The exosome: a review of current therapeutic roles and capabilities in human reproduction

Syncytial therapeutics: Receptor-specific and direct-to-cytosol biologic drug delivery mediated by measles fusion complex

This work explores cell-cell fusion mediated by measles virus (MeV) as a potential new cell therapy modality that achieves direct-to-cytosol (DTC) drug delivery. MeV induces receptor-mediated fusion at the cell surface via its hemagglutinin (H) and fusion glycoproteins (F), bypassing endocytic membrane transport, and enabling direct cytosolic mixing between a fusogenic donor and host target cell. Fusion of this type gives rise to large syncytia formed by the inclusion of additional target cells over time. Fusion receptor specificity was first examined in CHO "non-target" and CHO "target" cells exogenously expressing the measles target SLAM (CHO-SLAM) by mono- or co-transfection of each cell type with plasmids encoding MeV-H and MeV-F. Fusion was observed only in CHO-SLAM cells which were co-transfected with both plasmids, which verified receptor-specificity without false-triggering of fusion in co-transfected "non-target" CHO or in MeV-F mono-transfectants of either cell type. Next, CHO donor cells with constitutive mCherry expression were co-transfected with MeV-H and MeV-F, and mCherry-positive syncytia were observed when cells were mixed with CHO-SLAM demonstrating the ability to deliver the mCherry payload via DTC. Increasing the cell dose does not affect the size distribution of resulting syncytia but contributes to a higher total mCherry delivery. Further, control of MeV stoichiometry can modulate the degree of syncytia formation and protein delivery, demonstrating that limiting MeV-H and increasing MeV-F favors fusion and cytosolic delivery. Taken together, these results demonstrate MeV cell-fusion-based, DTC delivery as a robust and tunable system for achieving targeted cytosolic delivery and controlled syncytia formation.

Exosome isolation and characterization for advanced diagnostic and therapeutic applications

Advancements in exosome isolation technologies are pivotal for transforming personalized medicine and enhancing clinical diagnostics. Exosomes, small extracellular vesicles with diameters ranging between 30 and 150 nm, are secreted into bodily fluids by a variety of cells and play essential roles in intercellular communication. These vesicles facilitate the transfer of nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins, affecting a wide range of biological and pathological processes. Given their importance in disease diagnostics, therapy, and as biomarkers, there has been a surge in developing methods to isolate them from fluids such as urine, saliva, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid. While traditional isolation techniques like ultracentrifugation and polymer-based precipitation have been foundational, recent technological advances have introduced more precise methods like microfluidics and immunoaffinity capture. These newer methods enable high-throughput and specific exosome isolation by targeting surface markers, thus enhancing purity. However, challenges such as balancing purity with yield and the lack of standardized protocols across different laboratories persist, impacting the consistency of findings. By integrating advanced isolation techniques and discussing their implications in diagnostics and therapy, this review aims to catalyze further research and adoption of exosome-based technologies in medicine, marking a significant stride towards tailored healthcare solutions.

Drug Delivery Systems Based on Dendritic-Cell-Derived Exosomes

Exosomes, spherical lipid-bilayered particles secreted by cells, have recently emerged as a novel and highly promising drug delivery system, attracting extensive attention in the field of biomedical research. Dendritic-cell-derived exosomes (DC-Exos) possess surface protein and ligands characteristic of DC cells, such as functional MHC-I and MHC-II, CD80, CD86. These components play a crucial role in immune responses, facilitating antigen uptake, presentation, and the activation of antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells. These properties make them striking and excellent drug delivery vehicles for use in various immune diseases and cancer therapy. This review summarizes and discusses the characteristics, current methods and types of drug loading of DC-Exos. Its surface modifications and application in disease treatment were also discussed, aiming to motivate the development of exosome-based theranostic nanoplatforms and nanotechnology for improved healthcare treatments.

Unleashing the potential of extracellular vesicles for ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease therapy

Image 1.

Neural stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles purified by monolith chromatography retain stimulatory effect in in vitro scratch assay

BACKGROUND AIMS

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have gained traction as potential cell-free therapeutic candidates. Development of purification methods that are scalable and robust is a major focus of EV research. Yet there is still little in the literature that evaluates purification methods against potency of the EV product. In the present study, we examined two monolith chromatography methods with a focus on assessing the ability of purified EVs to retain stimulatory effects on fibroblasts to connect scalable purification methods with product outputs.

METHODS

We characterized EVs recovered from CTX0E03 (CTX) neural stem cell-conditioned medium in terms of biomarker distribution, functional capacity and purity. We evaluated the ability of EVs to promote wound closure in an in vitro scratch assay prior to and following two monolith chromatography steps (anion exchange and hydrophobic interaction) to determine whether these options may better serve EV bioprocessing.

RESULTS

EVs from CTX cells were successful in initiating wound repair in a fibroblast scratch assay over 72 h with a single 20-μg dose. EV preparations presented the markers CD9, CD81 and CD63 but also contained culture albumin and DNA as process impurities. EVs recovered by tangential flow filtration could be successfully purified further by both monolith chromatography steps. Post-monolith EV stimulation was conserved.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate that monolith chromatography is a viable purification method for EVs derived from cell culture that does not detract from the product's ability to stimulate fibroblasts, suggesting that product functionality is conserved. Further work is needed in developing suitable downstream processes and analytics to achieve clinically relevant purities for injectable biologics.

Recent Advances in the Isolation Strategies of Plant-Derived Exosomes and Their Therapeutic Applications

Exosome-like nanovesicles (ELNs) derived from natural products are gaining attention as innovative therapeutic agents due to their biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and capability to transport bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These plant-derived ELNs exhibit structural similarities with mammalian exosomes, making them suitable for drug delivery, microbiome-targeted therapies, and regenerative medicine. Recent studies highlight their potential in treating cancer, inflammation, and metabolic disorders. Additionally, ELNs have applications in cosmetics, agriculture, and the food industry. This review combines the latest advancements in research on plant-derived ELNs, focusing on isolation techniques, pharmacological effects, and therapeutic applications. Although plant-derived ELNs offer promising opportunities, several challenges must be addressed, including standardization, large-scale production, and in vivo efficacy. By summarizing cutting-edge studies and suggesting future directions, we aim to inspire further development of plant-derived ELNs as next-generation therapeutic platforms.

Extracellular vesicles: from intracellular trafficking molecules to fully fortified delivery vehicles for cancer therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as viable tools in cancer treatment due to their ability to carry a wide range of theranostic activities. This review summarizes different forms of EVs such as exosomes, microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, and oncosomes. It also sheds the light onto isolation methodologies, characterization techniques and therapeutic applications of all discussed EVs. Evidence indicates that EVs are particularly effective in delivering chemotherapeutic medications, and immunomodulatory agents. However, the advancement of EV-based therapies into clinical practice is hindered by challenges including EVs heterogeneity, cargo loading efficiency, and in vivo stability. Overall, EVs have the potential to change cancer therapeutic paradigms. Continued research and development activities are critical for improving EV-based medications and increasing their therapeutic impact.

Comparison of nanoLC-MALDI-MS/MS with nanoLC-TIMS-MS/MS in the proteomic analysis of extracellular vesicles of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid

The study aims to evaluate and compare two advanced proteomic techniques, nanoLC-MALDI-MS/MS and nanoLC-TIMS-MS/MS, in characterizing extracellular vesicles (EVs) from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of patients with asthma and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Pulmonary diseases, driven by pollutants and infections, often necessitate detailed analysis of BALF to identify diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. EVs, which include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, are isolated using filtration and ultracentrifugation, and their morphology, concentration, and size distribution are assessed through transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). The proteomic profiles of these EVs are then analyzed using the aforementioned techniques, highlighting their unique and common proteins. The study found that nanoLC-TIMS-MS/MS identified significantly more proteins compared to nanoLC-MALDI-MS/MS. Functional analysis via Gene Ontology revealed pathways related to inflammation and cell signaling, underscoring the role of EVs in disease pathophysiology. The findings suggest that EVs in BALF can serve as valuable biomarkers and therapeutic targets in respiratory diseases, providing a foundation for future research and clinical applications.

Lead exposure at the feto-maternal interface: a cause for concern for fetal membrane trophoblasts

The integrity of fetal membranes enables biological functions that protect the fetus and maintain the pregnancy. Any compromise in fetal membrane function can predispose a pregnant woman to prelabor rupture of the membranes (pPROMs) and subsequently to preterm birth (PTB). Epidemiologic data suggest that lead exposure during pregnancy is one of several risk factors associated with PTB and pPROM. This heavy metal can cross placental and fetal membrane barriers, disrupting homeostasis in these tissues. Autophagy contributes to the maintenance of fetal membrane homeostasis during gestation, and dysfunctional autophagy is associated with pPROM. In this study, we determined the mechanistic impact of lead-induced cellular changes, autophagy, senescence, and inflammation in chorion trophoblast cells (CTCs) and amnion epithelial cells (AECs) of the fetal membranes. Lead exposure in CTCs induced autophagy dysfunction (increase in LC3B-II), augmented senescence (increased SA-β-galactosidase activity), and increased the release of inflammation. In AECs, lead exposure did effect autophagy, senescence, nor inflammation. The differential changes observed in CTCs and AECs after exposure to high lead concentrations may promote the weakening of fetal membranes and contribute to preterm rupture.

The Effect of Ionising Radiation on the Properties of Tumour-Derived Exosomes and Their Ability to Modify the Biology of Non-Irradiated Breast Cancer Cells-An In Vitro Study

The vast majority of breast cancer patients require radiotherapy but some of them will develop local recurrences and potentially metastases in the future. Recent data show that exosomal cargo is essential in these processes. Thus, we investigated the influence of ionising radiation on exosome properties and their ability to modify the sensitivity and biology of non-irradiated cells. Exosomes were isolated from breast cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, MCF7, and SKBR3) irradiated with 2 Gy (Exo 2 Gy) or no irradiation (Exo 0 Gy). Despite some differences in their molecular profiles, they did not affect cell viability, proliferation, cell cycle phase distribution, and radioresistance; however, both populations showed the ability to modify cell migration and invasion potential, as confirmed by the downregulation of β-catenin, which is responsible for maintaining the epithelial phenotype. Interestingly, exosomes from irradiated BCa cells were more actively deposited in the endothelial cells (EA.hy926). Furthermore, exosomes tend to lower the expression of CD31, which is responsible for maintaining intact vascularity. This preliminary study demonstrates the vital role of exosomes and their altered profile due to irradiation in the pathobiology of breast cancer.

The interplay between the tumor microenvironment and tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles in cancer development and therapeutic response

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an essential role in tumor cell survival by profoundly influencing their proliferation, metastasis, immune evasion, and resistance to treatment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small particles released by all cell types and often reflect the state of their parental cells and modulate other cells' functions through the various cargo they transport. Tumor-derived small EVs (TDSEVs) can transport specific proteins, nucleic acids and lipids tailored to propagate tumor signals and establish a favorable TME. Thus, the TME's biological characteristics can affect TDSEV heterogeneity, and this interplay can amplify tumor growth, dissemination, and resistance to therapy. This review discusses the interplay between TME and TDSEVs based on their biological characteristics and summarizes strategies for targeting cancer cells. Additionally, it reviews the current issues and challenges in this field to offer fresh insights into comprehending tumor development mechanisms and exploring innovative clinical applications.

Human ovarian extracellular vesicles proteome from polycystic ovary syndrome patients associate with follicular development alterations

The development of the ovarian follicle requires the presence of several factors that come from the blood and follicular cells. Among these factors, extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent an original communication pathway inside the ovarian follicle. Recently, EVs have been shown to play potential roles in follicular development and reproduction-related disorders, including the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). The proteomic analysis of sEVs isolated from FF in comparison to sEVs purified from plasma has shown a specific pattern of proteins secreted by ovarian steroidogenic cells such as granulosa cells. Thus, a human granulosa cell line exposed to sEVs from FF of normal patients increased their progesterone, estradiol, and testosterone secretion. However, if the sEVs were derived from FF of PCOS patients, the activity of stimulating progesterone production was lost. Stimulation of steroidogenesis by sEVs was associated with an increase in the expression of the StAR gene. In addition, sEVs from FF increased cell proliferation and migration of granulosa cells, and this phenomenon was amplified if sEVs were derived from PCOS patients. Interestingly, STAT3 is a protein overexpressed in sEVs from PCOS patients interacting with most of the cluster of proteins involved in the phenotype observed (cell proliferation, migration, and steroid production) in granulosa cells. In conclusion, this study has demonstrated that sEVs derived from FF could regulate directly the granulosa cell activity. The protein content in sEVs from FF is different in the case of PCOS syndrome and could perturb the granulosa cell functions, including inflammation, steroidogenesis, and cytoskeleton architecture.

Basic Guide for Approaching Drug Delivery with Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are natural carriers of biomolecules that play a crucial role in cell-to-cell communication and tissue homeostasis under normal and pathological conditions, including inflammatory diseases and cancer. Since the discovery of the pro-regenerative and immune-modulating properties of EVs, EV-based therapeutics have entered clinical trials for conditions such as myocardial infarction and autoimmune diseases, among others. Due to their unique advantages-such as superior bioavailability, substantial packaging capacity, and the ability to traverse biological barriers-EVs are regarded as a promising platform for targeted drug delivery. However, achieving a sufficient accumulation of therapeutic agents at the target site necessitates a larger quantity of EVs per dose compared to using EVs as standalone drugs. This challenge can be addressed by administering larger doses of EVs, increasing the drug dosage per administration, or enhancing the selective accumulation of EVs at target cells. In this review, we will discuss methods to improve the isolation and purification of EVs, approaches to enhance cargo packaging-including proteins, RNAs, and small-molecule drugs-and technologies for displaying targeting ligands on the surface of EVs to facilitate improved targeting. Ultimately, this guide can be applied to the development of novel classes of EV-based therapeutics and to overcoming existing technological challenges.

Therapeutic potential of RNA-enriched extracellular vesicles: The next generation in RNA delivery via biogenic nanoparticles

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) (∼50-150 nm) that have emerged as promising vehicles for therapeutic applications and drug delivery. These membrane-bound particles, released by all actively dividing cells, have the ability to transfer effector molecules, including proteins, RNA, and even DNA, from donor cells to recipient cells, thereby modulating cellular responses. RNA-based therapeutics, including microRNAs, messenger RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs, hold great potential in controlling gene expression and treating a spectrum of medical conditions. RNAs encapsulated in EVs are protected from extracellular degradation, making them attractive for therapeutic applications. Understanding the intricate biology of cargo loading and transfer within EVs is pivotal to unlocking their therapeutic potential. This review discusses the biogenesis and classification of EVs, methods for loading RNA into EVs, their advantages as drug carriers over synthetic-lipid-based systems, and the potential applications in treating neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and viral infections. Notably, EVs show promise in delivering RNA cargo across the blood-brain barrier and targeting tumor cells, offering a safe and effective approach to RNA-based therapy in these contexts.

Clinical Applications of Exosomes: A Critical Review

Exosomes, small membrane-bound vesicles secreted by cells, have gained significant attention for their therapeutic potential. Measuring 30-100 nm in diameter and derived from various cell types, exosomes play a crucial role in intercellular communication by transferring proteins, lipids, and RNA between cells. This review analyzes existing literature on the clinical applications of exosomes. We conducted a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles and clinical trial data to evaluate the benefits, limitations, and challenges of exosome-based therapies. Key areas of focus included regenerative medicine, cancer therapy, gene therapy, and diagnostic biomarkers. This review highlights the vast clinical applications of exosomes. In regenerative medicine, exosomes facilitate tissue repair and regeneration. In cancer therapy, exosomes can deliver therapeutic agents directly to tumor cells. In gene therapy, exosomes serve as vectors for gene delivery. As diagnostic biomarkers, they are useful in diagnosing various diseases. Challenges such as the isolation, purification, and characterization of exosomes were identified. Current clinical trials demonstrate the potential of exosome-based therapies, though they also reveal significant hurdles. Regulatory issues, including the need for standardization and validation of exosome products, are critical for advancing these therapies. While significant progress has been made in understanding exosome biology, further research is essential to fully unlock their clinical potential. Addressing challenges in isolation, purification, and regulatory standardization is crucial for their successful application in clinical practice. This review provides a concise overview of the clinical applications of exosomes, emphasizing both their therapeutic promise and the obstacles that need to be overcome.

Exosomes: a review of biologic function, diagnostic and targeted therapy applications, and clinical trials

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles generated by all cells and they carry nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. They mediate the exchange of substances between cells,thereby affecting biological properties and activities of recipient cells. In this review, we briefly discuss the composition of exocomes and exosome isolation. We also review the clinical applications of exosomes in cancer biology as well as strategies in exosome-mediated targeted drug delivery systems. Finally, the application of exosomes in the context of cancer therapeutics both in practice and literature are discussed.

A comprehensive review of engineered exosomes from the preparation strategy to therapeutic applications

Exosomes exhibit high bioavailability, biological stability, targeted specificity, low toxicity, and low immunogenicity in shuttling various bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, RNA, and DNA. Natural exosomes, however, have limited production, targeting abilities, and therapeutic efficacy in clinical trials. On the other hand, engineered exosomes have demonstrated long-term circulation, high stability, targeted delivery, and efficient intracellular drug release, garnering significant attention. The engineered exosomes bring new insights into developing next-generation drug delivery systems and show enormous potential in therapeutic applications, such as tumor therapies, diabetes management, cardiovascular disease, and tissue regeneration and repair. In this review, we provide an overview of recent advancements associated with engineered exosomes by focusing on the state-of-the-art strategies for cell engineering and exosome engineering. Exosome isolation methods, including traditional and emerging approaches, are systematically compared along with advancements in characterization methods. Current challenges and future opportunities are further discussed in terms of the preparation and application of engineered exosomes.

Stem Cell-Based Acellular Therapy: Insight into Biogenesis, Bioengineering and Therapeutic Applications of Exosomes

The vast regenerative potential of stem cells has laid the foundation for stem cell-based therapies. However, certain challenges limit the application of cell-based therapies. The therapeutic use of cell-free therapy can avoid limitations associated with cell-based therapies. Acellular stem cell-based therapies rely on the use of biological factors released by stem cells, including growth factors and extracellular vesicles such as exosomes. Due to their comparable regenerative potential, acellular therapies may provide a feasible and scalable alternative to stem cell-based therapies. Exosomes are small vesicles secreted by various types of cells, including stem cells. Exosomes contain parent cell-derived nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other bioactive molecules. They play an important role in intra-cellular communication and influence the biological characteristics of cells. Exosomes inherit the properties of their parent cells; therefore, stem cell-derived exosomes are of particular interest for applications of regenerative medicine. In comparison to stem cell-based therapy, exosome therapy offers several benefits, such as easy transport and storage, no risk of immunological rejection, and few ethical dilemmas. Unlike stem cells, exosomes can be lyophilized and stored off-the-shelf, making acellular therapies standardized and more accessible while reducing overall treatment costs. Exosome-based acellular treatments are therefore readily available for applications in patients at the time of care. The current review discusses the use of exosomes as an acellular therapy. The review explores the molecular mechanism of exosome biogenesis, various methods for exosome isolation, and characterization. In addition, the latest advancements in bioengineering techniques to enhance exosome potential for acellular therapies have been discussed. The challenges in the use of exosomes as well as their diverse applications for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases have been reviewed in detail.

Extracellular Vesicles as Next-Generation Diagnostics and Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) hold great promise for clinical application as new diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. This paper describes major GMP-based upstream and downstream manufacturing processes for EV large-scale production, also focusing on post-processing technologies such as surface bioengineering and uploading studies to yield novel EV-based diagnostics and advanced therapy medicinal products. This paper also focuses on the quality, safety, and efficacy issues of the bioengineered EV drug candidates before first-in-human studies. Because clinical trials involving extracellular vesicles are on the global rise, this paper encompasses different clinical studies registered on clinical-trial register platforms, with varying levels of advancement, highlighting the growing interest in EV-related clinical programs. Navigating the regulatory affairs of EVs poses real challenges, and obtaining marketing authorization for EV-based medicines remains complex due to the lack of specific regulatory guidelines for such novel products. This paper discusses the state-of-the-art regulatory knowledge to date on EV-based diagnostics and medicinal products, highlighting further research and global regulatory needs for the safe and reliable implementation of bioengineered EVs as diagnostic and therapeutic tools in clinical settings. Post-marketing pharmacovigilance for EV-based medicinal products is also presented, mainly addressing such topics as risk assessment and risk management.

Cascade encapsulation of antimicrobial peptides, exosomes and antibiotics in fibrin-gel for first-aid hemostasis and infected wound healing

Wounding is one of the most common healthcare problems. Bioactive hydrogels have attracted much attention in first-aid hemostasis and wound healing due to their excellent biocompatibility, antibacterial properties, and pro-healing bioactivity. However, their applications are limited by inadequate mechanical properties. In this study, we first prepared edible rose-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) and used them to encapsulate antimicrobial peptides (AMP), abbreviated as ELNs(AMP). ELNs(AMP) showed superior intracellular antibacterial activity, 2.5 times greater than AMP, in in vitro cell infection assays. We then prepared and tested an FDA-approved fibrin-gel of fibrinogen and thrombin encapsulating ELNs(AMP) and novobiocin sodium salt (NB) (ELNs(AMP)/NB-fibrin-gels). The fibrin gel showed a sustained release of ELNs(AMP) and NB over the eight days of testing. After spraying onto the skin, the formulation underwent in situ gelation and developed a stable patch with excellent hemostatic performance in a mouse liver injury model with hemostasis in 31 s, only 35.6 % of the PBS group. The fibrin gel exhibited pro-wound healing properties in the mouse-infected skin defect model. The thickness of granulation tissue and collagen of the ELNs(AMP)/NB-fibrin-gels group was 4.00, 6.32 times greater than that of the PBS group. In addition, the ELNs(AMP)/NB-fibrin-gels reduced inflammation (decreased mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL6, MCP1, and CXCL1) at the wound sites and demonstrated a biocompatible and biosafe profile. Thus, we have developed a hydrogel system with excellent hemostatic, antibacterial, and pro-wound healing properties, which may be a candidate for next-generation tissue regeneration with a wide clinical application for first-aid hemostasis and infected wound healing.

Environmental pollutants and exosomes: A new paradigm in environmental health and disease

This study investigates the intricate interplay between environmental pollutants and exosomes, shedding light on a novel paradigm in environmental health and disease. Cellular stress, induced by environmental toxicants or disease, significantly impacts the production and composition of exosomes, crucial mediators of intercellular communication. The heat shock response (HSR) and unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways, activated during cellular stress, profoundly influence exosome generation, cargo sorting, and function, shaping intercellular communication and stress responses. Environmental pollutants, particularly lipophilic ones, directly interact with exosome lipid bilayers, potentially affecting membrane stability, release, and cellular uptake. The study reveals that exposure to environmental contaminants induces significant changes in exosomal proteins, miRNAs, and lipids, impacting cellular function and health. Understanding the impact of environmental pollutants on exosomal cargo holds promise for biomarkers of exposure, enabling non-invasive sample collection and real-time insights into ongoing cellular responses. This research explores the potential of exosomal biomarkers for early detection of health effects, assessing treatment efficacy, and population-wide screening. Overcoming challenges requires advanced isolation techniques, standardized protocols, and machine learning for data analysis. Integration with omics technologies enhances comprehensive molecular analysis, offering a holistic understanding of the complex regulatory network influenced by environmental pollutants. The study underscores the capability of exosomes in circulation as promising biomarkers for assessing environmental exposure and systemic health effects, contributing to advancements in environmental health research and disease prevention.

Silymarin and MSC-exosomes ameliorate thioacetamide-evoked renal fibrosis by inhibiting TGF-β/SMAD pathway in rats

BACKGROUND

TGF-β1 and SMAD3 are particularly pathogenic in the progression of renal fibrosis.

AIM

This study aimed to evaluate the kidney protective potentials of silymarin (SM) and exosomes of mesenchymal stem cells against the nephrotoxin thioacetamide (TAA) in rats.

METHODS

32 female rats were randomly assigned into four groups: the control group, the TAA group, the TAA + SM group, and the TAA + Exosomes group. The kidney homogenates from all groups were examined for expression levels of TGF-β receptors I and II using real-time PCR, expression levels of collagen type I and CTGF proteins using ELISA, and the expression levels of nuclear SMAD2/3/4, cytoplasmic SMAD2/3, and cytoplasmic SMAD4 proteins using the western blot technique.

RESULTS

Compared to the control group, the injection of TAA resulted in a significant increase in serum levels of urea and creatinine, gene expression levels of TβRI and TβRII, protein expression levels of both collagen I and CTGF proteins, cytoplasmic SMAD2/3 complex, and nuclear SMAD2/3/4 (p-value < 0.0001), with significantly decreased levels of the co-SMAD partner, SMAD4 (p-value < 0.0001). Those effects were reversed considerably in both treatment groups, with the superiority of the exosomal treatment regarding the SMAD proteins and the expression levels of the TβRI gene, collagen I, and CTGF proteins returning to near-control values (p-value > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Using in vitro and in vivo experimental approaches, the research discovered a reno-protective role of silymarin and exosomes of BM-MSCs after thioacetamide-induced renal fibrosis in rats, with the advantage of exosomes.

Exosomes and exosomal miRNAs: A new avenue for the future treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease that involves mainly synovitis and joint injury and is one of the main causes of disability. The pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis is complicated, and the treatment cycle is long. The traditional methods of inhibiting inflammation and immunosuppression are no longer sufficient for treatment of the disease, so there is an urgent need to seek new treatments. The exocrine microenvironment is a kind of microvesicle with a lipid bilayer membrane structure that can be secreted by most cells in the body. This structure contains cell-specific proteins, lipids and nucleic acids that can transmit this information from one cell to another. To achieve cell-to-cell communication. Exocrine microRNAs can be contained in exocrine cells and can be selectively transferred to target receptor cells via exocrine signaling, thus regulating the physiological function of target cells. This article focuses on the pathological changes that occur during the development of rheumatoid arthritis and the biological regulation of exocrine and exocrine microRNAs in rheumatoid joints. Research on the roles of exocrine and exocrine microRNAs in regulating the inflammatory response, cell proliferation/apoptosis, autophagy, effects on fibroblast-like synoviocytes and immune regulation in rheumatoid arthritis was reviewed. In addition, the challenges faced by this new treatment are discussed.

Review of exosomes and their potential for veterinary medicine

Small extracellular vesicles called exosomes are released by almost all cell types and play a crucial role in both healthy and pathological circumstances. Exosomes, found in biological fluids (including plasma, urine, milk, semen, saliva, abdominal fluid and cervical vaginal fluid) and ranging in size from 50 to 150 nm, are critical for intercellular communication. Analysis of exosomal cargos, including micro RNAs (miRNAs), proteins and lipids, has been proposed as valuable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of disease. Exosomes can also be used as novel, cell-free, treatment strategies. In this review, we discuss the role, significance and application of exosomes and their cargos in diseases of animals.

lnc RNA LOC102163816 Promotes Proliferation of Porcine Follicular Granulosa Cells Via miR-455-3p/PTK2B/PI3K/AKT Pathway

The proliferation and differentiation of granulosa cells (GCs) is a crucial process in follicular development. However, the molecular regulatory mechanism of follicular proliferation and differentiation of GCs needs further research. Studies have reported that follicular fluid exosomes are involved in regulation of proliferation of GCs, but the specific mechanism is unclear. This study demonstrated that LOC102163816 is upregulated in porcine GCs treated with follicular fluid exosomes. Further study defined LOC102163816 to be a novel long noncoding RNA that is highly homologous to human metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) and enriched in porcine follicular fluid exosomes. We have speculated that LOC102163816 might have a cell-proliferative effect similar to that of MALAT1. We found that overexpression of LOC102163816 promoted transition from the G1 phase to the S phase of the cell cycle, thereby promoting proliferation of GCs. To explore the specific mechanism underlying this promotion of proliferation, miRNA sequencing was performed after overexpression of LOC102163816. Our results showed that LOC102163816 sponged miR-455-3p, promoting expression of protein tyrosine kinase 2 beta (PTK2B), thereby activating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway to regulate proliferation of porcine follicular GCs. These findings provide useful insights into follicular development.

Latest progress in low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for studying exosomes derived from stem/progenitor cells

Stem cells have self-renewal, replication, and multidirectional differentiation potential, while progenitor cells are undifferentiated, pluripotent or specialized stem cells. Stem/progenitor cells secrete various factors, such as cytokines, exosomes, non-coding RNAs, and proteins, and have a wide range of applications in regenerative medicine. However, therapies based on stem cells and their secreted exosomes present limitations, such as insufficient source materials, mature differentiation, and low transplantation success rates, and methods addressing these problems are urgently required. Ultrasound is gaining increasing attention as an emerging technology. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) has mechanical, thermal, and cavitation effects and produces vibrational stimuli that can lead to a series of biochemical changes in organs, tissues, and cells, such as the release of extracellular bodies, cytokines, and other signals. These changes can alter the cellular microenvironment and affect biological behaviors, such as cell differentiation and proliferation. Here, we discuss the effects of LIPUS on the biological functions of stem/progenitor cells, exosomes, and non-coding RNAs, alterations involved in related pathways, various emerging applications, and future perspectives. We review the roles and mechanisms of LIPUS in stem/progenitor cells and exosomes with the aim of providing a deeper understanding of LIPUS and promoting research and development in this field.

Role of exosomes in prostate cancer and male fertility

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most common and fifth most aggressive neoplasm among men worldwide. In the last decade, extracellular vesicle (EV) research has decoded multiple unsolved cancer-related mysteries. EVs can be classified as microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, and exosomes, among others. Exosomes play a key role in cellular signaling. Their internal cargos (nucleic acids, proteins, lipids) influence the recipient cell. In PCa, the exosome is the regulator of cancer progression. It is also a promising theranostics tool for PCa. Moreover, exosomes have strong participation in male fertility complications. This review aims to highlight the exosome theranostics signature in PCa and its association with male fertility.

Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptide Acts as a Tumor Suppressor in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is associated with high rates of metastasis and recurrence, and is one of the most common causes of cancer-associated death worldwide. This study examined the protein changes within circulating exosomes in patients with HCC against those in healthy people using isobaric tags for a relative or absolute quantitation (iTRAQ)-based quantitative proteomics analysis. The protein levels of von Willebrand factor (VWF), cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP), and proteasome subunit beta type-2 (PSMB2) were altered in HCC. The increased levels of VWF and PSMB2 but decreased CAMP levels in the serum of patients with HCC were validated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The level of CAMP (the only cathelicidin found in humans) also decreased in the circulating exosomes and buffy coat of the HCC patients. The serum with reduced levels of CAMP protein in the HCC patients increased the cell proliferation of Huh-7 cells; this effect was reduced following the addition of CAMP protein. The depletion of CAMP proteins in the serum of healthy people enhances the cell proliferation of Huh-7 cells. In addition, supplementation with synthetic CAMP reduces cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner and significantly delays G1-S transition in Huh-7 cells. This implies that CAMP may act as a tumor suppressor in HCC.

Stem cells and exosomes: as biological agents in the diagnosis and treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

A typical condition of the female reproductive system is polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, obesity, and hyperandrogenism are just a few of the metabolic abnormalities linked to this disease. Type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease are further issues related to PCOS. One consequence of this syndrome for which numerous treatment procedures have been developed is infertility. Metformin and clomiphene, two common allopathic medications used to treat PCOS, both have drawbacks and are ineffective. It is vital to seek novel therapeutic modalities to address these constraints. Exosomes (EXOs) are a particular class of extracellular vesicles that cells release, and they are known to play a significant role in mediating intercellular communication. A wide range of cargo, including lipids, proteins, mRNA, miRNAs, and numerous other noncoding RNAs, are contained in the nanoscale lipid bilayer exosomes. The cytokine effects of stem cells and EXOs derived from them enable the defense against metabolic diseases like PCOS. Moreover, EXO microRNAs can potentially be employed as biomarkers in the detection and management of PCOS. In this study, the potential of stem cells and exosomes are specifically investigated in the diagnosis and treatment of PCOS as one of the diseases of the female reproductive system.

Application of cell-derived exosomes in the hematological malignancies therapy

Exosomes are small membrane vesicles of endocytic origin that are produced by both tumor and normal cells and can be found in physiological fluids like plasma and cell culture supernatants. They include cytokines, growth factors, proteins, lipids, RNAs, and metabolites and are important intercellular communication controllers in several disorders. According to a vast amount of research, exosomes could support or inhibit tumor start and diffusion in a variety of solid and hematological malignancies by paracrine signaling. Exosomes are crucial therapeutic agents for a variety of illnesses, such as cancer and autoimmune diseases. This review discusses the most current and encouraging findings from in vitro and experimental in vivo research, as well as the scant number of ongoing clinical trials, with a focus on the impact of exosomes in the treatment of malignancies. Exosomes have great promise as carriers of medications, antagonists, genes, and other therapeutic materials that can be incorporated into their core in a variety of ways. Exosomes can also alter the metabolism of cancer cells, alter the activity of immunologic effectors, and alter non-coding RNAs, all of which can alter the tumor microenvironment and turn it from a pro-tumor to an anti-tumor milieu. This subject is covered in the current review, which also looks at how exosomes contribute to the onset and progression of hematological malignancies, as well as their importance in diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Extracellular Vesicle-Derived Cord Blood Plasma and Photobiomodulation Therapy Down-Regulated Caspase 3, LC3 and Beclin 1 Markers in the PCOS Oocyte: An In Vitro Study

Introduction: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the communal endocrine illness in women and the most common cause of infertility due to lack of ovulation. The exact cause of PCOS is still unknown. Affected women may have difficulty getting pregnant due to ovulation problems. Various methods have not been effective in the treatment of PCOS due to the positive role of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) and extracellular vesicles (ECV) obtained from cord blood plasma in the treatment of various diseases. The aim of this study was to study the role of ECV and PBMT in maturation and improvement of infertility in women with PCOS. Methods: In this research, a number of oocytes were obtained after ovarian stimulation from women who had been referred to the hospital for infertility treatment after obtaining personal consent, and they were divided into three groups: control, ECV and PBMT. Subsequently, in vitro maturation (IVM) was assessed, then some oocytes were cultured with a routine medium and others were treated with ECV and PBMT. Real-time PCR was used to evaluate BCL-2, BAX, caspase-3, and autophagy gene (ATG5, LC3, Beclin 1). Oocyte glutathione (GSH), oxidised gluathione (GSSG), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured. Results: The metaphase II (MII) oocyte ratio formation significantly increased in the ECV and PBMT groups (P<0.05). The expression of the BCL-2 gene was significantly up-regulated in the ECV and PBMT groups, but the expression of BAX and caspase-3 significantly decreased (P<0.05). The expression of the ATG5, LC3, BECLIN-2 genes significantly decreased in the ECV and PBMT groups (P<0.05). ROS, GSSG decreased in ECV and PBMT groups but GSH increased (P<0.05). Conclusion: The use of ECV and PBMT can increase the rate of fertilization and maturation of an oocyte and cause a decrease in apoptosis, autophagy, and ROS in a PCOS oocyte.

Crosstalk between colorectal cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment mediated by exosomal noncoding RNAs

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common malignant tumor of the digestive system, and its morbidity rates are increasing worldwide. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), as part of the tumor microenvironment (TME), are not only closely linked to normal fibroblasts, but also can secrete a variety of substances (including exosomes) to participate in the regulation of the TME. Exosomes can play a key role in intercellular communication by delivering intracellular signaling substances (e.g., proteins, nucleic acids, non-coding RNAs), and an increasing number of studies have shown that non-coding RNAs of exosomal origin from CAFs are not only closely associated with the formation of the CRC microenvironment, but also increase the ability of CRC to grow in metastasis, mediate tumor immunosuppression, and are involved in the mechanism of drug resistance in CRC patients receiving. It is also involved in the mechanism of drug resistance after radiotherapy in CRC patients. In this paper, we review the current status and progress of research on CAFs-derived exosomal non-coding RNAs in CRC.

Recent development of urinary biomarkers for bladder cancer diagnosis and monitoring

Urine‐based liquid biopsy has emerged as a non‐invasive and effective tool for early screening and diagnosis of bladder cancer. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current urine‐based biomarkers and methods for the detection and monitoring of bladder cancer. We focus on biomarkers including tumour DNAs, proteins, microbiome, tumour RNAs, long non‐coding RNAs, transfer RNA‐derived fragments, messenger RNAs, microRNAs, circular RNAs, exosomes and extrachromosomal circular DNA.

Extracellular Vesicle-Based SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine

Messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) vaccines are mainly used as SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Despite several issues concerning storage, stability, effective period, and side effects, viral vector vaccines are widely used for the prevention and treatment of various diseases. Recently, viral vector-encapsulated extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been suggested as useful tools, owing to their safety and ability to escape from neutral antibodies. Herein, we summarize the possible cellular mechanisms underlying EV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.

Conditioned Medium - Is it an Undervalued Lab Waste with the Potential for Osteoarthritis Management?

BACKGROUND

The approaches currently used in osteoarthritis (OA) are mainly short-term solutions with unsatisfactory outcomes. Cell-based therapies are still controversial (in terms of the sources of cells and the results) and require strict culture protocol, quality control, and may have side-effects. A distinct population of stromal cells has an interesting secretome composition that is underrated and commonly ends up as biological waste. Their unique properties could be used to improve the existing techniques due to protective and anti-ageing properties.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

In this review, we seek to outline the advantages of the use of conditioned media (CM) and exosomes, which render them superior to other cell-based methods, and to summarise current information on the composition of CM and their effect on chondrocytes.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

CM are obtainable from a variety of mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) sources, such as adipose tissue, bone marrow and umbilical cord, which is significant to their composition. The components present in CMs include proteins, cytokines, growth factors, chemokines, lipids and ncRNA with a variety of functions. In most in vitro and in vivo studies CM from MSCs had a beneficial effect in enhance processes associated with chondrocyte OA pathomechanism.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

This review summarises the information available in the literature on the function of components most commonly detected in MSC-conditioned media, as well as the effect of CM on OA chondrocytes in in vitro culture. It also highlights the need to standardise protocols for obtaining CM, and to conduct clinical trials to transfer the effects obtained in vitro to human subjects.