluR signalling by a clinically available drug, baclofen, leads to improvement of motor performance in SCA1 mice. SCA1 is an incurable disease with no effective treatment, and our results may provide mechanistic grounds for targeting mGluRs and a novel drug therapy with baclofen to treat SCA1 patients in the future. ABSTRACT Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that presents with cerebellar ataxia and motor learning defects. Previous studies have indicated that the pathology of SCA1, as well as other ataxic diseases, is related to signalling pathways mediated by the metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 (mGluR1), which is indispensable for proper motor coordination and learning. However, the functional contribution of mGluR signalling to SCA1 pathology is unclear. In the present study, we show that SCA1 model mice develop a functional impairment of mGluR signalling which mediates slow synaptic responses, dendritic Ca2+ signals, and short- and long-term synaptic plasticity at parallel fibre (PF)-Purkinje cell (PC) synapses in a progressive manner from the early disease stage (5 postnatal weeks) prior to PC death. Notably, impairment of mGluR-mediated dendritic Ca2+ signals linearly correlated with a reduction of PC capacitance (cell surface area) in disease progression. Enhancement of mGluR signalling by baclofen, a clinically available GABAB receptor agonist, led to an improvement of motor performance in SCA1 mice and the improvement lasted ∼1 week after a single application of baclofen. Moreover, the restoration of motor performance in baclofen-treated SCA1 mice matched the functional recovery of mGluR-mediated slow synaptic currents and mGluR-dependent short- and long-term synaptic plasticity. These results suggest that impairment of synaptic mGluR cascades is one of the important contributing factors to cerebellar ataxia in early and middle stages of SCA1 pathology, and that modulation of mGluR signalling by baclofen or other clinical interventions may be therapeutic targets to treat SCA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton N Shuvaev
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan.,Research Institute of Molecular Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Krasnoyarsk State Medical University named after Prof. V. F. Voino-Yasenetsky, Krasnoyarsk, 660022, Russia
| | - Nobutake Hosoi
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Yamato Sato
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 153-8902, Japan
| | - Dai Yanagihara
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 153-8902, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan.,Research Program for Neural Signalling, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Signal Research, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
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Saraiva J, Nobre RJ, Pereira de Almeida L. Gene therapy for the CNS using AAVs: The impact of systemic delivery by AAV9. J Control Release 2016; 241:94-109. [PMID: 27637390 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Several attempts have been made to discover the ideal vector for gene therapy in central nervous system (CNS). Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are currently the preferred vehicle since they exhibit stable transgene expression in post-mitotic cells, neuronal tropism, low risk of insertional mutagenesis and diminished immune responses. Additionally, the discovery that a particular serotype, AAV9, bypasses the blood-brain barrier has raised the possibility of intravascular administration as a non-invasive delivery route to achieve widespread CNS gene expression. AAV9 intravenous delivery has already shown promising results for several diseases in animal models, including lysosomal storage disorders and motor neuron diseases, opening the way to the first clinical trial in the field. This review presents an overview of clinical trials for CNS disorders using AAVs and will focus on preclinical studies based on the systemic gene delivery using AAV9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Saraiva
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rui Jorge Nobre
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luis Pereira de Almeida
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Portugal.
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Shinohara Y, Konno A, Takahashi N, Matsuzaki Y, Kishi S, Hirai H. Viral Vector-Based Dissection of Marmoset GFAP Promoter in Mouse and Marmoset Brains. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0162023. [PMID: 27571575 PMCID: PMC5003399 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are small in diameter, diffuse easily in the brain, and represent a highly efficient means by which to transfer a transgene to the brain of a large animal. A major demerit of AAV vectors is their limited accommodation capacity for transgenes. Thus, a compact promoter is useful when delivering large transgenes via AAV vectors. In the present study, we aimed to identify the shortest astrocyte-specific GFAP promoter region that could be used for AAV-vector-mediated transgene expression in the marmoset brain. The 2.0-kb promoter region upstream of the GFAP gene was cloned from the marmoset genome, and short promoters (1.6 kb, 1.4 kb, 0.6 kb, 0.3 kb and 0.2 kb) were obtained by progressively deleting the original 2.0-kb promoter from the 5' end. The short promoters were screened in the mouse cerebellum in terms of their strength and astrocyte specificity. We found that the 0.3-kb promoter maintained 40% of the strength of the original 2.0-kb promoter, and approximately 90% of its astrocyte specificity. These properties were superior to those of the 1.4-kb, 0.6-kb (20% promoter strength) and 0.2-kb (70% astrocyte specificity) promoters. Then, we verified whether the 0.3-kb GFAP promoter retained astrocyte specificity in the marmoset cerebral cortex. Injection of viral vectors carrying the 0.3-kb marmoset GFAP promoter specifically transduced astrocytes in both the cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex of the marmoset. These results suggest that the compact 0.3-kb promoter region serves as an astrocyte-specific promoter in the marmoset brain, which permits us to express a large gene by AAV vectors that have a limited accommodation capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoichiro Shinohara
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Ayumu Konno
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Takahashi
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Yasunori Matsuzaki
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Shoji Kishi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology & Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
- Research Program for Neural Signalling, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Signal Research, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, Maebashi, Gunma, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Matos CA, Nóbrega C, Louros SR, Almeida B, Ferreiro E, Valero J, Pereira de Almeida L, Macedo-Ribeiro S, Carvalho AL. Ataxin-3 phosphorylation decreases neuronal defects in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 models. J Cell Biol 2016; 212:465-80. [PMID: 26880203 PMCID: PMC4754714 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201506025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ataxin-3, the protein involved in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 or Machado-Joseph disease, causes dendritic and synapse loss in cultured neurons when expanded, and mutation of phosphorylation site S12 reduces aggregation, neuronal loss, and synapse loss. Different neurodegenerative diseases are caused by aberrant elongation of repeated glutamine sequences normally found in particular human proteins. Although the proteins involved are ubiquitously distributed in human tissues, toxicity targets only defined neuronal populations. Changes caused by an expanded polyglutamine protein are possibly influenced by endogenous cellular mechanisms, which may be harnessed to produce neuroprotection. Here, we show that ataxin-3, the protein involved in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3, also known as Machado-Joseph disease, causes dendritic and synapse loss in cultured neurons when expanded. We report that S12 of ataxin-3 is phosphorylated in neurons and that mutating this residue so as to mimic a constitutive phosphorylated state counters the neuromorphologic defects observed. In rats stereotaxically injected with expanded ataxin-3–encoding lentiviral vectors, mutation of serine 12 reduces aggregation, neuronal loss, and synapse loss. Our results suggest that S12 plays a role in the pathogenic pathways mediated by polyglutamine-expanded ataxin-3 and that phosphorylation of this residue protects against toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Matos
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Clévio Nóbrega
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Susana R Louros
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Bruno Almeida
- Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular and Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Elisabete Ferreiro
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal Institute for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Jorge Valero
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal Ikerbasque Basque Foundation for Science and Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, Bizkaia Science and Technology Park, E-48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | - Luís Pereira de Almeida
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sandra Macedo-Ribeiro
- Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular and Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Luísa Carvalho
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Coimbra, 3004-517 Coimbra, Portugal
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Neuropeptide Y (NPY) as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 95:210-24. [PMID: 27461050 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and NPY receptors are widely expressed in the mammalian central nervous system. Studies in both humans and rodent models revealed that brain NPY levels are altered in some neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and Machado-Joseph disease. In this review, we will focus on the roles of NPY in the pathological mechanisms of these disorders, highlighting NPY as a neuroprotective agent, as a neural stem cell proliferative agent, as an agent that increases trophic support, as a stimulator of autophagy and as an inhibitor of excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation. Moreover, the effect of NPY in some clinical manifestations commonly observed in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and Machado-Joseph disease, such as depressive symptoms and body weight loss, are also discussed. In conclusion, this review highlights NPY system as a potential therapeutic target in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Schmidt J, Schmidt T, Golla M, Lehmann L, Weber J, Hübener-Schmid J, Riess O. In vivo
assessment of riluzole as a potential therapeutic drug for spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. J Neurochem 2016; 138:150-62. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Schmidt
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Thorsten Schmidt
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Matthias Golla
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Lisa Lehmann
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Jonasz Jeremiasz Weber
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Jeannette Hübener-Schmid
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
| | - Olaf Riess
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics and Center for Rare Diseases; University of Tuebingen; Tuebingen Germany
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Meera P, Pulst SM, Otis TS. Cellular and circuit mechanisms underlying spinocerebellar ataxias. J Physiol 2016; 594:4653-60. [PMID: 27198167 DOI: 10.1113/jp271897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Degenerative ataxias are a common form of neurodegenerative disease that affect about 20 individuals per 100,000. The autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are caused by a variety of protein coding mutations (single nucleotide changes, deletions and expansions) in single genes. Affected genes encode plasma membrane and intracellular ion channels, membrane receptors, protein kinases, protein phosphatases and proteins of unknown function. Although SCA-linked genes are quite diverse they share two key features: first, they are highly, although not exclusively, expressed in cerebellar Purkinje neurons (PNs), and second, when mutated they lead ultimately to the degeneration of PNs. In this review we summarize ataxia-related changes in PN neurophysiology that have been observed in various mouse knockout lines and in transgenic models of human SCA. We also highlight emerging evidence that altered metabotropic glutamate receptor signalling and disrupted calcium homeostasis in PNs form a common, early pathophysiological mechanism in SCAs. Together these findings indicate that aberrant calcium signalling and profound changes in PN neurophysiology precede PN cell loss and are likely to lead to cerebellar circuit dysfunction that explains behavioural signs of ataxia characteristic of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratap Meera
- Department of Neurobiology, Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, 650 Charles Young Drive, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Stefan M Pulst
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah, 175 N Medical Drive E, Salt Lake City, UT, 84132, USA
| | - Thomas S Otis
- Department of Neurobiology, Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, 650 Charles Young Drive, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.,Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development (pRED), Neuroscience, Ophthalmology and Rare Diseases (NORD), Grenzacherstrasse 124, CH-4070, Basel, Switzerland
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48
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Perkins E, Suminaite D, Jackson M. Cerebellar ataxias: β-III spectrin's interactions suggest common pathogenic pathways. J Physiol 2016; 594:4661-76. [PMID: 26821241 PMCID: PMC4983618 DOI: 10.1113/jp271195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are a genetically heterogeneous group of disorders all characterised by postural abnormalities, motor deficits and cerebellar degeneration. Animal and in vitro models have revealed β‐III spectrin, a cytoskeletal protein present throughout the soma and dendritic tree of cerebellar Purkinje cells, to be required for the maintenance of dendritic architecture and for the trafficking and/or stabilisation of several membrane proteins: ankyrin‐R, cell adhesion molecules, metabotropic glutamate receptor‐1 (mGluR1), voltage‐gated sodium channels (Nav) and glutamate transporters. This scaffold of interactions connects β‐III spectrin to a wide variety of proteins implicated in the pathology of many SCAs. Heterozygous mutations in the gene encoding β‐III spectrin (SPTBN2) underlie SCA type‐5 whereas homozygous mutations cause spectrin associated autosomal recessive ataxia type‐1 (SPARCA1), an infantile form of ataxia with cognitive impairment. Loss‐of β‐III spectrin function appears to underpin cerebellar dysfunction and degeneration in both diseases resulting in thinner dendrites, excessive dendritic protrusion with loss of planarity, reduced resurgent sodium currents and abnormal glutamatergic neurotransmission. The initial physiological consequences are a decrease in spontaneous activity and excessive excitation, likely to be offsetting each other, but eventually hyperexcitability gives rise to dark cell degeneration and reduced cerebellar output. Similar molecular mechanisms have been implicated for SCA1, 2, 3, 7, 13, 14, 19, 22, 27 and 28, highlighting alterations to intrinsic Purkinje cell activity, dendritic architecture and glutamatergic transmission as possible common mechanisms downstream of various loss‐of‐function primary genetic defects. A key question for future research is whether similar mechanisms underlie progressive cerebellar decline in normal ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Perkins
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building, George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Daumante Suminaite
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building, George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Mandy Jackson
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building, George Square, Edinburgh, EH8 9XD, UK
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Watson LM, Wong MMK, Becker EBE. Induced pluripotent stem cell technology for modelling and therapy of cerebellar ataxia. Open Biol 2016; 5:150056. [PMID: 26136256 PMCID: PMC4632502 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.150056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has emerged as an important tool in understanding, and potentially reversing, disease pathology. This is particularly true in the case of neurodegenerative diseases, in which the affected cell types are not readily accessible for study. Since the first descriptions of iPSC-based disease modelling, considerable advances have been made in understanding the aetiology and progression of a diverse array of neurodegenerative conditions, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. To date, however, relatively few studies have succeeded in using iPSCs to model the neurodegeneration observed in cerebellar ataxia. Given the distinct neurodevelopmental phenotypes associated with certain types of ataxia, iPSC-based models are likely to provide significant insights, not only into disease progression, but also to the development of early-intervention therapies. In this review, we describe the existing iPSC-based disease models of this heterogeneous group of conditions and explore the challenges associated with generating cerebellar neurons from iPSCs, which have thus far hindered the expansion of this research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Watson
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Maggie M K Wong
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Esther B E Becker
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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50
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Conceição M, Mendonça L, Nóbrega C, Gomes C, Costa P, Hirai H, Moreira JN, Lima MC, Manjunath N, Pereira de Almeida L. Intravenous administration of brain-targeted stable nucleic acid lipid particles alleviates Machado-Joseph disease neurological phenotype. Biomaterials 2016; 82:124-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 12/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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