Dietary Intake of Competitive Bodybuilders

Menstrual cycle disorders as an early symptom of energy deficiency among female physique athletes assessed using the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q)

Physique competitions are weight-sensitive sports in which stage presentation, aesthetic appearance and posing ability of the athletes are judged rather than physical performance. The aim of this study was to assess low energy availability among female physique athletes by using the LEAF-Q. The study involved 104 females who were physique athletes. Monthly cycle disorders were reported in 58.65% of the women, that is periods stopped for three consecutive months or longer (amenorrhea). This situation occurred before the research was conducted in 43.27% of athletes and during the research in 15.38%. The physique athletes claimed that menstruation changes occurred when there was an increased exercise intensity, frequency or duration. Absence from training due to injury was reported by 27.88% of the women. The LEAF-Q identified 46.15% of the physique athletes as at risk (score ≥ 8) of low energy availability and the physiological consequences related to RED-S. Women who had menstrual cycle disorders were younger and did more training per week. Among women with menstrual disorders, cramps or stomach ache which cannot be related to menstruation occurred more frequently (p = 0.004). Absence from training or lack of participation in competition due to injuries occurred more frequently in the score ≥ 8 group (p = 0.024) thank the ≤ score 8 group. In the score ≥ 8 group menstruation changes, that is less bleeding or cessation of menstruation (p = 0.035), occurred more frequently when there was an increase in exercise intensity, frequency or duration (p = 0.002).

Completely Plant-Based Diets That Meet Energy Requirements for Resistance Training Can Supply Enough Protein and Leucine to Maximize Hypertrophy and Strength in Male Bodybuilders: A Modeling Study

Despite increasing awareness of plant-based diets for health and athletic performance, athletes are cautioned that careful dietary monitoring is necessary. Whether commonly consumed plant-based diets are nutritionally adequate for maximal muscular hypertrophy remains unknown. This modeling study assessed the nutrient composition of completely plant-based diets scaled to the caloric demands of maximal muscle mass and strength development in adult male bodybuilders. To model calorie requirements, anthropometric data from bodybuilders were input into the Tinsley resting metabolic rate prediction equation, and an appropriate physical activity factor and calorie surplus were applied. Dietary data from a large cohort following completely plant-based diets were then scaled to meet these needs. Modeled intakes for nutrients of interest were calculated as 1.8 g/kg/day of protein and 2.75 g/meal of leucine, which surpass mean requirements for maximal increases in muscle mass and strength and muscle protein synthesis, respectively. Daily levels for all micronutrients, except vitamin D, also exceeded requirements. Saturated fat levels were aligned with dietary guidelines, although sodium levels exceeded recommended limits. Consumption of larger portions of commonplace plant-based diets, scaled to meet the energy demands of maximal accrual of muscle mass and strength, satisfied protein and leucine requirements without the need for additional planning.

The Nexus of Training Duration, Body Image, Nutritional Practices, and Mental Health: Insights from a Strength Training Cohort

This study investigated the intricate relationship between strength training and its effects on body image, psychological health, and nutritional habits. By examining 605 participants, divided into two groups based on training frequency, the research aimed to discern how varying intensities of training influenced different wellness facets. The investigation employed a comprehensive survey, gathering demographic data, training specifics, dietary patterns, and psychological characteristics, utilizing statistical tools for analysis. Results unveiled significant differences in dietary habits and psychological profiles between groups with higher and lower training frequencies. The group with more frequent training displayed less favourable health outcomes and suboptimal dietary habits, challenging the prevailing notion that increased training frequency leads to better health. The study emphasized the necessity of a balanced approach to physical training, highlighting the need for personalized strategies that encompass both physical and mental health considerations. The findings exposed the complexities of training regimens and their broader implications on individual health, suggesting that enhanced training frequency alone does not assure improved health outcomes. This research significantly contributed to the domain by providing insights into how the frequency of strength training could differentially affect health and well-being, offering valuable guidelines for fitness professionals and healthcare providers.

Bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers' behavior towards rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb meat: A comparative review

In bodybuilders' diets, protein plays a crucial role in supporting muscle growth and repairing damaged muscle tissue. These individuals meet their protein needs by combining dietary sources with supplements. Animal-based proteins are often preferred over plant-based proteins because they are believed to better support muscle protein synthesis. This review explores the meat consumption patterns of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, focusing on rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb. We describe and compare the types of meat bodybuilders commonly consume and provide an overview of protein supplements, including meat-based options, plant-based alternatives, and whey-based products. Our aim is to gain insight into the dietary preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, considering their nutritional requirements and the potential effect on the meat industry. We conducted an extensive search across various databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar. We found that individual choices vary based on factors such as attitudes, trust, taste, texture, nutritional content, ethical considerations, and cultural influences. Nutritional factors, including protein content, amino acid profiles, and fat levels, significantly influence the preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers. However, it is crucial to maintain a balance by incorporating other essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, healthy fats, vitamins, and minerals to ensure a complete and balanced diet. The findings from this review can inform strategies and product development initiatives tailored to the needs of bodybuilders and discerning meat enthusiasts.

The theory of planned behavior and dietary behaviors in competitive women bodybuilders

BACKGROUND

Women bodybuilders build their ideal physique by manipulating their diet, supplement, and exercise regimens to extreme levels. Excess protein intake and dietary supplement use is ubiquitous in women bodybuilders preparing for a competition, i.e., in-season competitors, however the impetus for these two dietary behaviors are relatively unknown. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) has been used to explain dietary behaviors. The purpose of the study was to examine how the TPB can explain protein intake and dietary supplement use in in-season competitors.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional design, an online questionnaire was developed, validated, and administered to collect dietary supplement use, TPB variables, and other measures from 112 in-season competitors. Protein intake was assessed using multiple 24-h dietary recalls. Associations between TPB and protein intake and dietary supplement use were determined with multiple regression analysis while adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

For protein intake: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control explained 8% of the variance in intention; subjective norm independently predicted intention. Behavioral beliefs predicted attitude; subjective norm was predicted by trainer/coach, workout partners, and social media influencers. For dietary supplement use: intention explained 5% of the variance in dietary supplement use; attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control together explained 38% of the variance in intention. Attitudes towards dietary supplements use were predicted by five factors (not a waste of money, help improve physique, sustain energy levels, provide enough calories, help with recovery). Primary determinants of subjective norm were fellow competitors, social media influencers, and trainer/coach. Perceived behavioral control was predicted by three factors (ease of purchase, affordability to purchase, availability to purchase).

CONCLUSIONS

TPB predicted dietary supplement use in women bodybuilders during in-season but there was little evidence for the prediction of protein intake using the TPB. Health professionals should develop effective interventions using strategies that align health education messages with in-season competitors' outcome beliefs and collaborate with their referent others to influence safer and effective dietary supplement use.

Dietary Intake and Supplement Use in Competitive Women Bodybuilders

(1) Background: Women bodybuilders use extreme diets, dietary supplementation, and training regimes to sculpt their physiques. Women's participation in bodybuilding competitions has increased since the 1980s. Currently, studies on their dietary intake and supplement use are limited. Their dietary intake may be of poor quality and low in several micronutrients, while supplement use appears to be omnipresent. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine and compare the dietary intake, supplement use, and diet quality of in-season and off-season women bodybuilders. (2) Methods: In a cross-sectional design, we compared dietary intake, supplement use, and diet quality between seasons in women bodybuilders (n = 227). An online questionnaire was developed, validated, and administered to assess all non-dietary and supplement variables. The Automated Self-Administered 24 h Dietary Assessment Tool was used to collect four 24 h dietary recalls. The Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) was used to calculate diet quality. The analysis of covariance and Welch's t-tests were used to assess the differences between in-season and off-season women bodybuilders' dietary intake, supplement, and HEI-2015 variables. (3) Results: In-season competitors reported consuming significantly less energy, carbohydrates, and fat but more protein than off-season competitors. All competitors consumed excess protein, while in-season competitors consumed excess fat and off-season competitors consumed less energy than the physique athlete nutrition recommendations. All competitors' micronutrient intakes were above the Dietary Reference Intakes. Supplements were used by all competitors, and the mean number used was similar between seasons. The HEI-2015 scores were not significantly different between seasons yet were below the US Dietary Guidelines for Americans. (4) Conclusion: Women bodybuilders would benefit from health education to achieve physique athlete nutrition recommendations, improve diet quality, and safe/efficacious supplement use to reach physique goals and improve overall health.

Bioimpedance Patterns and Bioelectrical Impedance Vector Analysis (BIVA) of Body Builders

Bodybuilders are athletes characterized by high muscle mass. During competitions, the evaluation is performed based on aesthetic parameters. The study aims to provide normative references of body composition with the vector bioimpedance methodology (BIVA). A second aim is to compare BIVA assessments performed on both sides and the upper and lower body. A group of 68 elite bodybuilders (41 males aged 30.1 ± 9.2 years and 27 females aged 32.1 ± 8.0 years) was enrolled. A BIVA assessment was performed the day before the 2021 World Natural Bodybuilding Federation Italian Championships. As a result, male and female bodybuilders ranked to the left in the BIVA ellipse relative to the general population. Furthermore, unlike females, males also ranked lower than the general athletic population. In addition, in the symmetry assessment, males show a significantly greater upper body than the lower, right, and left parts, while in women, this is observed for the lower part of the body. The differences in the results obtained between males and females can be attributed to the different patterns of endocrine production between the sexes and the different criteria used by the juries to attribute the final score during the competitions. Therefore, BIVA references in bodybuilders could help adjust the training and nutritional program during the peak week before a competition.

Going Vegan for the Gain: A Cross-Sectional Study of Vegan Diets in Bodybuilders during Different Preparation Phases

Numerous athletes compete at a high level without consuming animal products; although a well-planned vegan diet might be appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, a few elements need to be addressed to build a balanced plant-based diet for an athlete, particularly in bodybuilding, in which muscle growth should be maximised, as athletes are judged on their aesthetics. In this observational study, nutritional intakes were compared in a cohort of natural omnivorous and vegan bodybuilders, during two different phases of preparation. To this end, 18 male and female bodybuilders (8 vegans and 10 omnivores) completed a food diary for 5 days during the bulking and cutting phases of their preparation. A mixed-model analysis was used to compare macro- and micronutrient intakes between the groups in the two phases. Both vegans and omnivores behaved similarly regarding energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes, but vegans decreased their protein intake during the cutting phase. Our results suggest that vegan bodybuilders may find difficulties in reaching protein needs while undergoing a caloric deficit, and they might benefit from nutritional professionals' assistance to bridge the gap between the assumed proteins and those needed to maintain muscle mass through better nutrition and supplementation planning.

Body Composition of Competitive Bodybuilders: A Systematic Review of Published Data and Recommendations for Future Work

ABSTRACT

Bauer, P, Majisik, A, Mitter, B, Csapo, R, Tschan, H, Hume, P, Martínez-Rodríguez, A, and Makivic, B. Body composition of competitive bodybuilders: a systematic review of published data and recommendations for future work. J Strength Cond Res 37(3): 726-732, 2023-The purpose of this review was to systematically summarize studies measuring the body composition of competitive bodybuilding athletes to provide recommended values for preparation and during competition. The protocol was preregistered with PROSPERO (CRD42020197921) and followed the guidelines of the Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis. A search of 5 electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus, CINAHL, and Scopus) was conducted to retrieve all relevant publications from January 1, 2000, up to June 13, 2021. Of 16 studies meeting the inclusion criteria, 6 presented longitudinal data on competition preparation and were discussed in detail. In the general preparation phase, body fat levels of bodybuilding athletes ranged between 15.3 and 25.2% (female) and from 9.6 to 16.3% (male). Close to competition, however, body fat levels were substantially lower, ranging from 8.1 to 18.3% for female and 5.8-10.7% for male athletes. All studies comparing relative body fat values at various time points during competition preparation found significant reductions between 30 and 60% in relative body fat, whereas lean mass was mostly maintained. Findings from the studies included in this review suggest that most bodybuilding competitors keep resistance training volume high while increasing aerobic training volume when preparing for competition. Findings on energy intake and macronutrient distribution were unclear and should be addressed in future studies. Further research, especially on contest preparation, is warranted and should include more details about training programs, nutritional strategies, psychosocial situation, anabolic androgen steroid, and supplement use as well as measurement protocols and preparation.

Association between Different Types of Exercise and Intake of Nutrients including Carbohydrate, Fat, Protein, and B Vitamins in Young Adults

PURPOSE

This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the association between different types of exercise and nutrient intake to provide a basis for promoting the overall health of young adults.

METHODS

A total of 427 young adults (217 women) aged 21 to 35 were recruited. Participants self-reported time spent (min/week) in endurance exercise, resistance exercise, sports, walking, and other structured physical activity (PA). Nutrient intake was determined via telephone-administered 24 h recalls.

RESULTS

Resistance exercise was positively associated with intake of protein, vitamins B2, B3, B5, B6, and B12 and the percentage of total calories from protein (PCT-PRO), and negatively associated with the percentage of total calories from carbohydrate (PCT-CHO) (p < 0.05). Time spent in aerobic exercise was positively associated with fiber, pectin, and vitamin B6 intake, and negatively associated with PCT-PRO (p < 0.05). Time spent exercising was negatively associated with fiber and pectin intake (p < 0.05). Time spent performing other structured PA was positively associated with pectin intake (p < 0.05). Participants' total exercise time was positively associated with intake of vitamins B2, B5, B12, and PCT-Fat, PCT-PRO, and negatively associated with PCT-CHO (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The results showed an association between various exercise types and specific nutrients. It may be worthwhile to point out the negative association of exercise with CHO intake, which may need to be examined more closely in active young adults. In addition, the supplementation of B vitamins and pectin may be beneficial for their exercise performance and post-exercise recovery.

Premature Death in Bodybuilders: What Do We Know?

Premature deaths in bodybuilders regularly make headlines and are cited as evidence that bodybuilding is a dangerous activity. A wealth of research has revealed elite athletes typically enjoy lower mortality rates than non-athletes, but research on bodybuilder lifespan is surprisingly limited. Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use is commonly cited as a key contributor to morbidity and premature mortality in bodybuilders, but this area of research is highly nuanced and influenced by numerous confounders unique to bodybuilding. It is quite possible that bodybuilders are at elevated risk and that AAS use is the primary reason for this, but there remains much unknown in this realm. As global participation in bodybuilding increases, and healthcare providers play a more active role in monitoring bodybuilder health, there is a need to identify how numerous factors associated with bodybuilding ultimately influence short- and long-term health and mortality rate. In this Current Opinion, we discuss what is currently known about the bodybuilder lifespan, identify the nuances of the literature regarding bodybuilder health and AAS use, and provide recommendations for future research on this topic.

Dietary Intake, Serum Hormone Concentrations, Amenorrhea and Bone Mineral Density of Physique Athletes and Active Gym Enthusiasts

As the diet, hormones, amenorrhea, and bone mineral density (BMD) of physique athletes (PA) and gym enthusiasts (GE) are little-explored, we studied those in 69 females (50 PA, 19 GE) and 20 males (11 PA, 9 GE). Energy availability (EA, kcal·kgFFM−1·d−1 in DXA) in female and male PA was ~41.3 and ~37.2, and in GE ~39.4 and ~35.3, respectively. Low EA (LEA) was found in 10% and 26% of female PA and GE, respectively, and in 11% of male GE. In PA, daily protein intake (g/kg body mass) was ~2.9−3.0, whereas carbohydrate and fat intakes were ~3.6−4.3 and ~0.8−1.0, respectively. PA had higher protein and carbohydrate and lower fat intakes than GE (p < 0.05). Estradiol, testosterone, IGF-1, insulin, leptin, TSH, T4, T3, cortisol, or BMD did not differ between PA and GE. Serum IGF-1 and leptin were explained 6% and 7%, respectively, by EA. In non-users of hormonal contraceptives, amenorrhea was found only in PA (27%) and was associated with lower fat percentage, but not EA, BMD, or hormones. In conclusion, off-season dietary intakes, hormone levels, and BMD meet the recommendations in most of the PA and GE. Maintaining too-low body fat during the off-season may predispose to menstrual disturbances.

After the spotlight: are evidence-based recommendations for refeeding post-contest energy restriction available for physique athletes? A scoping review

Background: To date, there is limited consensus on post-contest recovery recommendations for natural physique athletes. The available literature emphasizes the negative consequences of extreme dieting associated with physique contests, yet offers only speculative suggestions to facilitate physiological recovery post-contest. This scoping review evaluates evidence-based recommendations for recovery in post-physique contests. Methods: The online search engines and databases Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus were searched systematically and 12 peer reviewed journal articles were included in the review. Results: Six key factors were identified that directly impacted on physiological recovery post-contest: (1) body composition, (2) recovery dietary intake, (3) resting metabolic rate (RMR) restoration, (4) endocrine measures recovery, (5) menstrual cycle recovery, and (6) psychological aspects of recovery. Conclusions: Three dietary strategies have been proposed to facilitate physiological recovery post-contest while bearing in mind body composition and future athlete outcomes; (1) a gradual increase in energy intake to maintenance requirements, (2) ad libitum eating, (3) an immediate return to maintenance energy requirements. Future research is required to determine the timeline in which full physiological recovery occurs post-contest and which strategies best support athlete health and performance during post-contest recovery.

Intersection of Diet and Exercise with the Gut Microbiome and Circulating Metabolites in Male Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study

Diet, exercise and the gut microbiome are all factors recognised to be significant contributors to cardiometabolic health. However, diet and exercise interventions to modify the gut microbiota to improve health are limited by poor understanding of the interactions between them. In this pilot study, we explored diet–exercise–microbiome dynamics in bodybuilders as they represent a distinctive group that typically employ well-defined dietary strategies and exercise regimes to alter their body composition. We performed longitudinal characterisation of diet, exercise, the faecal microbial community composition and serum metabolites in five bodybuilders during competition preparation and post-competition. All participants reduced fat mass while conserving lean mass during competition preparation, corresponding with dietary energy intake and exercise load, respectively. There was individual variability in food choices that aligned to individualised gut microbial community compositions throughout the study. However, there was a common shift from a high protein, low carbohydrate diet during pre-competition to a more macronutrient-balanced diet post-competition, which was associated with similar changes in the gut microbial diversity across participants. The circulating metabolite profiles also reflected individuality, but a subset of metabolites relating to lipid metabolism distinguished between pre- and post-competition. Changes in the gut microbiome and circulating metabolome were distinct for each individual, but showed common patterns. We conclude that further longitudinal studies will have greater potential than cross-sectional studies in informing personalisation of diet and exercise regimes to enhance exercise outcomes and improve health.

Can Bodybuilding Peak Week Manipulations Favorably Affect Muscle Size, Subcutaneous Thickness, and Related Body Composition Variables? A Case Study

Background: The purpose of this case study was to implement an evidence-based dietary approach to peaking for a bodybuilding competition and monitor its impact on body composition, muscle thickness (MT), intra-to-extra-cellular fluid shifts, subcutaneous thickness (ST), and hydration status. Secondarily, to document any adverse events of this peak week approach in a small, controlled setting. Methods Dietary practices were recorded, and laboratory testing was conducted throughout peak week, including competition morning. Assessments included: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) for body composition, B-mode ultrasound for MT and ST, bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) for total body water (TBW)/intracellular water (ICW)/extracellular water (ECW), and raw BIS data (i.e., resistance, reactance, and phase angle), urine specific gravity (USG) for hydration status, and subjective fullness. Sequential dietary manipulations were made (i.e., CHO depletion/fat loading, CHO/water loading, and a refinement phase) with specific physiological goals. This was reflected in changes observed across all assessments throughout the peak week. Results: From the carbohydrate-depleted state (three days out) to competition day, we observed increases in lean body mass, MT, TBW (primarily ICW), and subjective fullness. Kendall’s Tau B revealed a strong relationship between carbohydrate intake and ∑MT (τ = 0.733, p = 0.056). Additionally, novel ST data demonstrated a 10% reduction for the summation of all seven sites, with some drastic changes in specific regions (e.g., −43% for triceps ST) from three days out to competition day. Conclusions: These data suggest that the prototypical goals of bodybuilders’ peak week (i.e., increasing muscle fullness, decreasing subcutaneous thickness) to enhance their aesthetics/muscularity presented can be achieved with a drug-free protocol involving dietary manipulations.

Nutritional and Non-Nutritional Strategies in Bodybuilding: Impact on Kidney Function

Bodybuilders routinely engage in many dietary and other practices purported to be harmful to kidney health. The development of acute kidney injury, focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS) and nephrocalcinosis may be particular risks. There is little evidence that high-protein diets and moderate creatine supplementation pose risks to individuals with normal kidney function though long-term high protein intake in those with underlying impairment of kidney function is inadvisable. The links between anabolic androgenic steroid use and FSGS are stronger, and there are undoubted dangers of nephrocalcinosis in those taking high doses of vitamins A, D and E. Dehydrating practices, including diuretic misuse, and NSAID use also carry potential risks. It is difficult to predict the effects of multiple practices carried out in concert. Investigations into subclinical kidney damage associated with these practices have rarely been undertaken. Future research is warranted to identify the clinical and subclinical harm associated with individual practices and combinations to enable appropriate and timely advice.

Training, Supplementation, and Pharmacological Practices of Competitive Male Bodybuilders Across Training Phases

ABSTRACT

Hackett, DA. Training, supplementation, and pharmacological practices of competitive male bodybuilders across training phases. J Strength Cond Res 36(4): 963-970, 2022-Bodybuilding involves the pursuit of muscularity and leanness primarily through the use of progressive resistance training in combination with other practices such as manipulation of diet and use of ergogenic aids. This study aimed to compare the training practices and ergogenic aids used by competitive male bodybuilders across training phases. An online survey was completed by 235 competitive male bodybuilders with a median age of 26.0 (interquartile range 23.0-31.3) years. Results showed that most respondents performed split-routines (85.5%), 4-7 sessions per week (95.7%), trained major muscle groups twice a week (>50%), and session duration being 60-90 minutes (55.7%). Off-season resistance training sessions mostly comprised of targeting 2-3 muscle groups (56%), 2-3 exercises per muscle group (60.4%), 3-4 sets per exercise (73.2%), 7-12 repetition maximum (RM) per set (71.6%), and 61-180 seconds recovery between sets and exercises (80.5%). At the precompetition phase (6 weeks before competition), there was a decrease in the number of muscle groups trained per session (p = 0.027) and a greater number of repetitions performed per set (p < 0.001). A significant increase in the reported aerobic exercise volume was found during precompetition (<0.001). Performance enhancing drugs were used by 53.6% of respondents who did not compete in natural bodybuilding competitions. Dietary supplements were used by 95.7% of respondents with the most common being creatine monohydrate (80.4%) and whey protein (65.8%). Findings suggest that competitive bodybuilders follow resistance training practices consistent with the broad muscular hypertrophy recommendations but a notable shift in practices occur in the weeks before competition.

Adherence to Mediterranean diet in athletes: a narrative review

Athletes’ diet should be adequate both in quality and quantity, to avoid deficiencies and limit fatigue. In recent years, several nutritional recommendations have been published and a multitude of diets based on empirical approaches have been employed in the sport setting. In the last decades, the Mediterranean diet (MD) has been extensively studied for its beneficial effects on health but its adoption in athletes has never been critically analyzed. This review was aimed to assess the current literature about the athletes’ adherence to the MD pattern, also in comparison with the general population. The majority of the studies show that athletes reach a mean level of MD adherence, higher than that of the general population. However, the current evidence is still limited and based on studies using different methods. Further research is needed to better characterize this habit among athletes.

Bodybuilding, dietary supplements and hormones use: behaviour and determinant analysis in young bodybuilders

BACKGROUND

Among athletes, bodybuilders are more predisposed to the use of dietary supplements (DS) and hormones (H) to increase in adaptations to physical training and performance. The purpose of the study was to identify social, psychological, and organisational factors that are associated with the use of food supplements and hormones in young bodybuilders of the metropolitan area of Naples.

METHODS

107 athletes, practicing bodybuilding, were consecutively recruited in 30 gyms, randomly selected in the metropolitan area of Naples. Athletes were administered an anonymous questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of 5 sections (socio-demographic, frequency and reasons for bodybuilding, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours). Descriptive statistics were performed using T-test and Chi-square statistics. A score was created for knowledge, attitudes, behaviours. Multivariable logistic regression models were employed to assess association between each score and the use of DS and H. Statistical analyses were carried out using STATA 15.

RESULTS

81.31% of the subjects reported to use DS while 35.51% H. Females are less likely to practise bodybuilding frequently than males (OR 0.18 (95% CI 0.05-0.69), p = 0.01). Subjects who have attended high school or university have a lower probability of taking DS (OR 0.17 (95% CI 0.04-0.65), p = 0.01). H users also use supplements more frequently (OR 61.21 (95% CI 3.99-939.31), p < 0.001). Those who scored higher on knowledge scores are more likely to take DS (OR 1.53 (95% CI 1.11-2.12), p < 0.001). Attitudes are correlated with the use of DS; those who scored higher were less likely to use DS (OR 0.77 (95% CI 0.30-0.98), p = 0.03). People who use DS are 30 times more likely to use H at the same time (OR 30.25 (95% CI 2.51-365.24), p < 0.001). Subjects who have a higher score for knowledge and attitudes are less likely to use H (OR 0.68 (95% CI 0.54-0.87), p < 0.001, OR 0.75 (95% CI 0.62-0.90), p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of H and DS' use, although lower than reported in the literature, is a worrying public health problem. Better knowledge can lead to an informed use. Gym instructors should be trained to provide accurate and scientifically sound information. Health professionals should combine their expertise to provide more comprehensive guidance to the exercisers.

A Comparative Study of Selected Gut Bacteria Abundance and Fecal pH in Bodybuilders Eating High-Protein Diet and More Sedentary Controls

Bodybuilders tend to overeat their daily protein needs. The purpose of a high-protein diet is to support post-workout recovery and skeletal muscle growth; however, its exact impact on gut microbiota still remains under investigation. The aim of this study was to assess the differences in selected gut bacteria (Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Akkermansia muciniphila, Bifidobacterium spp., and Bacteroides spp.) abundance and fecal pH between the group of amateur bodybuilders and more sedentary control group. In total, 26 young healthy men took part in the study, and their daily nutrients intake was measured using a dietary interview. Real-time PCR was used to assess the stool bacteria abundance. Both groups reported fiber intake within the recommended range, but bodybuilders consumed significantly more protein (33.6% ± 6.5% vs. 22% ± 6.3%) and less fat (27.6% ± 18.9% vs. 36.4% ± 10%) than controls. Study results showed no significant differences in terms of selected intestinal bacteria colony forming unit counts. Significantly higher fecal pH in the bodybuilders’ fecal samples was observed in comparison to the control group 6.9 ± 0.7 vs. 6.2 ± 0.7. Gut microbiota composition similarities could be a result of appropriate fiber intake in both groups.

Achieving an Optimal Fat Loss Phase in Resistance-Trained Athletes: A Narrative Review

Managing the body composition of athletes is a common practice in the field of sports nutrition. The loss of body weight (BW) in resistance-trained athletes is mainly conducted for aesthetic reasons (bodybuilding) or performance (powerlifting or weightlifting). The aim of this review is to provide dietary–nutritional strategies for the loss of fat mass in resistance-trained athletes. During the weight loss phase, the goal is to reduce the fat mass by maximizing the retention of fat-free mass. In this narrative review, the scientific literature is evaluated, and dietary–nutritional and supplementation recommendations for the weight loss phase of resistance-trained athletes are provided. Caloric intake should be set based on a target BW loss of 0.5–1.0%/week to maximize fat-free mass retention. Protein intake (2.2–3.0 g/kgBW/day) should be distributed throughout the day (3–6 meals), ensuring in each meal an adequate amount of protein (0.40–0.55 g/kgBW/meal) and including a meal within 2–3 h before and after training. Carbohydrate intake should be adapted to the level of activity of the athlete in order to training performance (2–5 g/kgBW/day). Caffeine (3–6 mg/kgBW/day) and creatine monohydrate (3–5 g/day) could be incorporated into the athlete’s diet due to their ergogenic effects in relation to resistance training. The intake of micronutrients complexes should be limited to special situations in which there is a real deficiency, and the athlete cannot consume through their diet.

Dietary Strategies of Modern Bodybuilders During Different Phases of the Competitive Cycle

ABSTRACT

Lenzi, JL, Teixeira, EL, de Jesus, G, Schoenfeld, BJ, and de Salles Painelli, V. Dietary strategies of modern bodybuilders during different phases of the competitive cycle. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2546-2551, 2021-Bodybuilders have used a wide array of nutritional strategies over the years. However, most information on the topic is anecdotal, with limited research about the nutritional habits of modern bodybuilders, especially those from new categories. Accordingly, we sought to compare the dietary routines of bodybuilders from the Men's Physique category during "bulking" and "cutting" phases, while attempting to identify the rationale underpinning these practices. Sixteen experienced male bodybuilding competitors were interviewed during bulking (10-12 weeks before competition) and cutting (1 week before competition) phases, wherein we quantified energy and nutrient intake and determined their rationale and sources of education. Dietary analysis revealed a low carbohydrate intake during bulking, with a further decrease (at p < 0.05) during cutting. A similar decrease (at p < 0.05) from bulking to cutting was shown in the intake of most macronutrients and micronutrients, although intake of protein and almost all the micronutrients was well above the recommendation throughout the competitive cycle. Most of the consumed supplements can be deemed unnecessary or without scientific support. Most athletes reported self-managing their diet and supplement program, without the assistance of nutrition professionals. As such, some of their professed nutritional habits obtained during interviewers were not consistent with the food diary information. Although some dietary strategies used by bodybuilders in the Men's Physique category are consistent with evidence-based practice, most can be considered extreme and lack scientific support. The source of education may help to explain their decision-making.

Biopsychosocial Effects of Competition Preparation in Natural Bodybuilders

Bodybuilders are judged on the subjective visual assessment of their muscular size, proportion, and leanness. This case series tracked four drug-free bodybuilders (3 male) during the off-season, pre-competition and recovery phases. This study aimed to comprehensively profile key biopsychosocial changes occurring pre/post competition in a group of British natural bodybuilders. We measured: resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition (via BIA, ultrasound and sum of 7 skinfolds), lipid profiles, fasted glucose, blood pressure, power output (Wingate), grip strength, and carried out psychometric questionnaires (EAT-26, STAI, BUT) over an eight-month period. Mean weight loss from 5 months (5M) to pre-contest (PRE) was 8.6 ± 4.1 kg, followed by an increase of 7.9 ± 1.6 kg two months post contest (POST). The mean RMR of the cohort was stable from 1899 ± 630 kcal (5M) to 1897 ± 598 kcal (PRE), before decreasing to 1797 ± 242 kcal (POST). Mean peak power declined from 770 ± 113.0 w (5M), to 700.0 ± 134.4 w (PRE), before increasing to 816.0 ± 116.2 w (POST). Competition dieting had no effect on EAT-26 or BUT scores, suggesting no body dysmorphic or eating disorder concerns, although trait anxiety was elevated in three out of the four participants throughout the observation. Many of the biopsychosocial changes that occur to bodybuilders as they prepare for competition return to baseline measurements 2 months post competition.

Pro-Healthy Diet Properties and Its Determinants among Aging Masters Athletes

Qualitative dietary assessments are not common in aging athletes. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate diet quality and its determinants among aging masters athletes. Eighty-six participants of the 8th World Masters Indoor Athletics Championships were enrolled in the study (age range 36-65 years). Three subgroups were distinguished to represent countries with different eating habits. Body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance. Eating habits and diet quality were assessed using the Dietary Habits and Nutrition Beliefs Questionnaire (KomPAN®, Warszawa, Poland), and the Pro-healthy Diet Index (pHDI-10). Dietary quality determinants were identified by a multiple regression model conducted for each subgroup separately (Great Britain, France, and Poland). The results showed that none of the subgroups adhered to the reference intake of products with beneficial health outcomes. This was particularly noticeable in the insufficient consumption of whole grain products, dairy, and fish. The fish and vegetables consumption frequency significantly differentiated the eating habits of the studied groups. Diet quality determinants varied depending on the group. However, in each of them, fruit consumption was one of the components of a good-quality diet. The obtained results can be used by institutions providing health education among the elderly to develop an appropriate strategy aimed at changing inappropriate eating habits.

Peak week recommendations for bodybuilders: an evidence based approach

Bodybuilding is a competitive endeavor where a combination of muscle size, symmetry, "conditioning" (low body fat levels), and stage presentation are judged. Success in bodybuilding requires that competitors achieve their peak physique during the day of competition. To this end, competitors have been reported to employ various peaking interventions during the final days leading to competition. Commonly reported peaking strategies include altering exercise and nutritional regimens, including manipulation of macronutrient, water, and electrolyte intake, as well as consumption of various dietary supplements. The primary goals for these interventions are to maximize muscle glycogen content, minimize subcutaneous water, and reduce the risk abdominal bloating to bring about a more aesthetically pleasing physique. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of evidence to support the commonly reported practices employed by bodybuilders during peak week. Hence, the purpose of this article is to critically review the current literature as to the scientific support for pre-contest peaking protocols most commonly employed by bodybuilders and provide evidence-based recommendations as safe and effective strategies on the topic.

Carbohydrate refeed does not modify GVT-performance following energy restriction in bodybuilders

Bodybuilding is a sport in which competitors' physiques are judged on their muscular size, symmetry, and leanness, as displayed in a number of different poses. In the pre-competitive period, bodybuilders attempt to reduce body fat stores as much as possible while maintaining fat-free mass (FFM). This is achieved via a sustained negative energy balance, generally induced by a combination of decreased energy intake and increased energy expenditure. This study aimed to assess the ability of bodybuilders to resist fatigue during resistance exercise based German Volume Training (GVT), as well as the affective response after carbohydrate refeed following four weeks of moderate or severe energy restriction. Eleven male bodybuilders (28.4 ± 2.3 years old) with experience in competitions were randomized into two groups: Moderate Energy Restriction (MER; n = 6) or Severe Energy Restriction (SER; n = 5). On the 2nd day (during energy restriction) and 7th day (during refeed) of the fourth week, both groups completed two leg press protocols involving the GVT method. After the first and last workout protocol subjects were assessed for muscle soreness using the visual-analog scale (VAS), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affective response, lactate, and creatine kinase. Anthropometric analysis indicated that a reduction of 3.7 and 3.2% in body mass corresponded to a loss of 16.0 and 17.6% of fat mass for the MER and SER groups, respectively, with both groups maintaining FFM. Blood CK and VAS values were reduced only in SER. Our results suggest that a carbohydrate refeed may help to attenuate the perception of muscle soreness and maintain exercise performance, especially when severe energy restriction is combined with an intense training protocol such as GVT.

Health aspects of active bodybuilders: monitoring by multidisciplinary team

ABSTRACT Preparation in bodybuilding involves high-intensity workouts and drastic feeding strategies. Little is known about health risks. Athletes (n=510, 59.8% male) were evaluated about health aspects, anthropometry, and blood pressure (BP). Chronic diseases were reported by 6,6%, but 88.9% of them did not treat; 1.9% reported hypertension, with 15.7% having high BP; and 52.5% reported the use of prohibited drugs in the last 6 months. Body mass index was 26.2±2.5 for man and 22.3±2.2 Kg/m2 for woman. Men had lower monitoring than women by physical education professionals, nutritionists, and physicians (p<0.01). Athletes are exposed to health risks factors such as lack of knowledge about diseases, high use of prohibited substances and less monitoring by professionals among men.

The Environmental Impact of the Athlete's Plate Nutrition Education Tool

Periodized nutrition is necessary to optimize training and enhance performance through the season. The Athlete's Plate (AP) is a nutrition education tool developed to teach athletes how to design their plates depending on training load (e.g., volume × intensity), from easy (E), moderate (M) to hard (H). The AP was validated, confirming its recommendations according to international sports nutrition guidelines. However, the AP had significantly higher protein content than recommended (up to 2.9 ± 0.5 g·kg^-1·d^-1; p < 0.001 for H male). The aim of this study was to quantify the environmental impact (EnvI) of the AP and to evaluate the influence of meal type, training load, sex and registered dietitian (RD). The nutritional contents of 216 APs created by 12 sport RDs were evaluated using Computrition Software (Hospitality Suite, v. 18.1, Chatsworth, CA, USA). The EnvI of the AP was analyzed by life cycle assessment (LCA) expressed by the total amount of food on the AP, kg, and kcal, according to the Swiss Agricultural Life Cycle Assessment (SALCA) methodology. Higher EnvI is directly associated with higher training load when the total amount of food on the plate is considered for E (5.7 ± 2.9 kg CO₂ eq/day); M (6.4 ± 1.5 kg CO₂ eq/day); and H (8.0 ± 2.1 kg CO₂ eq/day). Global warming potential, exergy and eutrophication are driven by animal protein and mainly beef, while ecotoxicity is influenced by vegetable content on the AP. The EnvI is influenced by the amount of food, training load and sex. This study is the first to report the degree of EnvI in sports nutrition. These results not only raise the need for sustainability education in sports nutrition in general, but also the urgency to modify the AP nutrition education tool to ensure sports nutrition recommendations are met, while not compromising the environment.

Body composition and dietary patterns in professional and amateur bodybuilders

Significant factors affecting body composition and consequently professional and amateur bodybuilders’ performance are both training loads and diet. The aim was to assess dissimilarities in anthropometrical traits and body composition between males practicing bodybuilding professionally and as amateurs, considering their diet and training. The study comprised 55 athletes, i.e. 29 professionals attending national championships and 26 amateur bodybuilders. All participants underwent anthropometric measurements involving body height, waist, arm and thigh circumferences and skinfolds covering trunk and extremities. The original nutritional behavior questionnaire and a 24-hour survey were used. An electronic scale was used to measure body weight and body composition was analyzed with the BIA method. In statistical analysis, the Shapiro-Wilk (W-test), t-student and Mann-Whitney U test were applied. An adipose tissue, assessed on the basis of skinfolds was significantly lower in professionals (p<0.05), whereas lower mean values of body fat free mass (FFM) were found in amateur bodybuilders (p<0.01). Diet survey presented differentiation both in the amount of consumed protein in the diet (1.98 g/kg), in its percentage participation in the diet (21.2%) in favor of the professionals (p<0.05). Significant differentiation was between the groups in the amount of consumed fats (p<0.05). In case of resistance trainings time, energy expenditure and number of trainings were higher for professionals (p<0.05). Bodybuilders feature better developed muscle mass of extremities and a smaller share of percentage of fat mass in body composition in comparison to amateurs. Professional bodybuilders consume proper amount of carbohydrates and fats and significantly higher level of protein, fiber and energy in diet compared to amateur group. In contrary, higher intake of fats is typical for amateur bodybuilders.

Competitive Bodybuilding: Fitness, Pathology, or Both?

The sport of competitive bodybuilding requires an intense regimen of weightlifting and dieting, often aided with muscle-building or fat-burning drugs, and culminating in an on-stage posing competition. Despite these rigorous demands, competitive bodybuilding is popular, with thousands of competitions performed annually around the world. Although many studies have addressed the psychological features of various sports and the athletes who compete in them, few have examined the psychological aspects of bodybuilding. Even fewer studies have specifically examined competitive bodybuilders, as opposed to the much larger group of "recreational" bodybuilders who do not compete. The limited available literature suggests that competitive bodybuilders may show an increased risk for four categories of psychopathology: muscle dysmorphia, eating disorders, abuse of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs, and exercise dependence. However, in each of these categories, one must carefully distinguish between the planned and dedicated behaviors required for success in the sport, as opposed to frankly pathological behaviors that impair social or occupational function, cause subjective distress, or lead to adverse health consequences. Future work should attempt to better assess the nature and prevalence of these conditions among competitive bodybuilders, with perhaps greatest attention to the issue of drug use.

Physiological, Psychological and Performance-Related Changes Following Physique Competition: A Case-Series

The purpose of this case-series was to evaluate the physiological, psychological and performance-related changes that occur during the postcompetition period. Participants included three male (34.3 ± 6.8 years, 181.6 ± 8.9 cm) and four female (29.3 ± 4.9 years, 161.4 ± 6.0 cm) natural physique athletes. Body composition (fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM); Skinfold), resting metabolic rate (RMR; indirect calorimetry), total body water (TBW; bioelectrical impedance analysis), sleep quality (PSQI; Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index), quality of life measures (RAND SF36), menstrual irregularities, and knee extension performance were assessed 1-2 weeks prior to competition, and 4 weeks and 8-10 weeks postcompetition. Blood hormones (free triiodothyronine; T₃, free thyroxine; T₄, and leptin) were assessed at 1-2 weeks prior to competition and 8-10 weeks postcompetition. Participants tracked daily macronutrient intake daily for the duration of the study. Group-level data were analyzed using exploratory, one-tailed, nonparametric statistical tests. Bodyweight, FM, bodyfat%, RMR, and blood hormones (T₃, T₄, and leptin) increased significantly (p < 0.05) at the group level. Relative (%Δ) increases in fat mass were associated with △RMR (τ = 0.90; p = 0.001) and △leptin (τ = 0.68; p = 0.02), and △leptin was associated with △RMR (τ = 0.59; p = 0.03). The time course for recovery appears to vary substantially between individuals potentially due to strategies implemented postcompetition.

Nutritional Recommendations for Physique Athletes

The popularity of physique sports is increasing, yet there are currently few comprehensive nutritional guidelines for these athletes. Physique sport now encompasses more than just a short phase before competition and offseason guidelines have recently been published. Therefore, the goal of this review is to provide an extensive guide for male and female physique athletes in the contest preparation and recovery period. As optimal protein intake is largely related to one’s skeletal muscle mass, current evidence supports a range of 1.8-2.7 g/kg. Furthermore, as a benefit from having adequate carbohydrate to fuel performance and activity, low-end fat intake during contest preparation of 10-25% of calories allows for what calories remain in the “energy budget” to come from carbohydrate to mitigate the negative impact of energy restriction and weight loss on training performance. For nutrient timing, we recommend consuming four or five protein boluses per day with one consumed near training and one prior to sleep. During competition periods, slower rates of weight loss (≤0.5% of body mass per week) are preferable for attenuating the loss of fat-free mass with the use of intermittent energy restriction strategies, such as diet breaks and refeeds, being possibly beneficial. Additionally, physiological and psychological factors are covered, and potential best-practice guidelines are provided for disordered eating and body image concerns since physique athletes present with higher incidences of these issues, which may be potentially exacerbated by certain traditional physique practices. We also review common peaking practices, and the critical transition to the post-competition period.

Effects of Different Dietary Energy Intake Following Resistance Training on Muscle Mass and Body Fat in Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of different amounts of energy intake in combination with progressive resistance training on muscle mass and body fat in bodybuilders. Eleven male bodybuilders (26.8 ± 2.3 years, 90.1 ± 9.7 kg, and 176.9 ± 7.1 cm) were randomly assigned into one of two groups: a group that ingested higher amounts of energy (G1, 67.5 ± 1.7 kcal/kg/d, n = 6), and a group that ingested moderate amounts of energy (G2, 50.1 ± 0.51 kcal/kg/d, n = 5). Both groups performed resistance training 6 days per week over a 4-week study period. Measures of body composition were assessed before and after the intervention period. For body fat, only the G1 presented significant changes from pre- to post-training (G1 = +7.4% vs. G2 = +0.8%). For muscle mass, both groups showed significant increases after the intervention period, with G1 presenting a greater increase compared to G2 (G1 = +2.7% vs. G2 = +1.1%). Results suggest that greater energy intake in combination with resistance training induces greater increases in both muscle mass and body fat in competitive male bodybuilders.

A Narrative Review on Female Physique Athletes: The Physiological and Psychological Implications of Weight Management Practices

Physique competitions are events in which aesthetic appearance and posing ability are valued above physical performance. Female physique athletes are required to possess high lean body mass and extremely low fat mass in competition. As such, extended periods of reduced energy intake and intensive training regimens are used with acute weight loss practices at the end of the precompetition phase. This represents an increased risk for chronic low energy availability and associated symptoms of relative energy deficiency in sport, compromising both psychological and physiological health. Available literature suggests that a large proportion of female physique athletes report menstrual irregularities (e.g., amenorrhea and oligomenorrhea), which are unlikely to normalize immediately postcompetition. Furthermore, the tendency to reduce intakes of numerous essential micronutrients is prominent among those using restrictive eating patterns. Following competition, reduced resting metabolic rate, and hyperphagia, is also a concern for these female athletes, which can result in frequent weight cycling, distorted body image, and disordered eating/eating disorders. Overall, female physique athletes are an understudied population, and the need for more robust studies to detect low energy availability and associated health effects is warranted. This narrative review aims to define the natural female physique athlete, explore some of the physiological and psychological implications of weight management practices experienced by female physique athletes, and propose future research directions.

Validation of the Athlete's Plate Nutrition Educational Tool: Phase I

Nutrition education visual tools are designed to help the general population translate science into practice. The purpose of this study was to validate the Athlete's Plate (AP) to ensure that it meets the current sport nutrition recommendations for athletes. Twelve registered dietitians (RDs; 10 female and 2 male) volunteered for the study. Each registered dietitian was asked to create three real and virtual plates at three different times corresponding to breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and the three different AP training loads, easy (E), moderate (M), and hard (H), divided into two weight categories (male 75 kg and female 60 kg). Data of the real and virtual plates were evaluated using Computrition software (v. 18.1; Computrition, Chatsworth, CA). Statistical analyses were conducted by SPSS (version 23.0; IBM, Armonk, NY) to compare the difference between each training load category (E, M, and H) and the recommendations. No statistically significant differences were found among the created plates and the recommendations for energy, carbohydrates, fat, and fiber for E, M, and H. Protein relative to body mass (BM) was higher than recommended for E (1.9 ± 0.3 g·kg-1 BM·day-1, p = .003), M (2.3 ± 0.3 g·kg-1 BM·day-1, p < .001), and H (2.9+0.5 g·kg-1 BM·day-1, p < .001). No differences were found for the macronutrient distribution by gender when correcting for kilograms of body mass. The authors conclude that the AP meets the nutrition recommendations for athletes at different training intensities for energy, carbohydrates, fat, and fiber, but exceeds the recommendations for protein. Further research should consider this protein discrepancy and develop an AP model that meets, besides health and performance goals, contemporary guidelines for sustainability.

Nutritional strategies of British professional and amateur natural bodybuilders during competition preparation

BACKGROUND

To prepare for competition, bodybuilders employ strategies based around: energy restriction, resistance training, cardiovascular exercise, isometric "posing", and supplementation. Cohorts of professional (PRO) natural bodybuilders offer insights into how these strategies are implemented by elite competitors, and are undocumented in the scientific literature.

METHODS

Forty-seven competitors (33 male (8 PRO, 25 amateur (AMA), 14 female (5 PRO, 9 AMA) participated in the study. All PROs were eligible to compete with the Drug Free Athletes Coalition (DFAC), and all AMAs were recruited from the British Natural Bodybuilding Federation (BNBF). Competitors in these organisations are subject to a polygraph and are drug tested in accordance with the World Anti-Doping Agency. We report the results of a cross-sectional study of drug free bodybuilders competing at BNBF qualifying events, and the DFAC and World Natural Bodybuilding Federation finals. Participants completed a 34-item questionnaire assessing dietary intake at three time points (start, middle and end) of competition preparation. Participants recorded their food intake over a 24-h period in grams and/or portions. Dietary intakes of PRO and AMA competitors were then compared. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to test if nutrient intake changed over time, and for associations with division.

RESULTS

Male PROs reported significantly (p < 0.05) more bodybuilding experience than AMAs (PRO: 12.3 +/- 9.2, AMA: 2.4 +/- 1.4 yrs). Male PROs lost less body mass per week (PRO: 0.5 +/- 0.1, AMA: 0.7 +/- 0.2%, p < 0.05), and reported more weeks dieting (PRO: 28.1 +/- 8.1, AMA: 21.0 +/- 9.4 wks, P = 0.06). Significant differences (p < 0.05) of carbohydrate and energy were also recorded, as well as a difference (p = 0.03) in the estimated energy deficit (EED), between male PRO (2.0 +/- 5.5 kcal) and AMA (- 3.4 +/- 5.5 kcal) competitors.

CONCLUSIONS

Longer diets and slower weight loss utilized by PROs likely contributed towards a lower EED compared to the AMAs. Slower weight loss may constitute an effective strategy for maintaining energy availability and muscle mass during an energy deficit. These findings require corroboration, but will interest bodybuilders and coaches.

Towards a Sustainable Nutrition Paradigm in Physique Sport: A Narrative Review

Physique athletes strive for low body fat with high lean mass and have higher body image and eating disorder rates than the general population, and even other weightlifting populations. Whether athletes with a background or tendency to develop these issues are drawn to the sport, or whether it drives these higher incidences, is unknown. However, the biological drive of cyclical energy restriction may contribute to binge-eating behavior. Additionally, requisite monitoring, manipulation, comparison, and judgement of one's physique may contribute to body image concerns. Contest preparation necessitates manipulating body composition through energy restriction and increased expenditure, requiring dietary restraint and nutrition, exercise, and physique assessment. Thus, competitors are at mental health risk due to (1) pre-existing or predispositions to develop body image or eating disorders; (2) biological effects of energy restriction on eating psychology; and (3) dietary restraint attitudes and resultant physique, exercise, and nutrition monitoring behavior. In our narrative review we cover each factor, concluding with tentative best-practice recommendations, including dietary flexibility, slower weight loss, structured monitoring, gradual returns to offseason energy intakes, internal eating cues, appropriate offseason body compositions, and support from nutrition and mental health professionals. A mental health focus is a needed paradigm shift in bodybuilding nutrition practice and research.

Nutrition Recommendations for Bodybuilders in the Off-Season: A Narrative Review

Many nutrition practices often used by bodybuilders lack scientific support and can be detrimental to health. Recommendations during the dieting phase are provided in the scientific literature, but little attention has been devoted to bodybuilders during the off-season phase. During the off-season phase, the goal is to increase muscle mass without adding unnecessary body fat. This review evaluated the scientific literature and provides nutrition and dietary supplement recommendations for natural bodybuilders during the off-season phase. A hyper-energetic diet (~10–20%) should be consumed with a target weight gain of ~0.25–0.5% of bodyweight/week for novice/intermediate bodybuilders. Advanced bodybuilders should be more conservative with the caloric surplus and weekly weight gain. Sufficient protein (1.6–2.2 g/kg/day) should be consumed with optimal amounts 0.40–0.55 g/kg per meal and distributed evenly throughout the day (3–6 meals) including within 1–2 hours pre- and post-training. Fat should be consumed in moderate amounts (0.5–1.5 g/kg/day). Remaining calories should come from carbohydrates with focus on consuming sufficient amounts (≥3–5 g/kg/day) to support energy demands from resistance exercise. Creatine monohydrate (3–5 g/day), caffeine (5–6 mg/kg), beta-alanine (3–5 g/day) and citrulline malate (8 g/day) might yield ergogenic effects that can be beneficial for bodybuilders.

Should Competitive Bodybuilders Ingest More Protein than Current Evidence-Based Recommendations?

Bodybuilding is an aesthetic sport whereby competitors aspire to achieve a combination of high levels of muscularity combined with low levels of body fat. Protein is an important macronutrient for promoting muscle growth, and meeting daily needs is necessary to optimize the accretion of lean mass. Current recommendations for muscle hypertrophy suggest a relative protein intake ranging from 1.4 g/kg/day up to 2.0 g/kg/day is required for those involved in resistance training. However, research indicates that the actual ingestion of protein in competitive bodybuilders is usually greater than advocated in guidelines. The purpose of this current opinion article is to critically evaluate the evidence on whether higher intakes of protein are warranted in competitive bodybuilders. We conclude that competitive bodybuilders may benefit from consuming a higher protein intake than what is generally prescribed for recreationally trained lifters; however, the paucity of direct research in this population makes it difficult to draw strong conclusions on the topic.

Evaluation and Behavior of Spanish Bodybuilders: Doping and Sports Supplements

The use of doping agents has these days become a public health problem, as it also affects young and non-competitive amateurs in different sports. To prepare for competition, bodybuilders perform aggressive dietary protocols, so, bodybuilders frequently consume nutritional supplements (NS) and banned substances in large dosages. Thus, the aim of this study is to analyze the prevalence of banned substances consumption and NS intake in competitive level bodybuilders. A total of 48 bodybuilders (44 males and 4 females) completed a validated online questionnaire on NS consumption. The quantitative data was presented as a mean (M) ± standard deviation (SD), as well as having minimum and maximum values. The categorical variables were expressed using frequencies and percentages. 83.3% of the participants declared that they had consumed or would consume banned substances, the most consumed being anabolic steroids (72.9%). One hundred percent of those sampled use NS. Whey protein (96%), branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) (94%), creatine (85%) and vitamin complexes (83%) were the most consumed, however, there is a low consumption of certain NS which could also increase athletic performance.

Satiating Effect of High Protein Diets on Resistance-Trained Subjects in Energy Deficit

Short-term energy deficit strategies are practiced by weight class and physique athletes, often involving high protein intakes to maximize satiety and maintain lean mass despite a paucity of research. This study compared the satiating effect of two protein diets on resistance-trained individuals during short-term energy deficit. Following ethical approval, 16 participants (age: 28 ± 2 years; height: 1.72 ± 0.03 m; body-mass: 88.83 ± 5.54 kg; body-fat: 21.85 ± 1.82%) were randomly assigned to 7-days moderate (PRO_MOD: 1.8 g·kg^-1·d^-1) or high protein (PRO_HIGH: 2.9 g·kg^-1·d^-1) matched calorie-deficit diets in a cross-over design. Daily satiety responses were recorded throughout interventions. Pre-post diet, plasma ghrelin and peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY), and satiety ratings were assessed in response to a protein-rich meal. Only perceived satisfaction was significantly greater following PRO_HIGH (67.29 ± 4.28 v 58.96 ± 4.51 mm, p = 0.04). Perceived cravings increased following PRO_MOD only (46.25 ± 4.96 to 57.60 ± 4.41 mm, p = 0.01). Absolute ghrelin concentration significantly reduced post-meal following PRO_MOD (972.8 ± 130.4 to 613.6 ± 114.3 pg·mL^-1; p = 0.003), remaining lower than PRO_HIGH at 2 h (-0.40 ± 0.06 v -0.26 ± 0.06 pg·mL^-1 normalized relative change; p = 0.015). Absolute PYY concentration increased to a similar extent post-meal (PRO_MOD: 84.9 ± 8.9 to 147.1 ± 11.9 pg·mL^-1, PRO_HIGH: 100.6 ± 9.5 to 143.3 ± 12.0 pg·mL^-1; p < 0.001), but expressed as relative change difference was significantly greater for PRO_MOD at 2 h (+0.39 ± 0.20 pg·mL^-1 v -0.28 ± 0.12 pg·mL^-1; p = 0.001). Perceived hunger, fullness and satisfaction post-meal were comparable between diets (p > 0.05). However, desire to eat remained significantly blunted for PRO_MOD (p = 0.048). PRO_HIGH does not confer additional satiating benefits in resistance-trained individuals during short-term energy deficit. Ghrelin and PYY responses to a test-meal support the contention that satiety was maintained following PRO_MOD, although athletes experiencing negative symptoms (i.e., cravings) may benefit from protein-rich meals as opposed to over-consumption of protein.

Nutritional Peak Week and Competition Day Strategies of Competitive Natural Bodybuilders

Bodybuilders utilize peaking strategies in a bid to fine-tune their aesthetics for competition day. The most prevalent peaking strategies utilized by natural bodybuilders are unreported in the current literature. Eighty-one (M-59, F-22) natural bodybuilders were recruited from competitions during the 2016 and 2017 British Natural Bodybuilder Federation seasons. Competitors completed a 34-item questionnaire designed to investigate peaking and contest day strategies. The questionnaire listed commonly utilized peaking strategies and provided additional space for qualitative information. Analysis of the data indicated that carbohydrate (CHO), water, and sodium manipulation were the most commonly utilized peaking strategies. The consumption of high glycemic index CHO was the most common competition day strategy. Only 6.2% of competitors reported following their regular diet the week prior to competition. The CHO manipulation strategies followed were similar to classical CHO loading, whereby bodybuilders attempt to maximize muscle glycogen concentrations. Furthermore, bodybuilders attempted to remove superfluous water by exploiting the diuretic/polyuria effect associated with water loading/restriction. The potentially deleterious effects of peaking on bodybuilders' health is considered and the efficacy of these strategies to enhance appearance is discussed. The findings of the present investigation are likely to be of interest to bodybuilders and their coaches.

Carbohydrate restriction: Friend or foe of resistance-based exercise performance?

It is commonly accepted that adequate carbohydrate availability is necessary for optimal endurance performance. However, for strength- and physique-based athletes, sports nutrition research and recommendations have focused on protein ingestion, with far less attention given to carbohydrates. Varying resistance exercise protocols, such as differences in intensity, volume, and intraset rest prescriptions between strength-training and physique-training goals elicit different metabolic responses, which may necessitate different carbohydrate needs. The results of several acute and chronic training studies suggest that although severe carbohydrate restriction may not impair strength adaptations during a resistance training program, consuming an adequate amount of carbohydrate in the days leading up to testing may enhance maximal strength and strength-endurance performance. Although several molecular studies demonstrate no additive increases in postexercise mammalian target of rapamycin 1 phosphorylation with carbohydrate and protein compared with protein ingestion alone, the effects of chronic resistance training with carbohydrate restriction on muscle hypertrophy are conflicting and require further research to determine a minimal carbohydrate threshold necessary to optimize muscle hypertrophy. This review summarizes the current knowledge regarding carbohydrate availability and resistance training outcomes and poses new research questions that will better help guide carbohydrate recommendations for strength and physique athletes. In addition, given that success in physique sports is based on subjective appearance, and not objective physical performance, we also review the effects of subchronic carbohydrate ingestion during contest preparation on aesthetic appearance.

Oxidative stress, inflammation, psychological status, and severity of respiratory infections are negatively affected during the pre-contest period in amateur bodybuilders

We examined whether off-season (OffS) and pre-contest (PreC) periods affect blood oxidative stress, inflammatory, immunological, and psychological markers in 20 bodybuilders. The athletes recorded their food intake (3-day record), physical activities, mood states (Profile of Mood States, POMS), recovery-stress (Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes, RESTQ-Sport), and upper respiratory symptoms (Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey, WURSS-21), and blood was obtained for biochemical analysis. Almost all athletes were in positive energy balance during OffS, while bodybuilders presented markedly restricted energy intake (∼45%) leading to loss of weight (-9%) and fat mass (-45%) with preservation of fat-free mass in PreC. Protein intake was high during both periods, while lipid and carbohydrate intakes were reduced ∼50% in PreC. Almost all athletes consumed 100% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for micronutrients in OffS, while 45% and 75% of the athletes had intakes below the RDA for vitamins A and E in PreC. Oxidative damage to lipids (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TBARS), protein carbonyls, and the TBARS/total antioxidant capacity ratio increased in PreC (32%, 27%, 60%), as did plasma tumor necrosis factor α (4-fold) and WURSS-21 scores (25%). There were no significant changes in serum catalase, glutathione reductase, and superoxide dismutase activities nor in interleukin 1β and immunoglobulins. In PreC, POMS showed negative changes in vigor (-20%), fatigue (23%), and total mood disturbance (35%), and RESTQ-Sport showed alterations for general and sport stress (34% and 50%, respectively) and sport recovery (-23%). Thus, PreC negatively affects nutrient intake, which may worsen oxidative stress, inflammation, psychological status, and the severity of respiratory infections in bodybuilders.

A Comparison of the Nutrient Intakes of Macronutrient-Based Dieting and Strict Dieting Bodybuilders

The purpose of this study was to provide a descriptive assessment of the nutritional habits of competitive bodybuilders and compare the nutrient intakes of macronutrient-based dieting and strict dieting individuals. Data from 41 subjects (30 males and 11 females) were used in analyses. Participants completed a comprehensive food frequency questionnaire, and diets were analyzed using a computer system. Males consumed an average of 2,577.2 kcal (SD = 955.1), with an average fat intake of 83.6 g (SD = 41.3), an average carbohydrate intake of 323.3 g (SD = 105.2), and an average protein intake of 163.4 g (SD = 70.4). There were no significant differences between male macronutrient-based dieting and strict dieting bodybuilders when mean intakes were compared for all nutrients, including the macronutrients, selected vitamins and minerals, dietary fiber, added sugars, and saturated fat. Females in this study consumed an average of 1,794 kcal (SD = 453.1), with an average fat intake of 58.3 g (SD = 23.1), a mean carbohydrate intake of 217.8 g (SD = 85.9), and an average protein intake of 103.8 g (SD = 35.7). For females, macronutrient-based dieters consumed significantly greater amounts of several nutrients, including protein, vitamin E, vitamin K, and vitamin C. Over half of individuals from all groups consumed less than the recommended amounts of several of the micronutrients. Based on this information, it is recommended that competitive bodybuilders should be advised to take their micronutrition into greater consideration.

Physiological implications of preparing for a natural male bodybuilding competition

This study aimed to describe the body composition and physiological changes which take place during the in-season and recovery periods of a group of natural bodybuilders. Natural male bodybuilders (n = 9) were assessed 16 (PRE16), 8 (PRE8), and 1 (PRE1) week(s) before, and 4 (POST4) weeks after a bodybuilding competition. Assessments included body composition, resting metabolic rate (RMR), serum hormones, and 7-day weighed food and training diaries. Change in parameters was assessed using repeated-measures analysis of variance. Dietary protein intake remained high throughout the study period (2.8-3.1 g kg^-1 d^-1). Fat mass (FM) was significantly reduced from PRE16 to PRE1 (8.8 ± 3.1 vs. 5.3 ± 2.4 kg, P < .01). There was a small decrease in lean mass (LM) from PRE8 to PRE1 (71.8 ± 9.1 vs. 70.9 ± 9.1 kg, P < .05). No changes in RMR were observed (P > .05). Large reductions in total and free testosterone (16.4 ± 4.4 vs. 10.1 ± 3.6 nmol L^-1, P < .05; 229.3 ± 72.4 vs. 116.8 ± 76.9 pmol L^-1, P < .05), and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) (27.0 ± 7.7 vs. 19.9 ± 7.6 nmol L^-1, P < .05) occurred between PRE16 and PRE1. LM and IGF-1 increased from PRE1 to POST4 (70.9 ± 9.1 vs. 72.5 ± 8.5 kg, P < .05; 19.9 ± 7.6 vs. 25.4 ± 9.3 nmol L^-1, P < .05). Despite substantial reductions in FM, participants maintained almost all of their LM. The reduction in anabolic hormone concentration is likely attributable to the prolonged negative energy balance, despite a high dietary protein intake.