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McKeon HP, Schepens MAA, van den Brand AD, de Jong MH, van Gelder MMHJ, Hesselink ML, Sopel MM, Mengelers MJB. Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure and Associated Risk in Pregnant Dutch Women: The Human Biomonitoring Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:278. [PMID: 38922172 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16060278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by various fungi that can contaminate food crops, which, in turn, may lead to human exposure. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins can cause adverse health effects including reproductive and developmental toxicity. Pregnant women and their foetuses present a vulnerable group for exposure to mycotoxins that can cross the placenta. Human biomonitoring of mycotoxins provides a real-life approach to estimate internal exposure. In this pilot study, 24-h urine samples from 36 pregnant Dutch women were analysed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), total deoxynivalenol (DON), de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), total zearalenone (ZEN), total α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), total β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) and total zearalanone (ZAN), where 'total' refers to mycotoxins and their conjugated forms. Serum samples from these women were analysed for fumonisin B1 (FB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA). All samples were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The most prevalent mycotoxins were total DON, total ZEN and OTA, with a detection frequency of 100%. DOM-1, total α-ZEL and total β-ZEL were detected but to a lesser extent, while AFM1, total ZAN and FB1 were undetected. Median concentrations were 4.75 μg total DON/L, 0.0350 μg DOM-1/L, 0.0413 μg total ZEN/L, 0.0379 μg total α-ZEL/L, 0.0189 μg total β-ZEL/L, and 0.121 μg OTA/L. The calculated median concentration for total ZEN and its metabolites was 0.105 μg/L. Based on two separate risk assessment approaches, total DON exposure in this group was considered to be of low concern. Similarly, exposure to total ZEN and its metabolites in this group was of low concern. For OTA, the risk of non-neoplastic effects was of low concern based on exposure in this group, and the risk of neoplastic effects was of low concern in the majority of participants in this group. The findings of this pilot study confirm the presence of mycotoxins in the urine and serum of pregnant Dutch women, with total DON, total ZEN, and OTA most frequently detected. Exposure to all measured mycotoxins was considered to be of low concern in this group, except for exposure to OTA, which was of low concern for the majority of participants. The study's findings offer valuable insights but should be confirmed using a larger and more diverse sample of the Dutch general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah P McKeon
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marloes A A Schepens
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Annick D van den Brand
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marjolein H de Jong
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen M H J van Gelder
- Department for Health Evidence, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marijn L Hesselink
- Department of Paediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Centre (MUMC+), P. Debyelaan 25, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands
- School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Marta M Sopel
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WSFR), 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel J B Mengelers
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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2
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Arce-López B, Coton M, Coton E, Hymery N. Occurrence of the two major regulated mycotoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1, in cereal and cereal-based products in Europe and toxicological effects: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 109:104489. [PMID: 38844151 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Among cereal contaminants, mycotoxins are of concern due to their importance in terms of food and feed safety. The difficulty in establishing a diagnosis for mycotoxicosis relies on the fact that the effects are most often subclinical for chronic exposure and the most common scenario is multi-contamination by various toxins. Mycotoxin co-occurrence is a major food safety concern as additive or even synergic toxic impacts may occur, but also regarding current regulations as they mainly concern individual mycotoxin levels in specific foods and feed in the food chain. However, due to the large number of possible mycotoxin combinations, there is still limited knowledge on co-exposure toxicity data, which depends on several parameters. In this context, this systematic review aims to provide an overview of the toxic effects of two regulated mycotoxins, namely ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1. This review focused on the 2012-2022 period and analysed the occurrence in Europe of the selected mycotoxins in different food matrices (cereals and cereal-derived products), and their toxic impact, alone or in combination, on in vitro intestinal and hepatic human cells. To better understand and evaluate the associated risks, further research is needed using new approach methodologies (NAM), such as in vitro 3D models. KEY CONTRIBUTION: Cereals and their derived products are the most important food source for humans and feed for animals worldwide. This manuscript is a state of the art review of the literature over the last ten years on ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1 mycotoxins in these products in Europe as well as their toxicological effects, alone and in combination, on human cells. Future perspectives and some challenges regarding the assessment of toxicological effects of mycotoxins are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Arce-López
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France
| | - Monika Coton
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France
| | - Nolwenn Hymery
- Univ. Brest, INRAE, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Plouzané F-29280, France.
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3
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Charusalaipong P, Gordon MJ, Cantlay L, De Souza N, Horgan GW, Bates R, Gratz SW. Frequent Dietary Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in UK Children and Its Association with Dietary Intake. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:251. [PMID: 38922145 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16060251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are potent fungal toxins that frequently contaminate agricultural crops and foods. Mycotoxin exposure is frequently reported in humans, and children are known to be particularly at risk of exceeding safe levels of exposure. Urinary biomonitoring is used to assess overall dietary exposure to multiple mycotoxins. This study aims to quantify multi-mycotoxin exposure in UK children and to identify major food groups contributing to exposure. Four repeat urine samples were collected from 29 children (13 boys and 16 girls, aged 2.4-6.8 years), and food diaries were recorded to assess their exposure to eleven mycotoxins. Urine samples (n = 114) were hydrolysed with β-glucuronidase, enriched through immunoaffinity columns and analysed by LC-MS/MS for deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), T-2/HT-2 toxins, zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins. Food diaries were analysed using WinDiet software, and the daily intake of high-risk foods for mycotoxin contamination summarised. The most prevalent mycotoxins found in urine samples were DON (95.6% of all samples), OTA (88.6%), HT-2 toxin (53.5%), ZEN (48.2%) and NIV (26.3%). Intake of total cereal-based foods was strongly positively associated with urinary levels of DON and T-2/HT-2 and oat intake with urinary T-2/HT-2. Average daily mycotoxin excretion ranged from 12.10 µg/d (DON) to 0.03 µg/d (OTA), and co-exposure to three or more mycotoxins was found in 66% of samples. Comparing mycotoxin intake estimates to tolerable daily intakes (TDI) demonstrates frequent TDI exceedances (DON 34.2% of all samples, T-2/HT-2 14.9%, NIV 4.4% and ZEN 5.2%). OTA was frequently detected at low levels. When mean daily OTA intake was compared to the reference value for non-neoplastic lesions, the resulting Margin of Exposure (MoE) of 65 was narrow, indicating a health concern. In conclusion, this study demonstrates frequent exposure of UK children to multiple mycotoxins at levels high enough to pose a health concern if exposure is continuous.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Louise Cantlay
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Nicosha De Souza
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland (BioSS), Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Graham W Horgan
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland (BioSS), Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Ruth Bates
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Silvia W Gratz
- Rowett Institute, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
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Jacobson T, Bae Y, Kler JS, Iyer R, Zhang R, Montgomery ND, Nunes D, Pleil JD, Funk WE. Advancing Global Health Surveillance of Mycotoxin Exposures using Minimally Invasive Sampling Techniques: A State-of-the-Science Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:3580-3594. [PMID: 38354120 PMCID: PMC10903514 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c04981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are a heterogeneous group of toxins produced by fungi that can grow in staple crops (e.g., maize, cereals), resulting in health risks due to widespread exposure from human consumption and inhalation. Dried blood spot (DBS), dried serum spot (DSS), and volumetric tip microsampling (VTS) assays were developed and validated for several important mycotoxins. This review summarizes studies that have developed these assays to monitor mycotoxin exposures in human biological samples and highlights future directions to facilitate minimally invasive sampling techniques as global public health tools. A systematic search of PubMed (MEDLINE), Embase (Elsevier), and CINAHL (EBSCO) was conducted. Key assay performance metrics were extracted to provide a critical review of the available methods. This search identified 11 published reports related to measuring mycotoxins (ochratoxins, aflatoxins, and fumonisins) using DBS/DSS and VTS assays. Multimycotoxin assays adapted for DBS/DSS and VTS have undergone sufficient laboratory validation for applications in large-scale population health and human biomonitoring studies. Future work should expand the number of mycotoxins that can be measured in multimycotoxin assays, continue to improve multimycotoxin assay sensitivities of several biomarkers with low detection rates, and validate multimycotoxin assays across diverse populations with varying exposure levels. Validated low-cost and ultrasensitive minimally invasive sampling methods should be deployed in human biomonitoring and public health surveillance studies to guide policy interventions to reduce inequities in global mycotoxin exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler
A. Jacobson
- Department
of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Yeunook Bae
- Department
of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Jasdeep S. Kler
- University
of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Ramsunder Iyer
- Department
of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Runze Zhang
- Department
of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Nathan D. Montgomery
- Department
of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Denise Nunes
- Galter
Health Sciences Library, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
| | - Joachim D. Pleil
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Public
Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - William E. Funk
- Department
of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University
Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, United States
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5
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Dasí-Navarro N, Lozano M, Llop S, Vioque J, Peiró J, Esplugues A, Manyes L, Vila-Donat P. Associated factors with mycotoxin exposure in Spanish population. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 242:117618. [PMID: 37967699 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Human exposure to mycotoxins is a global concern since filamentous fungi can contaminate food and feed from crops to ready-to-eat meals. Human urine biomonitoring is a widely used technique to evaluate mycotoxins exposure, as an alternative to food correlation studies. The aim of this study is to describe human exposure to mycotoxins and to investigate the associated sociodemographic, lifestyle and dietary variables. Participants were 540 women from the Valencia (Spain) cohort of the Spanish Childhood and Environment Project (INMA). A validated multi-mycotoxin method using HPLC-Q-TOF-MS was applied to determine the concentration of ten selected mycotoxins: Enniatin A, Enniatin B, Enniatin A1, Enniatin B1, Beauvericine, Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin B2, Aflatoxin G1, Aflatoxin G2 and Ochratoxin A. A simultaneous untargeted screening of mycotoxins and their metabolites has been performed. Mycotoxins associations were assessed by bivariate and multivariate regression models using participants' sociodemographic, lifestyle and dietary data collected through questionnaires. Mycotoxins were detected in 81% of urine samples. The method quantified mycotoxins concentrations in up to 151 samples. Most quantified mycotoxins were: Enniatin B [% of detection (concentration range)] = 26% (1.0-39.7 ng/mg) and Enniatin B1 = 7% (0.5-14.4 ng/mg). Besides the ten-targeted mycotoxins, other mycotoxins and metabolites were studied, and higher incidence was observed for Deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (45%), Ochratoxin B (18%) and Ochratoxin α (17%). Higher mycotoxins concentrations were associated with rural areas as well as with participants belonged to lower social class, beer, light sodas and fruit juice consumers. On the contrary, higher processed meat intake was related to lower mycotoxins' levels. Studies are required to better evaluate the exposure to mycotoxins from food and their environmental relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Dasí-Navarro
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Spain
| | - Manuel Lozano
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Spain; Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020, València, Spain
| | - Sabrina Llop
- Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020, València, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesus Vioque
- Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029, Madrid, Spain; Alicante Institute of Health and Biomedical Research, University Miguel Hernandez (ISABIAL-UMH), Alacant, Spain
| | - Juanjo Peiró
- Department of Statistics and Operations Research, University of Valencia, València, Spain
| | - Ana Esplugues
- Epidemiology and Environmental Health Joint Research Unit, FISABIO-Universitat Jaume I-Universitat de València, 46020, València, Spain; Spanish Consortium for Research on Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029, Madrid, Spain; Department of Nursing, Faculty of Nursing and Podiatry, University of Valencia, València, Spain
| | - Lara Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Spain.
| | - Pilar Vila-Donat
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitat de València, Spain
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6
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Mesterhazy A. What Is Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) Resistance and What Are Its Food Safety Risks in Wheat? Problems and Solutions-A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:31. [PMID: 38251247 PMCID: PMC10820574 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The term "Fusarium Head Blight" (FHB) resistance supposedly covers common resistances to different Fusarium spp. without any generally accepted evidence. For food safety, all should be considered with their toxins, except for deoxynivalenol (DON). Disease index (DI), scabby kernels (FDK), and DON steadily result from FHB, and even the genetic regulation of Fusarium spp. may differ; therefore, multitoxin contamination is common. The resistance types of FHB form a rather complex syndrome that has been the subject of debate for decades. It seems that resistance types are not independent variables but rather a series of components that follow disease and epidemic development; their genetic regulation may differ. Spraying inoculation (Type 1 resistance) includes the phase where spores land on palea and lemma and spread to the ovarium and also includes the spread-inhibiting resistance factor; therefore, it provides the overall resistance that is needed. A significant part of Type 1-resistant QTLs could, therefore, be Type 2, requiring the retesting of the QTLs; this is, at least, the case for the most effective ones. The updated resistance components are as follows: Component 1 is overall resistance, as discussed above; Component 2 includes spreading from the ovarium through the head, which is a part of Component 1; Component 3 includes factors from grain development to ripening (FDK); Component 4 includes factors influencing DON contamination, decrease, overproduction, and relative toxin resistance; and for Component 5, the tolerance has a low significance without new results. Independent QTLs with different functions can be identified for one or more traits. Resistance to different Fusarium spp. seems to be connected; it is species non-specific, but further research is necessary. Their toxin relations are unknown. DI, FDK, and DON should be checked as they serve as the basic data for the risk analysis of cultivars. A better understanding of the multitoxin risk is needed regarding resistance to the main Fusarium spp.; therefore, an updated testing methodology is suggested. This will provide more precise data for research, genetics, and variety registration. In winter and spring wheat, the existing resistance level is very high, close to Sumai 3, and provides much greater food safety combined with sophisticated fungicide preventive control and other practices in commercial production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akos Mesterhazy
- Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., Alsokikotosor 9, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
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7
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Mesterhazy A. Food Safety Aspects of Breeding Maize to Multi-Resistance against the Major (Fusarium graminearum, F. verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus) and Minor Toxigenic Fungi ( Fusarium spp.) as Well as to Toxin Accumulation, Trends, and Solutions-A Review. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:40. [PMID: 38248949 PMCID: PMC10817526 DOI: 10.3390/jof10010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Maize is the crop which is most commonly exposed to toxigenic fungi that produce many toxins that are harmful to humans and animals alike. Preharvest grain yield loss, preharvest toxin contamination (at harvest), and storage loss are estimated to be between 220 and 265 million metric tons. In the past ten years, the preharvest mycotoxin damage was stable or increased mainly in aflatoxin and fumonisins. The presence of multiple toxins is characteristic. The few breeding programs concentrate on one of the three main toxigenic fungi. About 90% of the experiments except AFB1 rarely test toxin contamination. As disease resistance and resistance to toxin contamination often differ in regard to F. graminearum, F. verticillioides, and A. flavus and their toxins, it is not possible to make a food safety evaluation according to symptom severity alone. The inheritance of the resistance is polygenic, often mixed with epistatic and additive effects, but only a minor part of their phenotypic variation can be explained. All tests are made by a single inoculum (pure isolate or mixture). Genotype ranking differs between isolates and according to aggressiveness level; therefore, the reliability of such resistance data is often problematic. Silk channel inoculation often causes lower ear rot severity than we find in kernel resistance tests. These explain the slow progress and raise skepticism towards resistance breeding. On the other hand, during genetic research, several effective putative resistance genes were identified, and some overlapped with known QTLs. QTLs were identified as securing specific or general resistance to different toxicogenic species. Hybrids were identified with good disease and toxin resistance to the three toxigenic species. Resistance and toxin differences were often tenfold or higher, allowing for the introduction of the resistance and resistance to toxin accumulation tests in the variety testing and the evaluation of the food safety risks of the hybrids within 2-3 years. Beyond this, resistance breeding programs and genetic investigations (QTL-analyses, GWAM tests, etc.) can be improved. All other research may use it with success, where artificial inoculation is necessary. The multi-toxin data reveal more toxins than we can treat now. Their control is not solved. As limits for nonregulated toxins can be introduced, or the existing regulations can be made to be stricter, the research should start. We should mention that a higher resistance to F. verticillioides and A. flavus can be very useful to balance the detrimental effect of hotter and dryer seasons on aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination. This is a new aspect to secure food and feed safety under otherwise damaging climatic conditions. The more resistant hybrids are to the three main agents, the more likely we are to reduce the toxin losses mentioned by about 50% or higher.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akos Mesterhazy
- Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., Alsokikotosor 9, 6726 Szeged, Hungary
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8
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Kharboush TG, Ahmed IA, Farag AA, Kharboush T, Sayed AEDH, Abdel-Kareim AM, Al Mohaini M, Attia H, Eid RA, Zaki MSA, Al-Tabbakh ASM. Epigenetic alterations of miR-155 and global DNA methylation as potential mediators of ochratoxin A cytotoxicity and carcinogenicity in human lung fibroblasts. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:5473-5483. [PMID: 38114706 PMCID: PMC10799132 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31283-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a well-known mycotoxin that adversely affects different human cells. Inhalational exposure to OTA and subsequent pulmonary diseases have been previously reported, yet its potential carcinogenicity and underlying molecular mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. This study aimed to evaluate the OTA-induced cytotoxicity and the epigenetic changes underlying its potential carcinogenicity in fetal lung fibroblast (WI-38) cells. OTA cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay; RT-qPCR was used to determine the expression of BAX, BCL-2, TP53, and miR-155, while ELISA was used for measuring 5-methyl cytosine percentage to assess global DNA methylation in OTA-treated versus control cells. WI-38 cells demonstrated sensitivity to OTA with IC50 at 22.38 μM. Though BAX and Bcl-2 were downregulated, with low BAX/BCL-2 ratio, and TP53 was upregulated, their fold changes showed decline trend with increasing OTA concentration. A significant dose-dependent miR-155 upregulation was observed, with dynamic time-related decline. Using subtoxic OTA concentrations, a significant global DNA hypermethylation with significant dose-dependent and dynamic alterations was identified. Global DNA hypermethylation and miR-155 upregulation are epigenetic mechanisms that mediate OTA toxicity on WI-38 cells. BAX downregulation, reduced BAX/BCL-2 ratio together with miR-155 upregulation indicated either the inhibition of TP53-dependent apoptosis or a tissue specific response to OTA exposure. The aforementioned OTA-induced variations present a new molecular evidence of OTA cytotoxicity and possible carcinogenicity in lung fibroblast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taghrid G Kharboush
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
| | - Inas A Ahmed
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
- Central Laboratory for Research, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
| | - Amina A Farag
- Department of Forensic Medicine & Clinical Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
| | - Tayseir Kharboush
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
| | - Alaa El-Din H Sayed
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Assiut University, Asyut, 71516, Egypt.
- Molecular Biology Research & Studies Institute, Assiut University, Asyut, 71516, Egypt.
| | - Amal M Abdel-Kareim
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
| | - Mohammed Al Mohaini
- Basic Sciences Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud Bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, 31982, Alahsa, Saudi Arabia
- King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, 31982, Alahsa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hend Attia
- Clinical and Chemical Pathology, School of Medicine, Newgiza University (NGU), Giza, Egypt
| | - Refaat A Eid
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 62529, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Samir A Zaki
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, P.O. Box 62529, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Al-Shaimaa M Al-Tabbakh
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Benha University, Benha, 13518, Egypt
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9
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Rhee KH, Yang SA, Pyo MC, Lim JM, Lee KW. MiR-155-5p Elevated by Ochratoxin A Induces Intestinal Fibrosis and Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition through TGF-β Regulated Signaling Pathway In Vitro and In Vivo. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:473. [PMID: 37505742 PMCID: PMC10467050 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Revised: 07/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that induces fibrosis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transitions (EMT) in kidneys and livers. It enters our bodies through food consumption, where it is absorbed in the intestines. However, the impact of OTA on the intestines is yet to be studied. MicroRNA (miRNAs) are small non-coding single-stranded RNAs that block the transcription of specific mRNAs and are, therefore, involved in many biochemical processes. Our findings indicate that OTA can induce EMT and intestinal fibrosis both in vivo and in vitro. This study examines the impact of OTA on intestinal toxicity and the role of miRNAs in this process. Following OTA treatment, miR-155-5p was the most elevated miRNA by next-generation sequencing. Our research showed that OTA increased miR-155-5p levels through transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), leading to the development of intestinal fibrosis and EMT. Additionally, the study identified that the modulation of TGF-β and miR-155-5p by OTA is linked to the inhibition of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ) and Smad2/3 accumulation in the progression of intestinal fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Kwang-Won Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea; (K.H.R.); (S.A.Y.); (M.C.P.); (J.-M.L.)
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10
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Silva LJG, Pereira AMPT, Duarte S, Pedro I, Perdigão C, Silva A, Lino CM, Almeida A, Pena A. Mycotoxins in Rice Correlate with Other Contaminants? A Pilot Study of the Portuguese Scenario and Human Risk Assessment. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15040291. [PMID: 37104229 PMCID: PMC10140980 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Rice is the second most important cereal crop and is vital for the diet of billions of people. However, its consumption can increase human exposure to chemical contaminants, namely mycotoxins and metalloids. Our goal was to evaluate the occurrence and human exposure of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and inorganic arsenic (InAs) in 36 rice samples produced and commercialized in Portugal and evaluate their correlation. The analysis of mycotoxins involved ELISA, with limits of detection (LODs) of 0.8, 1 and 1.75 μg kg-1 for OTA, AFB1, and ZEN, respectively. InAs analysis was carried out by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS; LOD = 3.3 μg kg-1). No sample showed contamination by OTA. AFB1 was present in 2 (4.8%) samples (1.96 and 2.20 μg kg-1), doubling the European maximum permitted level (MPL). Concerning ZEN, 88.89% of the rice samples presented levels above the LOD up to 14.25 µg kg-1 (average of 2.75 µg kg-1). Regarding InAs, every sample presented concentration values above the LOD up to 100.0 µg kg-1 (average of 35.3 µg kg-1), although none surpassed the MPL (200 µg kg-1). No correlation was observed between mycotoxins and InAs contamination. As for human exposure, only AFB1 surpassed the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake. Children were recognized as the most susceptible group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana J G Silva
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - André M P T Pereira
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sofia Duarte
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Vasco da Gama Research Center, Vasco da Gama University School, 3020-210 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Inês Pedro
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Catarina Perdigão
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Alexandra Silva
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Celeste M Lino
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Anabela Almeida
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Vasco da Gama Research Center, Vasco da Gama University School, 3020-210 Coimbra, Portugal
- CIBIT-Coimbra Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Translational Research, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Angelina Pena
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta. Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
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11
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Valenti I, Tini F, Sevarika M, Agazzi A, Beccari G, Bellezza I, Ederli L, Grottelli S, Pasquali M, Romani R, Saracchi M, Covarelli L. Impact of Enniatin and Deoxynivalenol Co-Occurrence on Plant, Microbial, Insect, Animal and Human Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:271. [PMID: 37104209 PMCID: PMC10144843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium mycotoxins commonly contaminate agricultural products resulting in a serious threat to both animal and human health. The co-occurrence of different mycotoxins in the same cereal field is very common, so the risks as well as the functional and ecological effects of mycotoxins cannot always be predicted by focusing only on the effect of the single contaminants. Enniatins (ENNs) are among the most frequently detected emerging mycotoxins, while deoxynivalenol (DON) is probably the most common contaminant of cereal grains worldwide. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the simultaneous exposure to these mycotoxins, with emphasis on the combined effects in multiple organisms. Our literature analysis shows that just a few studies on ENN-DON toxicity are available, suggesting the complexity of mycotoxin interactions, which include synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects. Both ENNs and DON modulate drug efflux transporters, therefore this specific ability deserves to be explored to better understand their complex biological role. Additionally, future studies should investigate the interaction mechanisms of mycotoxin co-occurrence on different model organisms, using concentrations closer to real exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Valenti
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Francesco Tini
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Milos Sevarika
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Alessandro Agazzi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of Milan, 26900 Lodi, Italy;
| | - Giovanni Beccari
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Ilaria Bellezza
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.B.); (S.G.)
| | - Luisa Ederli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Silvia Grottelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.B.); (S.G.)
| | - Matias Pasquali
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Roberto Romani
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
| | - Marco Saracchi
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (I.V.); (M.P.); (M.S.)
| | - Lorenzo Covarelli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy; (M.S.); (G.B.); (L.E.); (R.R.); (L.C.)
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12
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Fecal Microbiota Composition as a Metagenomic Biomarker of Dietary Intake. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054918. [PMID: 36902349 PMCID: PMC10003228 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gut microbiota encompasses the set of microorganisms that colonize the gastrointestinal tract with mutual relationships that are key for host homeostasis. Increasing evidence supports cross intercommunication between the intestinal microbiome and the eubiosis-dysbiosis binomial, indicating a networking role of gut bacteria as potential metabolic health surrogate markers. The abundance and diversity of the fecal microbial community are already recognized to be associated with several disorders, such as obesity, cardiometabolic events, gastrointestinal alterations, and mental diseases, which suggests that intestinal microbes may be a valuable tool as causal or as consequence biomarkers. In this context, the fecal microbiota could also be used as an adequate and informative proxy of the nutritional composition of the food intake and about the adherence to dietary patterns, such as the Mediterranean or Western diets, by displaying specific fecal microbiome signatures. The aim of this review was to discuss the potential use of gut microbial composition as a putative biomarker of food intake and to screen the sensitivity value of fecal microbiota in the evaluation of dietary interventions as a reliable and precise alternative to subjective questionnaires.
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Frangiamone M, Lozano M, Cimbalo A, Font G, Manyes L. AFB1 and OTA Promote Immune Toxicity in Human LymphoBlastic T Cells at Transcriptomic Level. Foods 2023; 12:foods12020259. [PMID: 36673351 PMCID: PMC9858301 DOI: 10.3390/foods12020259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are typical contaminants of food and feed, which have serious implications for human and animal health, even at low concentrations. Therefore, a transcriptomic study was carried out to analyze gene expression changes triggered by low doses of AFB1 and OTA (100 nM; 7 days), individually and combined, in human lymphoblastic T cells. RNA-sequencing analysis showed that AFB1-exposure resulted in 99 differential gene expressions (DEGs), while 77 DEGs were obtained in OTA-exposure and 3236 DEGs in the combined one. Overall, 16% of human genome expression was altered. Gene ontology analysis revealed, for all studied conditions, biological processes and molecular functions typically associated with the immune system. PathVisio analysis pointed to ataxia telangiectasia mutated signaling as the most significantly altered pathway in AFB1-exposure, glycolysis in OTA-exposure, and ferroptosis in the mixed condition (Z-score > 1.96; adjusted p-value ≤ 0.05). Thus, the results demonstrated the potential DNA damage caused by AFB1, the possible metabolic reprogramming promoted by OTA, and the plausible cell death with oxidative stress prompted by the mixed exposure. They may be considered viable mechanisms of action to promote immune toxicity in vitro.
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14
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Castell A, Arroyo-Manzanares N, Campillo N, Torres C, Fenoll J, Viñas P. Bioaccumulation of mycotoxins in human forensic liver and animal liver samples using a green sample treatment. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.108192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Development and Validation of LC-Q-TOF-MS Methodology to Determine Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Human Urine. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100651. [PMID: 36287920 PMCID: PMC9612178 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs is a health concern worldwide and monitoring human exposure to mycotoxins is a key concern. Most mycotoxins and their metabolites are excreted in urine, but a reliable detection method is required, considering the low levels present in this biological sample. The aim of this work is to validate a sensitive methodology capable of simultaneously determining ten targeted mycotoxins as well as detecting untargeted ones by using Liquid Chromatography coupled to Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). The targeted mycotoxins were: enniatin A, B, A1, and B1, beauvericine, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2, and ochratoxin A. Several extraction procedures such as liquid-liquid extraction, dilute and shoot, and QuEChERS were assessed. Finally, a modified simple QuEChERS extraction method was selected. Creatinine adjustment and matrix-matched calibration curves are required. The limit of detection and limit of quantification values ranged from 0.1 to 1.5 and from 0.3 to 5 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries achieved were higher than 65% for all mycotoxins. Later, the method was applied to 100 samples of women’s urine to confirm the applicability and determine their internal exposure. The untargeted mycotoxins most found were trichothecenes, zearalenones, and ochratoxins.
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Karsauliya K, Yahavi C, Pandey A, Bhateria M, Sonker AK, Pandey H, Sharma M, Singh SP. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins: A review on bioanalytical methods for simultaneous analysis in human biological samples, mixture toxicity and risk assessment strategies. Toxicon 2022; 218:25-39. [PMID: 36049662 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are the toxic chemical substances that are produced by various fungal species and some of these are harmful to humans. Mycotoxins are ubiquitous in nature and humans could be exposed to multiple mycotoxins simultaneously. Unfortunately, exposure to mixed mycotoxins is not very well studied. Various studies have demonstrated the capacity of mycotoxins to show synergistic effect in the presence of other mycotoxins, thus, increasing the risk of toxicity. Hence, it is important to monitor mixed mycotoxins in human biological samples which would serve as a crucial information for risk assessment. Through this review paper, we aim to summarize the mixture toxicity of mycotoxins and the various bio-analytical techniques that are being used for the simultaneous analysis of mixed mycotoxins in human biological samples. Different sample preparation and clean-up techniques employed till date for eliminating the interferences from human biological samples without affecting the analyses of the mycotoxins are also discussed. Further, a brief introduction of risk assessment strategies that have been or could be adopted for multiple mycotoxin risk assessments is also mentioned. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review that focuses solely on the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in human biological samples as well as their risk assessment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajal Karsauliya
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, Rajasthan, 304022, India
| | - C Yahavi
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Anushka Pandey
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Manisha Bhateria
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Ashish Kumar Sonker
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
| | - Harshita Pandey
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India
| | - Manu Sharma
- Department of Pharmacy, Banasthali Vidyapith, Banasthali, Rajasthan, 304022, India
| | - Sheelendra Pratap Singh
- Toxicokinetics Laboratory/Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Regulatory Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India.
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17
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Kyei NNA, Cramer B, Humpf HU, Degen GH, Ali N, Gabrysch S. Assessment of multiple mycotoxin exposure and its association with food consumption: a human biomonitoring study in a pregnant cohort in rural Bangladesh. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:2123-2138. [PMID: 35441239 PMCID: PMC9151532 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03288-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are mycotoxins that may contaminate diets, especially in low-income settings, with potentially severe health consequences. This study investigates the exposure of 439 pregnant women in rural Bangladesh to 35 mycotoxins and their corresponding health risks and links their exposure to certain foods and local stimulants. Overall, 447 first-morning urine samples were collected from pregnant women between July 2018 and November 2019. Mycotoxin biomarkers were quantified by DaS-HPLC-MS/MS. Urinary concentration of frequently occurring mycotoxins was used to estimate dietary mycotoxin exposure. Median regression analyses were performed to investigate the association between the consumption of certain foods and local stimulants, and urinary concentration of frequently occurring mycotoxins. Only in 17 of 447 urine samples (4%) were none of the investigated mycotoxins detected. Biomarkers for six major mycotoxins (AFs, CIT, DON, FB1, OTA, and ZEN) were detected in the urine samples. OTA (95%), CIT (61%), and DON (6%) were most frequently detected, with multiple mycotoxins co-occurring in 281/447 (63%) of urine samples. Under the lowest exposure scenario, dietary exposure to OTA, CIT, and DON was of public health concern in 95%, 16%, and 1% of the pregnant women, respectively. Consumption of specific foods and local stimulants-betel nut, betel leaf, and chewing tobacco-were associated with OTA, CIT, and DON urine levels. In conclusion, exposure to multiple mycotoxins during early pregnancy is widespread in this rural community and represents a potential health risk for mothers and their offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas N A Kyei
- Institute of Public Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Research Department 2, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Member of the Leibniz Association, P. O. Box 60 12 03, 14412, Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Gisela H Degen
- Leibniz-Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo) at the TU Dortmund, Ardeystr. 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Nurshad Ali
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh
| | - Sabine Gabrysch
- Institute of Public Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Research Department 2, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Member of the Leibniz Association, P. O. Box 60 12 03, 14412, Potsdam, Germany
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18
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Biomonitoring of ochratoxin A, 2'R-ochratoxin A and citrinin in human blood serum from Switzerland. Mycotoxin Res 2022; 38:147-161. [PMID: 35446004 PMCID: PMC9038883 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-022-00456-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Biomonitoring of mycotoxins and their metabolites in biological fluids is increasingly used to assess human exposure. In this study, biomarkers of ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) exposure were determined in a large number of serum samples from healthy blood donors in Switzerland. In 2019, 700 samples from different regions were obtained. From 240 donors, a second sample (taken 2–9 months later) was available for analysis. Moreover, 355 blood donor samples from 2005 from all regions in Switzerland and 151 additional samples from the southern Swiss region of Ticino from 2005 could be analysed. OTA, 2′R-ochratoxin A (2′R-OTA), ochratoxin alpha (OTα), CIT and dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) were analysed using validated targeted methods including precipitation and online SPE clean-up. OTA and 2′R-OTA were frequently detected (OTA in 99%; 2′R-OTA in 51% of the tested samples). The mean concentration in all positive samples was 0.4 ng/mL for OTA and 0.2 ng/mL for 2′R-OTA. OTα was not detected in any sample above the limit of quantification (LOQ). In contrast to OTA, CIT and DH-CIT were only quantifiable in 2% and 0.1% of the samples, respectively. No significant trend was observed between the samples from 2005 and the more recent samples, but OTA concentrations were usually higher in serum samples from the southern Swiss region of Ticino and in males compared to females. Our extensive data fit well within the framework of previously published values for the healthy adult European population.
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Berzina Z, Pavlenko R, Jansons M, Bartkiene E, Neilands R, Pugajeva I, Bartkevics V. Application of Wastewater-Based Epidemiology for Tracking Human Exposure to Deoxynivalenol and Enniatins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020091. [PMID: 35202119 PMCID: PMC8878170 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a promising biomonitoring approach with the potential to provide direct information on human intake and exposure to food contaminants and environmental chemicals. The aim of this study was to apply WBE while employing the normalization method for exploring human exposure to selected mycotoxins according to population biomarker 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA). This type of normalization technique has been previously used to detect various other compounds. However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study tracking human exposure to mycotoxins. A sensitive analytical methodology was developed to achieve reliable quantification of deoxynivalenol, enniatins, and beauvericin in wastewater (WW) samples. The applicability of the method was evaluated by testing 29 WW samples collected at WW treatment plants in Latvia. With frequency of detection greater than 86%, enniatins B, B1, A, and A1 were revealed in WW samples. The estimated total daily intake for enniatins was in the range of 1.8–27.6 µg/day per person. Free deoxynivalenol (DON) was determined in all analysed WW samples. Based on the average 5-HIAA excretion level and the determined 5-HIAA content in the samples, the intake of DON by the human population of Riga was estimated at 325 ng/kg b.w. day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zane Berzina
- Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Institute of Food Safety, Lejupes 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.J.); (I.P.); (V.B.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 1, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
- Correspondence:
| | - Romans Pavlenko
- Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Institute of Food Safety, Lejupes 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.J.); (I.P.); (V.B.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 1, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | - Martins Jansons
- Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Institute of Food Safety, Lejupes 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.J.); (I.P.); (V.B.)
| | - Elena Bartkiene
- Department of Food Safety and Quality, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Mickeviciaus 9, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania;
| | - Romans Neilands
- Department of Water Engineering and Technology, Riga Technical University, Kalku 1, LV-1658 Riga, Latvia;
| | - Iveta Pugajeva
- Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Institute of Food Safety, Lejupes 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.J.); (I.P.); (V.B.)
| | - Vadims Bartkevics
- Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Institute of Food Safety, Lejupes 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia; (R.P.); (M.J.); (I.P.); (V.B.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 1, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
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Vaali K, Tuomela M, Mannerström M, Heinonen T, Tuuminen T. Toxic Indoor Air Is a Potential Risk of Causing Immuno Suppression and Morbidity—A Pilot Study. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8020104. [PMID: 35205859 PMCID: PMC8877819 DOI: 10.3390/jof8020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to establish an etiology-based connection between the symptoms experienced by the occupants of a workplace and the presence in the building of toxic dampness microbiota. The occupants (5/6) underwent a medical examination and urine samples (2/6) were analyzed by LC-MS/MS for mycotoxins at two time-points. The magnitude of inhaled water was estimated. Building-derived bacteria and fungi were identified and assessed for toxicity. Separate cytotoxicity tests using human THP-1 macrophages were performed from the office’s indoor air water condensates. Office-derived indoor water samples (n = 4/4) were toxic to human THP-1 macrophages. Penicillium, Acremonium sensu lato, Aspergillus ochraceus group and Aspergillus section Aspergillus grew from the building material samples. These colonies were toxic in boar sperm tests (n = 11/32); four were toxic to BHK-21 cells. Mycophenolic acid, which is a potential immunosuppressant, was detected in the initial and follow-up urine samples of (2/2) office workers who did not take immunosuppressive drugs. Their urinary mycotoxin profiles differed from household and unrelated controls. Our study suggests that the presence of mycotoxins in indoor air is linked to the morbidity of the occupants. The cytotoxicity test of the indoor air condensate is a promising tool for risk assessment in moisture-damaged buildings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsi Vaali
- SelexLab Oy, Kalevankatu 17 A, 00100 Helsinki, Finland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +358-50-550-1131
| | - Marja Tuomela
- Co-op Bionautit, Viikinkaari 9, 00790 Helsinki, Finland;
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marika Mannerström
- The Finnish Centre for Alternative Methods, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Arvo Ylpön katu 34, 33014 Tampere, Finland; (M.M.); (T.H.)
| | - Tuula Heinonen
- The Finnish Centre for Alternative Methods, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Arvo Ylpön katu 34, 33014 Tampere, Finland; (M.M.); (T.H.)
| | - Tamara Tuuminen
- Medical Center Kruunuhaka Oy, Kaisaniemenkatu 8B a, 00100 Helsinki, Finland;
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21
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Assessment of Human Mycotoxin Exposure in Hungary by Urinary Biomarker Determination and the Uncertainties of the Exposure Calculation: A Case Study. Foods 2021; 11:foods11010015. [PMID: 35010141 PMCID: PMC8750421 DOI: 10.3390/foods11010015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary biomarkers of mycotoxin exposure were evaluated in the case of healthy people (n = 41) and coeliac patients (n = 19) by using a multi-biomarker LC-MS/MS immunoaffinity based method capable to analyse biomarkers of nine mycotoxins, i.e., fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin and Nivalenol (NIV). Urinary biomarker concentrations were used to calculate the probable daily intake (PDI) of fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone and ochratoxin A and compared with their tolerable daily intake (TDI). The human urinary excretion rate values reported in the literature and the 24 h excretion rate measured in piglets were used to estimate and compare the PDI values of the four mycotoxins. The highest mean biomarker concentrations were found for DON (2.30 ng/mL for healthy people and 2.68 ng/mL for coeliac patients). Mean OTA concentration was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in healthy people compared to coeliac patients. PDI calculated with piglets excretion data exceeded the TDI values by a much smaller percentage than when they were calculated from human data, especially for FB1. The uncertainties arising from the different calculations can be well perceived on the basis of these data.
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Al Ayoubi M, Salman M, Gambacorta L, El Darra N, Solfrizzo M. Assessment of Dietary Exposure to Ochratoxin A in Lebanese Students and Its Urinary Biomarker Analysis. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:795. [PMID: 34822578 PMCID: PMC8617721 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study investigated the dietary and urinary OTA occurrence among 44 Lebanese children. Relying on HPLC-FLD analysis, OTA was found in all the urine samples and in 46.5% and 25% of the 24 h duplicate diet and dinner samples, respectively. The means of OTA levels in positive samples were 0.32 ± 0.1 ng/g in 24 h diet, 0.32 ± 0.18 ng/g in dinner and 0.022 ± 0.012 ng/mL in urines. These values corresponded to margin of exposure (MOE) means of 7907 ± 5922 (neoplastic) and 2579 ± 1932 (non-neoplastic) calculated from positive 24 h diet, while 961 ± 599 (neoplastic) and 313 ± 195 (non-neoplastic) calculated from the urine. Since the MOE levels for the neoplastic effect were below the limit (10,000), a major health threat was detected and must be addressed as a health institutions' priority. Besides, the wide difference between PDIs and MOEs calculated from food and urine suggests conducting further OTA's toxicokinetics studies before using urine to measure OTA exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manar Al Ayoubi
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Beirut Arab University, Tarik El Jedidah—Beirut, P.O. Box 115020 Riad EL Solh, Beirut 1107 2809, Lebanon; (M.A.A.); (N.E.D.)
| | - Mohammad Salman
- Mycotoxins Department, Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute, Fanar P.O. Box 2611, Beirut 1107 2809, Lebanon;
| | - Lucia Gambacorta
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy, V. Amendola 122/o, 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Nada El Darra
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Beirut Arab University, Tarik El Jedidah—Beirut, P.O. Box 115020 Riad EL Solh, Beirut 1107 2809, Lebanon; (M.A.A.); (N.E.D.)
| | - Michele Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council of Italy, V. Amendola 122/o, 70126 Bari, Italy;
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23
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Arce-López B, Alvarez-Erviti L, De Santis B, Izco M, López-Calvo S, Marzo-Sola ME, Debegnach F, Lizarraga E, López de Cerain A, González-Peñas E, Vettorazzi A. Biomonitoring of Mycotoxins in Plasma of Patients with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13070477. [PMID: 34357949 PMCID: PMC8310068 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to environmental contaminants might play an important role in neurodegenerative disease pathogenesis, such as Parkinson´s disease (PD) and Alzheimer´s disease (AD). For the first time in Spain, the plasmatic levels of 19 mycotoxins from patients diagnosed with a neurodegenerative disease (44 PD and 24 AD) and from their healthy companions (25) from La Rioja region were analyzed. The studied mycotoxins were aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 and M1, T-2 and HT-2, ochratoxins A (OTA) and B (OTB), zearalenone, sterigmatocystin (STER), nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, neosolaniol, diacetoxyscirpenol and fusarenon-X. Samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS before and after treatment with β-glucuronidase/arylsulfatase in order to detect potential metabolites. Only OTA, OTB and STER were detected in the samples. OTA was present before (77% of the samples) and after (89%) the enzymatic treatment, while OTB was only detectable before (13%). Statistically significant differences in OTA between healthy companions and patients were observed but the observed differences might seem more related to gender (OTA levels higher in men, p-value = 0.0014) than the disease itself. STER appeared only after enzymatic treatment (88%). Statistical analysis on STER, showed distributions always different between healthy controls and patients (patients’ group > controls, p-value < 0.0001). Surprisingly, STER levels weakly correlated positively with age in women (rho = 0.3384), while OTA correlation showed a decrease of levels with age especially in the men with PD (rho = −0.4643).
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Arce-López
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.L.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Lydia Alvarez-Erviti
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Center for Biomedical Research of La Rioja (CIBIR), Piqueras 98, 3rd Floor, 26006 Logroño, Spain; (L.A.-E.); (M.I.)
| | - Barbara De Santis
- National Reference Laboratory for Mycotoxins and Plant Toxins, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy; (B.D.S.); (F.D.)
| | - María Izco
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Center for Biomedical Research of La Rioja (CIBIR), Piqueras 98, 3rd Floor, 26006 Logroño, Spain; (L.A.-E.); (M.I.)
| | - Silvia López-Calvo
- Servicio de Neurología, Hospital San Pedro, Piqueras 98, 26006 Logroño, Spain; (S.L.-C.); (M.E.M.-S.)
| | - Maria Eugenia Marzo-Sola
- Servicio de Neurología, Hospital San Pedro, Piqueras 98, 26006 Logroño, Spain; (S.L.-C.); (M.E.M.-S.)
| | - Francesca Debegnach
- National Reference Laboratory for Mycotoxins and Plant Toxins, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy; (B.D.S.); (F.D.)
| | - Elena Lizarraga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.L.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Adela López de Cerain
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain;
- IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Elena González-Peñas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.L.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Ariane Vettorazzi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain;
- IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
- Correspondence:
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24
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Foerster C, Ríos-Gajardo G, Gómez P, Muñoz K, Cortés S, Maldonado C, Ferreccio C. Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure in a Rural County of Chile by Urinary Biomarker Determination. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:439. [PMID: 34202116 PMCID: PMC8309762 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13070439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are frequent mycotoxins that may cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, estrogenic, or gastrointestinal effects. The aim of this study was to assess the exposure to and risk from AFB1, OTA, ZEN, and DON in 172 participants of the Maule Cohort (MAUCO) by a biomarker analysis in urine and to associate their exposure with food consumption and occupation. Mycotoxins in the first morning urine were analyzed by solid-phase extraction and quantified by Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a mass-mass detector. Participants' information regarding food consumption, occupation, and other characteristics was obtained from a baseline and 2-year follow-up survey of the cohort. The prevalence and mean levels of mycotoxins in the urine were as follows: DON 63%, 60.7 (±78.7) ng/mL; AFB1 8%, 0.3 (±0.3) ng/mL; α-zearalenol (α-ZEL) 4.1%, 41.8 (±115) ng/mL; β-ZEL 3.5%, 17.4 (±16.1) ng/mL; AFM1 2%, 1.8 (±1.0) ng/mL; OTA 0.6% (1/172), 1.3 ng/mL; and ZEN 0.6%, 1.1 ng/mL. These results were translated into exposures of DON, ZEN, and aflatoxins of public health concern. Participants who consumed coffee and pepper the day before had a significantly greater presence of DON (OR: 2.3, CI95 1.17-4.96) and total ZEL (OR: 14.7, CI95 3.1-81.0), respectively, in their urine. Additionally, we observed associations between the habitual consumption of beer and DON (OR: 2.89, CI95 1.39-6.42). Regarding the levels of mycotoxins and the amount of food consumed, we found correlations between DON and nuts (p = 0.003), total ZEL and cereals (p = 0.01), and aflatoxins with capsicum powder (p = 0.03) and walnuts (p = 0.03). Occupation did not show an association with the presence of mycotoxins in urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Foerster
- Institute of Agri-Food, Animal and Environmental Sciences (ICA3), University of O’Higgins, San Fernando 3070000, Chile;
| | - Gisela Ríos-Gajardo
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile; (G.R.-G.); (P.G.)
| | - Patricia Gómez
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile; (G.R.-G.); (P.G.)
| | - Katherine Muñoz
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, 76829 Landau, Germany;
| | - Sandra Cortés
- Centro de Desarrollo Urbano Sustentable (CEDEUS), Santiago 8320000, Chile;
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile;
| | - Carlos Maldonado
- Institute of Agri-Food, Animal and Environmental Sciences (ICA3), University of O’Higgins, San Fernando 3070000, Chile;
| | - Catterina Ferreccio
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Escuela de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 8320000, Chile;
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25
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Schmidt J, Cramer B, Turner PC, Stoltzfus RJ, Humphrey JH, Smith LE, Humpf HU. Determination of Urinary Mycotoxin Biomarkers Using a Sensitive Online Solid Phase Extraction-UHPLC-MS/MS Method. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060418. [PMID: 34208182 PMCID: PMC8230879 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the course of assessing the human exposure to mycotoxins, biomarker-based approaches have proven to be important tools. Low concentration levels, complex matrix compositions, structurally diverse analytes, and the large size of sample cohorts are the main challenges of analytical procedures. For that reason, an online solid phase extraction-ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (online SPE-UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed, allowing for the sensitive, robust, and rapid analysis of 11 relevant mycotoxins and mycotoxin metabolites in human urine. The included spectrum of analytes comprises aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), altenuene (ALT), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), citrinin (CIT) and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) as well as α- and β-zearalenol (α- and β-ZEL). Reliable quantitation was achieved by means of stable isotope dilution, except for ALT, AME and AOH using matrix calibrations. The evaluation of method performance displayed low limits of detection in the range of pg/mL urine, satisfactory apparent recovery rates as well as high accuracy and precision during intra- and interday repeatability. Within the analysis of Zimbabwean urine samples (n = 50), the applicability of the newly developed method was shown. In addition to FB1 being quantifiable in all analyzed samples, six other mycotoxin biomarkers were detected. Compared to the occurrence rates obtained after analyzing the same sample set using an established dilute and shoot (DaS) approach, a considerably higher number of positive samples was observed when applying the online SPE method. Owing to the increased sensitivity, less need of sample handling, and low time effort, the herein presented online SPE approach provides a valuable contribution to human biomonitoring of mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Schmidt
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.S.); (B.C.)
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.S.); (B.C.)
| | - Paul C. Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA;
| | - Rebecca J. Stoltzfus
- Goshen College, 1700 S. Main Street, Goshen, IN 46526, USA;
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Jean H. Humphrey
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA;
| | - Laura E. Smith
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA;
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.S.); (B.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Biomarkers of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its modified form DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G) in humans. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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27
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Dried urine spots as sampling technique for multi-mycotoxin analysis in human urine. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:129-140. [PMID: 33638099 PMCID: PMC8163710 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-021-00423-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A simple and effective approach for HPLC-MS/MS based multi-mycotoxin analysis in human urine samples was developed by application of dried urine spots (DUS) as alternative on-site sampling strategy. The newly developed method enables the detection and quantitation of 14 relevant mycotoxins and mycotoxin metabolites, including citrinin (CIT), dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), T-2 Toxin (T-2), HT-2 Toxin (HT-2), ochratoxin A (OTA), 2′R-ochratoxin A (2′R-OTA), ochratoxin α (OTα), tenuazonic acid and allo-tenuazonic acid (TeA + allo-TeA), zearalenone (ZEN), zearalanone (ZAN), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL). Besides the spotting procedure, sample preparation includes enzymatic cleavage of glucuronic acid conjugates and stable isotope dilution analysis. Method validation revealed low limits of detection in the range of pg/mL urine and excellent apparent recovery rates for most analytes. Stability investigation of DUS displayed no or only slight decrease of the analyte concentration over a period of 28 days at room temperature. The new method was applied to the analysis of a set of urine samples (n = 91) from a Swedish cohort. The four analytes, DH-CIT, DON, OTA, and TeA + allo-TeA, could be detected and quantified in amounts ranging from 0.06 to 0.97 ng/mL, 3.03 to 136 ng/mL, 0.013 to 0.434 ng/mL and from 0.36 to 47 ng/mL in 38.5%, 70.3%, 68.1%, and 94.5% of the samples, respectively. Additional analysis of these urine samples with an established dilute and shoot (DaS) approach displayed a high consistency of the results obtained with both methods. However, due to higher sensitivity, a larger number of positive samples were observed using the DUS method consequently providing a suitable approach for human biomonitoring of mycotoxin exposure.
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Arce-López B, Lizarraga E, López de Mesa R, González-Peñas E. Assessment of Exposure to Mycotoxins in Spanish Children through the Analysis of Their Levels in Plasma Samples. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020150. [PMID: 33672088 PMCID: PMC7919644 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we present, for the first time in Spain, the levels of 19 mycotoxins in plasma samples from healthy and sick children (digestive, autism spectrum (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) disorders) (n = 79, aged 2–16). The samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (triple quadrupole) (LC-MS/MS). To detect Phase II metabolites, the samples were reanalyzed after pre-treatment with β-glucuronidase/arylsulfatase. The most prevalent mycotoxin was ochratoxin A (OTA) in all groups of children, before and after enzyme treatment. In healthy children, the incidence of OTA was 92.5% in both cases and higher than in sick children before (36.7% in digestive disorders, 50% in ASD, and 14.3% in ADHD) and also after the enzymatic treatment (76.6 % in digestive disorders, 50% in ASD, and 85.7% in ADHD). OTA levels increased in over 40% of healthy children after enzymatic treatment, and this increase in incidence and levels was also observed in all sick children. This suggests the presence of OTA conjugates in plasma. In addition, differences in OTA metabolism may be assumed. OTA levels are higher in healthy children, even after enzymatic treatment (mean OTA value for healthy children 3.29 ng/mL, 1.90 ng/mL for digestive disorders, 1.90 ng/mL for ASD, and 0.82 ng/mL for ADHD). Ochratoxin B appears only in the samples of healthy children with a low incidence (11.4%), always co-occurring with OTA. Sterigmatocystin (STER) was detected after enzymatic hydrolysis with a high incidence in all groups, especially in sick children (98.7% in healthy children and 100% in patients). This supports glucuronidation as a pathway for STER metabolism in children. Although other mycotoxins were studied (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1; T-2 and HT-2 toxins; deoxynivalenol, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol; zearalenone; nivalenol; fusarenon-X; neosolaniol; and diacetoxyscirpenol), they were not detected either before or after enzymatic treatment in any of the groups of children. In conclusion, OTA and STER should be highly considered in the risk assessment of mycotoxins. Studies concerning their sources of exposure, toxicokinetics, and the relationship between plasma levels and toxic effects are of utmost importance in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Arce-López
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.G.-P.)
| | - Elena Lizarraga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.G.-P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Reyes López de Mesa
- Department of Pediatrics, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain;
| | - Elena González-Peñas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.G.-P.)
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Habschied K, Kanižai Šarić G, Krstanović V, Mastanjević K. Mycotoxins-Biomonitoring and Human Exposure. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:113. [PMID: 33546479 PMCID: PMC7913644 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungal species that commonly have a toxic effect on human and animal health. Different foodstuff can be contaminated and are considered the major source of human exposure to mycotoxins, but occupational and environmental exposure can also significantly contribute to this problem. This review aims to provide a short overview of the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and regulated mycotoxins in foods and workplaces, following the current literature and data presented in scientific papers. Biomonitoring of mycotoxins in plasma, serum, urine, and blood samples has become a common method for determining the exposure to different mycotoxins. Novel techniques are more and more precise and accurate and are aiming toward the simultaneous determination of multiple mycotoxins in one analysis. Application of liquid chromatography (LC) methodologies, coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has become a common and most reliable method for determining the exposure to mycotoxins. Numerous references confirm the importance of mycotoxin biomonitoring to assess the exposure for humans and animals. The objectives of this paper were to review the general approaches to biomonitoring of different mycotoxins and the occurrence of toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins, using recent literature sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Habschied
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
| | - Gabriella Kanižai Šarić
- Department of Agroecology and Environment Protection, Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Vinko Krstanović
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
| | - Krešimir Mastanjević
- Department of Process Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia; (V.K.); (K.M.)
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30
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Huang Q, Jiang K, Tang Z, Fan K, Meng J, Nie D, Zhao Z, Wu Y, Han Z. Exposure Assessment of Multiple Mycotoxins and Cumulative Health Risk Assessment: A Biomonitoring-Based Study in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:103. [PMID: 33535530 PMCID: PMC7912756 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The extensive exposure to multiple mycotoxins has been demonstrated in many countries; however, realistic assessments of the risks related to cumulative exposure are limited. This biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate exposure to 23 mycotoxins/metabolites and their determinants in 227 adults (aged 20-88 years) in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Eight mycotoxins were detected in 110 urine samples, and multiple mycotoxins co-occurred in 51/227 (22.47%) of urine samples, with deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and zearalenone (ZEN) being the most frequently occurring. For single mycotoxin risk assessment, FB1, ZEN, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and ochratoxin A (OTA) all showed potential adverse effects. However, for the 12 samples containing DON and ZEN, in which none had a hazard risk, the combination of both mycotoxins in two samples was considered to pose potential endocrine disrupting risks to humans by hazard index (HI) method. The combined margin of exposure (MOET) for AFB1 and FB1 could constitute a potential health concern, and AFB1 was the main contributor. Our approach provides a blueprint for evaluating the cumulative risks related to different types of mycotoxins and opens a new horizon for the accurate interpretation of epidemiological health outcomes related to multi-mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingwen Huang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Q.H.); (K.J.)
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Keqiu Jiang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Q.H.); (K.J.)
| | - Zhanmin Tang
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Kai Fan
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Yongjiang Wu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Q.H.); (K.J.)
| | - Zheng Han
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
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Arce-López B, Lizarraga E, Irigoyen Á, González-Peñas E. Presence of 19 Mycotoxins in Human Plasma in a Region of Northern Spain. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E750. [PMID: 33261074 PMCID: PMC7760949 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate human exposure to 19 compounds (mycotoxins and their metabolites) in plasma samples from healthy adults (n = 438, aged 19-68 years) from Navarra, a region of northern Spain. Samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS, before and after enzymatic hydrolysis for the detection of possible glucuronides and/or sulfates (Phase II metabolites). The most prevalent mycotoxin was ochratoxin A (OTA), with an incidence of 97.3%. Positive samples were in the concentration range of 0.4 ng/mL to 45.7 ng/mL. After enzymatic treatment, OTA levels increased in a percentage of individuals, which may indicate the presence of OTA-conjugates. Regarding ochratoxin B, it has also been detected (10% of the samples), and its presence may be related to human metabolism of OTA. Sterigmatocystin was detected with a high incidence (85.8%), but only after enzymatic hydrolysis, supporting glucuronidation as a pathway of its metabolism in humans. None of the other studied mycotoxins (aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 and M1; T-2 and HT-2 toxins; deoxynivalenol, deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol; zearalenone; nivalenol; fusarenon-X; neosolaniol; and diacetoxyscirpenol) were detected in any of the samples, neither before nor after enzymatic treatment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report carried out in Spain to determine the exposure of the population to mycotoxins and some of their metabolites using plasma, and the obtained results justify the need for human biomonitoring and metabolism studies on mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Elena González-Peñas
- Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry Department, Research Group MITOX, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Universidad de Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (B.A.-L.); (E.L.); (Á.I.)
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Reinholds I, Bogdanova E, Pugajeva I, Alksne L, Stalberga D, Valcina O, Bartkevics V. Determination of Fungi and Multi-Class Mycotoxins in Camelia Sinensis and Herbal Teas and Dietary Exposure Assessment. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12090555. [PMID: 32872457 PMCID: PMC7551389 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this paper, a study of fungal and multi-mycotoxin contamination in 140 Camellia sinensis and 26 herbal teas marketed in Latvia is discussed. The analysis was performed using two-dimensional liquid chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (2D-LC-TOF-MS) and MALDI-TOF-MS. In total, 87% of the tea samples tested positive for 32 fungal species belonging to 17 genera, with the total enumeration of moulds ranging between 1.00 × 101 and 9.00 × 104 CFU g−1. Moreover, 42% of the teas (n = 70) were contaminated by 1 to 16 mycotoxins, and 37% of these samples were positive for aflatoxins at concentrations ranging between 0.22 and 41.7 µg kg−1. Deoxynivalenol (DON) and its derivatives co-occurred in 63% of the tea samples, with their summary concentrations reaching 81.1 to 17,360 µg kg−1. Ochratoxin A (OTA), enniatins, and two Alternaria toxins were found in 10–37% of the teas at low concentrations. The dietary exposure assessment based on the assumption of a probable full transfer of determined mycotoxins into infusions indicated that the analysed teas are safe for consumers: the probable maximum daily exposure levels to OTA and the combined DON mycotoxins were only 0.88 to 2.05% and 2.50 to 78.9% of the tolerable daily intake levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingars Reinholds
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Riga LV-1076, Latvia; (E.B.); (I.P.); (L.A.); (O.V.); (V.B.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Riga LV-1004, Latvia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +371-2680-2448
| | - Estefanija Bogdanova
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Riga LV-1076, Latvia; (E.B.); (I.P.); (L.A.); (O.V.); (V.B.)
| | - Iveta Pugajeva
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Riga LV-1076, Latvia; (E.B.); (I.P.); (L.A.); (O.V.); (V.B.)
| | - Laura Alksne
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Riga LV-1076, Latvia; (E.B.); (I.P.); (L.A.); (O.V.); (V.B.)
| | - Darta Stalberga
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Linköping University, SE-581 83 Linköping, Sweden;
| | - Olga Valcina
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Riga LV-1076, Latvia; (E.B.); (I.P.); (L.A.); (O.V.); (V.B.)
| | - Vadims Bartkevics
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment “BIOR”, Riga LV-1076, Latvia; (E.B.); (I.P.); (L.A.); (O.V.); (V.B.)
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Riga LV-1004, Latvia
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Silva L, Pereira A, Duarte S, Pena A, Lino C. Reviewing the Analytical Methodologies to Determine the Occurrence of Citrinin and its Major Metabolite, Dihydrocitrinone, in Human Biological Fluids. Molecules 2020; 25:E2906. [PMID: 32599786 PMCID: PMC7355619 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25122906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Until now, the available data regarding citrinin (CIT) levels in food and the consumption of contaminated foods are insufficient to allow a reliable estimate of intake. Therefore, biomonitoring configuring analysis of parent compound and/or metabolites in biological fluids, such as urine or blood, is being increasingly applied in the assessment of human exposure to CIT and its metabolite, dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT). Most studies report urinary levels lower for the parent compound when compared with DH-CIT. A high variability either in the mean levels or in the inter-individual ratios of CIT/DH-CIT between the reported studies has been found. Levels of DH-CIT in urine were reported as being comprised between three to seventeen times higher than the parent mycotoxin. In order to comply with this objective, sensitive analytical methodologies for determining biomarkers of exposure are required. Recent development of powerful analytical techniques, namely liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC-MS/MS) have facilitated biomonitoring studies, mainly in urine samples. In the present work, evidence on human exposure to CIT through its occurrence and its metabolite, in biological fluids, urine and blood/plasma, in different countries, is reviewed. The analytical methodologies usually employed to evaluate trace quantities of these two molecules, are also presented. In this sense, relevant data on sampling (size and pre-treatment), extraction, cleanup and detection and quantification techniques and respective chromatographic conditions, as well as the analytical performance, are evidenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana Silva
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.P.); (S.D.); (A.P.); (C.L.)
| | - André Pereira
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.P.); (S.D.); (A.P.); (C.L.)
| | - Sofia Duarte
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.P.); (S.D.); (A.P.); (C.L.)
- Vasco da Gama Research Centre—Department of Veterinary Sceinces, Escola Universitária Vasco da Gama, Av. José R. Sousa Fernandes, Campus Universitário—Bloco B, 3020-210 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Angelina Pena
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.P.); (S.D.); (A.P.); (C.L.)
| | - Celeste Lino
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.P.); (S.D.); (A.P.); (C.L.)
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Biomonitoring of Enniatin B1 and Its Phase I Metabolites in Human Urine: First Large-Scale Study. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060415. [PMID: 32580411 PMCID: PMC7354432 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Enniatins (Enns) are mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. which are a fungus widely spread throughout cereals and cereal-based products. Among all the identified enniatins, Enn B1 stands as one of the most prevalent analogues in cereals in Europe. Hence, the aim of this study was to evaluate for the first time the presence of Enn B1 and its phase I metabolites in 300 human urine samples using an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) methodology. Enn B1 was detected in 94.3% of samples ranging from 0.007 to 0.429 ng/mL (mean value: 0.065 ng/mL). In accordance with previous in vitro and in vivo analysis, hydroxylated metabolites (78.0% samples) and carbonylated metabolites (66.0% samples) were tentatively identified as the major products. Results from this biomonitoring study point to a frequent intake of Enn B1 in the studied population, suggesting that in-depth toxicological studies are needed in order to understand the potential effects in humans.
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Schrenk D, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom L(R, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Alexander J, Dall'Asta C, Mally A, Metzler M, Binaglia M, Horváth Z, Steinkellner H, Bignami M. Risk assessment of ochratoxin A in food. EFSA J 2020; 18:e06113. [PMID: 37649524 PMCID: PMC10464718 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Commission asked EFSA to update their 2006 opinion on ochratoxin A (OTA) in food. OTA is produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus and Penicillium and found as a contaminant in various foods. OTA causes kidney toxicity in different animal species and kidney tumours in rodents. OTA is genotoxic both in vitro and in vivo; however, the mechanisms of genotoxicity are unclear. Direct and indirect genotoxic and non-genotoxic modes of action might each contribute to tumour formation. Since recent studies have raised uncertainty regarding the mode of action for kidney carcinogenicity, it is inappropriate to establish a health-based guidance value (HBGV) and a margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied. For the characterisation of non-neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 4.73 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day was calculated from kidney lesions observed in pigs. For characterisation of neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 14.5 μg/kg bw per day was calculated from kidney tumours seen in rats. The estimation of chronic dietary exposure resulted in mean and 95th percentile levels ranging from 0.6 to 17.8 and from 2.4 to 51.7 ng/kg bw per day, respectively. Median OTA exposures in breastfed infants ranged from 1.7 to 2.6 ng/kg bw per day, 95th percentile exposures from 5.6 to 8.5 ng/kg bw per day in average/high breast milk consuming infants, respectively. Comparison of exposures with the BMDL 10 based on the non-neoplastic endpoint resulted in MOEs of more than 200 in most consumer groups, indicating a low health concern with the exception of MOEs for high consumers in the younger age groups, indicating a possible health concern. When compared with the BMDL 10 based on the neoplastic endpoint, MOEs were lower than 10,000 for almost all exposure scenarios, including breastfed infants. This would indicate a possible health concern if genotoxicity is direct. Uncertainty in this assessment is high and risk may be overestimated.
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