Has Athletic Performance Reached its Peak?

Analysis of sports records evolution and limits based on integrated features

Sports records play a crucial role in understanding the limits of human achievement in sports. However, a thorough exploration of a comprehensive analysis of various sports records utilizing the existing statistical model has been lacking. This study introduces a framework for analyzing the integrated features and evolutionary trends of 23 sports records for men and women. It includes world records and intercontinental records from six continents, covering 6440 athletes from 2001 to 2020. Our findings indicate that human beings have not yet reached sports limits in athletic performance, suggesting a continuous improvement over time. Furthermore, we have investigated the contributions of our model's parameters to the integrated features, emphasizing their robustness and convergence in handling data flow and information entropy. Additionally, our model underscores the significance of integrating various sports for ongoing advancement, in line with the Olympic motto "Together," thereby promoting coordinated development.

Building on muscles: how built environment design impacts modern sports science

Sports science focuses on enhancing athletes' performance, requiring a multifaceted approach. It is evolving from a purely muscle-centred approach to an interdisciplinary one. This paper investigates built environment design science, a dimension less explored in relation to enhancing athlete performance in sports science. The discussion is divided into three categories: athlete-centric training built environment design, enhanced fan and community engagement, and improved integrative accessibility. The study also identifies future research directions, including evidence of the relative impact of the built environment, financial aspects, and performance evaluation methods. Collaboration between sports scientists and scholars in urban design, parks, transportation, landscape architecture and environmental psychology is necessary to advance this topic further.

The potential impact of advanced footwear technology on the recent evolution of elite sprint performances

Background

Elite track and field sprint performances have reached a point of stability as we near the limits of human physiology, and further significant improvements may require technological intervention. Following the widely reported performance benefits of new advanced footwear technology (AFT) in road-running events, similar innovations have since been applied to sprint spikes in hope of providing similar performance enhancing benefits. However, it is not yet clear based on current evidence whether there have been subsequent improvements in sprint performance. Therefore, the aims of this study were to establish if there have been recent year-to-year improvements in the times of the annual top 100 and top 20 athletes in the men's and women's sprint events, and to establish if there is an association between the extensive use of AFT and potential recent improvements in sprint performances.

Methods

For the years 2016-19 and 2021-2022, the season best performances of the top 100 athletes in each sprint event were extracted from the World Athletics Top lists. Independent t-tests with Holm corrections were performed using the season's best performance of the top 100 and top 20 athletes in each year to identify significant differences between years for each sprint discipline. Following the classification of shoes worn by the top 20 athletes in each event during their annual best race (AFT or non-AFT), separate linear mixed-model regressions were performed to determine the influence of AFT on performance times.

Results

For the top 100 and top 20 athletes, there were no significant differences year-to-year in any sprint event prior to the release of AFT (2016-2019). There were significant differences between AFT years (2021 or 2022) and pre-AFT years (2016-2019) in eight out of 10 events. These differences ranged from a 0.40% improvement (men's 100 m) to a 1.52% improvement (women's 400 m hurdles). In the second analysis, multiple linear mixed model regressions revealed that the use of AFT was associated with improved performance in six out of ten events, including the men's and women's 100 m, women's 200 m, men's 110 m hurdles, women's 100 m hurdles and women's 400 m hurdles (estimate range: -0.037 - 0.521, p = <0.001 - 0.021). Across both analyses, improvements were more pronounced in women's sprint events than men's sprint events.

Conclusion

Following a period of stability, there were significant improvements in most sprint events which may be partly explained by advances in footwear technology. These improvements appear to be mediated by event, sex and potentially level of athlete.

Acute effects of caffeine supplementation on taekwondo performance: the influence of competition level and sex

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of acute caffeine supplementation on physical performance and perceived exertion during taekwondo-specific tasks in male and female athletes with varying expertise. In a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover study design, 52 young athletes from elite (n = 32; 16 males and 16 females) and sub-elite competitive level (n = 20; 10 males and 10 females) participated. Athletes performed taekwondo-specific tasks including the taekwondo-specific agility test (TSAT), 10 s frequency speed of kick test (FSKT-10 s) and multi-bout FSKT (FSKT-multi) under the following conditions: (1) Caffeine (CAF; 3 mg kg-1), placebo (PLA), and no supplement control (CON). Session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE) was determined after the tests. Findings show that regardless of condition, males performed better than females (p < 0.05) and elite athletes had superior performance compared to their sub-elite counterparts (p < 0.05). For the TSAT (p < 0.001), FSKT-10s (p < 0.001), and FSKT-multi (p < 0.001), CAF enhanced performance in elite female athletes compared to sub-elite females. Likewise, CAF ingestion resulted in superior performance in elite males compared to sub-elite males for FSKT-10s (p = 0.003) and FSKT-multi (p < 0.01). The ergogenic potential of CAF during taekwondo-specific tasks appears to be related to a competitive level, with greater benefits in elite than sub-elite athletes.

Where are the fastest master butterfly swimmers competing in the FINA World Masters Championships from?

While the butterfly stroke has received considerable attention in sports science, the origin of the fastest master butterfly swimmers remains unknown. The present study investigated which geographical locations produce the top-performing master butterfly swimmers within their age groups and gender. A total of 26,512 master butterfly swimmers (11,288 women and 15,224 men) competed in 50 m, 100 m and 200 m races in World Masters Championships held between 1986 and 2019. From each swimmer, the year of competition, first name, last name, age group and distance were recorded. Descriptive data were presented using mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values, and/or confidence intervals. The top 10 race times for master butterfly swimming and gender were identified for descriptive purposes. Nationalities were then grouped into six categories: the top five nationalities with the most appearances in the top 10 fastest times in butterfly swimming by distance each year and one group consisting of all other nationalities. In the event of a tie, the nationality with the most participants overall was selected. Generalized linear models (GLMs) with a gamma probability distribution and log link function were used to assess the effect of age groups and gender on swimming time. In summary, Germany had the fastest women butterfly master swimmers across all distances, while the USA had the fastest men butterfly master swimmers for all distances. Men covered all distances faster than women and younger swimmers were quicker than older swimmers. The results of this study can be utilized to determine the countries that produce the most successful master butterfly swimmers, providing a foundation for further research to explore the factors that lead to their success.

Kinanthropometric Characteristic Comparisons of NCAA Division I Offensive and Defensive Linemen Spanning 8 Decades

ABSTRACT

Jacobson, BH, Dawes, J, Smith, D, and Johnson, Q. Kinanthropometric characteristic comparisons of NCAA Division I offensive and defensive linemen spanning eight decades. J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3404-3408, 2022-College football players have gained body mass, stature, and speed since the inception of the game. Of particular note is the body mass gain of NCAA Division I offensive linemen (OL) and defensive linemen (DL). The primary purpose of this study was to compare body mass and stature of OL and DL for each decade since 1950 and to subsequently compare speed using more recently available NFL Combine data to determine if the rates of gain have been consistent or is waning. Ten universities were randomly chosen from the "Power Five" conferences based on the prominence of their football programs. Recorded data included players' body mass, stature, and available 40 yd times. For each team, 8 OL and 8 DL were chosen, totaling 80 OL and 80 DL. Results indicated that body mass increased significantly ( p < 0.05) for both OL and DL (57.9 and 54.4%, respectively). However, the rate of weight gain for either OL or DL was not linear. Both OL and DL consistently increased in height from 1950 with OL and DL increasing 12.7 cm (5.0 in) and 11.4 cm (4.7 in), respectively. In addition, 40 yd times have improved over the 3 available decades (2000-2020). The 2020 times were significantly faster than the 2000 for both OL and DL. These findings may have profound implications related to player safety. The overall increases in body mass of linemen in combination with greater speed may result in have devastating consequences to the human body in a contact/collision sport such as football. Indeed, new rules are being considered to reduce debilitating injures.

Physiology and Performance Prospects of a Women's Sub-4-Minute Mile

When will women run a sub-4-minute mile? The answer seems to be a distant future given how women's progress has plateaued in the mile, or its better studied metric placeholder, the 1500 m. When commonly accepted energetics principles of running, along with useful field validation equations of the same, are applied to probe the physiology underpinning the 10 all-time best women's mile performances, insights gained may help explain the present 12.34-second shortfall. Insights also afford estimates of how realistic improvements in the metabolic cost of running could shrink the difference and bring the women's world record closer to the fabled 4-minute mark. As with men in the early 1950s, this might stir greater interest, excitement, participation, and depth in the women's mile, the present absence of which likely contributes to more pessimistic mathematical modeling forecasts. The purpose of this invited commentary is to provide a succinct, theoretical, but intuitive explanation for how women might get closer to their own watershed moment in the mile.

Acute Effects of Caffeine Supplementation on Physical Performance, Physiological Responses, Perceived Exertion, and Technical-Tactical Skills in Combat Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Although the effects of caffeine supplementation on combat sports performance have been extensively investigated, there is currently no consensus regarding its ergogenic benefits.This systematic review with meta-analysis aimed to summarize the studies investigating the effects of caffeine supplementation on different aspects of performance in combat sports and to quantitatively analyze the results of these studies to better understand the ergogenic effect of caffeine on combat sports outcomes. A systematic search for randomized placebo-controlled studies investigating the effects of caffeine supplementation on combat sports’ performance was performed through Scopus, Pubmed, Web of Science and Cochrane Library databases up to 18 April 2022. Random-effects meta-analyses of standardized mean differences (Hedge’s g) were performed to analyze the data. Twenty-six studies of good and excellent methodological quality (based on the Pedro scale) fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis results revealed caffeine has a small but evident effect size (ES) on handgrip strength (ES = 0.28; 95% CI: 0.04 to 0.52; p = 0.02), and total number of throws during the special judo fitness test (SJFT) (ES = 0.42; 95% CI: 0.06 to 0.78; p = 0.02). Regarding the physiological responses, caffeine increased blood lactate concentration ([La]) in anaerobic exercise (ES = 1.23; 95% CI: 0.29 to 2.18; p = 0.01) and simulated combat (ES = 0.91; 95% CI: 0.34 to 1.47; p = 0.002). For Heart Rate (HR), caffeine increased HR final (ES = 0.31; 95% CI: 0.11 to 0.52; p = 0.003), and HR 1min (ES = 0.20; 95% CI 0.004 to 0.40; p = 0.045). However, caffeine had no impact on the countermovement jump height, the SJFT index, the judogi strength-endurance test, the number and duration of offensive actions, HR at the end of the fight, and the rating of perceived exertion. Caffeine supplementation may be ergogenic for a range of combat sports aspects involving isometric strength, anaerobic power, reaction time, and anaerobic metabolism. However, supplementation effects might be ineffective under certain circumstances, indicating supplementation needs to take into account the performance metric in question prior to creating a dosing protocol.

Performance of Athletes With Visual Impairment in Track-and-Field Events at the Paralympic Games, From 1988 to 2016

Introduction: The Paralympic movement has grown considerably over the last decades, but few studies have analyzed the performance evolution of the best athletes with disabilities. This study examined the performance of athletes with visual impairments in track-and-field events over eight Paralympic Games (1988–2016). Method: Results in the Paralympic track-and-field events for athletes with visual impairments (and in the corresponding track-and-field Olympic events) were collected from official public websites. Results: Analysis showed that most performances at Paralympic track-and-field events increased linearly over the years, which finding contrasts with the general stagnation in Olympic events. The improvements from 1988 to 2016 in Paralympic sprinting, middle- and long-distance running, throwing, and long-jumping events were 4.0–16.3%, 3.2–16.2%, 23.0–54.2%, and 4.9–18.9%, respectively. Men had better performances than women in running, throwing, and jumping events. In general, sports classes with a less severe level of visual impairment achieved higher performance levels than those with a more severe level of visual impairment, especially men. The competition density of Paralympic track-and-field events showed modest improvements. Conclusions: This study provides evidence that the performance of track-and-field athletes with visual impairments have been improving persistently over the last eight Paralympic Games, confirming that Paralympic athletes are achieving high-level performances. Implications for Practitioners: This study will be helpful for coaches and athletes with visual impairments who are setting performance (and training) goals for the Paralympic Games and other international athletic events.

Expanding the Gap: An Updated Look Into Sex Differences in Running Performance

Males consistently outperform females in athletic endeavors, including running events of standard Olympic distances (100 m to Marathon). The magnitude of this percentage sex difference, i.e., the sex gap, has evolved over time. Two clear trends in sex gap evolution are evident; a narrowing of the gap during the 20th century, followed by a period of stability thereafter. However, an updated perspective on the average sex gap from top 20 athlete performances over the past two decades reveals nuanced trends over time, indicating the sex gap is not fixed. Additionally, the sex gap varies with performance level; the difference in absolute running performance between males and females is lowest for world record/world lead performances and increases in lower-ranked elite athletes. This observation of an increased sex gap with world rank is evident in events 400 m and longer and indicates a lower depth in female competitive standards. Explanations for the sex difference in absolute performance and competition depth include physical (physiological, anatomical, neuromuscular, biomechanical), sociocultural, psychological, and sport-specific factors. It is apparent that females are the disadvantaged sex in sport; therefore, measures should be taken to reduce this discrepancy and enable both sexes to reach their biological performance potential. There is scope to narrow the sex performance gap by addressing inequalities between the sexes in opportunities, provisions, incentives, attitudes/perceptions, research, and media representation.

Predicting Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke Results in Swimming Based on Olympics History

Here we describe historic variations in Olympic breaststroke and butterfly performance and predict swimming results for the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The results of the finalists, winners, and last participants in the women’s and men’s finals were analyzed, and a mathematical predictive model was created. The predicted times for the future Olympics were presented. Swimming performance among Olympians has been steadily improving, with record times of 18.51 s for female finalists in the 100 m butterfly (a 24.63% improvement) and 31.33 s for male finalists in the 200 m butterfly (21.44%). The results in all analyzed groups showed improvement in athletic performance, and the gap between the finalists has narrowed. Women Olympians’ performances have improved faster than men’s, reducing the gap between genders. We conclude that swimming performance among Olympians is continuing to improve.

Effects of acute ingestion of caffeinated chewing gum on performance in elite judo athletes

Purpose

Previous investigations have found positive effects of acute ingestion of capsules containing 4-to-9 mg of caffeine per kg of body mass on several aspects of judo performance. However, no previous investigation has tested the effectiveness of caffeinated chewing gum as the form of caffeine administration for judoists. The main goal of this study was to assess the effect of acute ingestion of a caffeinated chewing gum on the results of the special judo fitness test (SJFT).

Methods

Nine male elite judo athletes of the Polish national team (23.7 ± 4.4 years, body mass: 73.5 ± 7.4 kg) participated in a randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled and double-blind experiment. Participants were moderate caffeine consumers (3.1 mg/kg/day). Each athlete performed three identical experimental sessions after: (a) ingestion of two non-caffeinated chewing gums (P + P); (b) a caffeinated chewing gum and a placebo chewing gum (C + P; ~2.7 mg/kg); (c) two caffeinated chewing gums (C + C; ~5.4 mg/kg). Each gum was ingested 15 min before performing two Special Judo Fitness Test (SJFT) which were separated by 4 min of combat activity.

Results

The total number of throws was not different between P + P, C + P, and C + C (59.66 ± 4.15, 62.22 ± 4.32, 60.22 ± 4.08 throws, respectively; p = 0.41). A two-way repeated measures ANOVA indicated no significant substance × time interaction effect as well as no main effect of caffeine for SJFT performance, SJFT index, blood lactate concentration, heart rate or rating of perceived exertion.

Conclusions

The results of the current study indicate that the use of caffeinated chewing gum in a dose up to 5.4 mg/kg of caffeine did not increase performance during repeated SJFTs.

Frequency and type of adverse analytical findings in athletics: Differences among disciplines

Athletics is a highly diverse sport that contains a set of disciplines grouped into jumps, throws, races of varying distances, and combined events. From a physiological standpoint, the physical capabilities linked to success are quite different among disciplines, with varying involvements of muscle strength, muscle power, and endurance. Thus, the use of banned substances in athletics might be dictated by physical dimensions of each discipline. Thus, the aim of this investigation was to analyse the number and distribution of adverse analytical findings per drug class in athletic disciplines. The data included in this investigation were gathered from the Anti-Doping Testing Figure Report made available by the World Anti-Doping Agency (from 2016 to 2018). Interestingly, there were no differences in the frequency of adverse findings (overall,~0.95%, range from 0.77 to 1.70%) among disciplines despite long distance runners having the highest number of samples analysed per year (~9812 samples/year). Sprinters and throwers presented abnormally high proportions of adverse analytical findings within the group of anabolic agents (p < 0.01); middle- and long-distance runners presented atypically high proportions of findings related to peptide hormones and growth factors (p < 0.01); racewalkers presented atypically high proportions of banned diuretics and masking agents (p = 0.05). These results suggest that the proportion of athletes that are using banned substances is similar among the different disciplines of athletics. However, there are substantial differences in the class of drugs more commonly used in each discipline. This information can be used to effectively enhance anti-doping testing protocols in athletics.

Current Insights in the Age-related Decline in Sports Performance of the Older Athlete

The higher performance level of master athletes compared to non-athletes is often associated with better health throughout life. However, even the physical performance of master athletes declines with age, and this decline accelerates from about the age of 70 years onwards. A progressive loss of muscle mass, declines in force- and power-generating capacity, decreased flexibility, and the concomitant decline in specific tension characterize the muscular changes underlying performance declines. In the cardiovascular system, declines in stroke volume and cardiac output, and cardiac and vascular stiffness contribute to decreasing performance. Recent studies have shown that long-term endurance exercise in master athletes does not only have positive effects, but is associated with an increased incidence of atrial fibrillation, atherosclerotic plaques, and aortic dilation, and even more so in men than in women. Recently, larger longitudinal datasets were analysed and showed that the age-related decline in performance was similar in longitudinal and cross-sectional data. In conclusion, regular physical activity enhances the exercise capacity, and hence quality of life in old age, but it is not without risks.

Involvement in Multiple Race Events Among International Para and Non-disabled Swimmers

International elite Para swimmers form a large portion of the overall multi-medalist winning population. For the highest performing Para swimmers, world class performances were achieved across different strokes. The aim of this study was to quantify the level of involvement across different events and to examine this in relation to the level of performance. The performances in swimming speed of the top 100 females and males for both Para- and non-disabled swimmers were collected in 11 race events between 2009 and 2019 (4,400 performances for 307 Para females and 365 Para males, 605 non-disabled females, and 715 non-disabled males). We tallied the number of events in which each swimmer was involved. Swimmers were grouped according to the total number of race events in which they participated. Then the association between involvement and level of performance was investigated. Para swimmers with impairment from classes seven to 14 were involved in a range of race events across different strokes. The most common combination for both Para and non-disabled athletes was over similarly distanced races of the same stroke (50 and 100 m freestyle). The more race events in which Para swimmers involved, the higher the level of performance that was achieved. This trend can partially be explained by the less concentrated competition pool for Para swimmers compared to able-bodied swimmers. Para swimmers with minimal and no physical impairment perform in multiple race events more often than able-bodied swimmers. Fewer Para swimmers at the international level and a less concentrated competition pool could explain these differences.

Does anodal tDCS improve basketball performance? A randomized controlled trial

Shooting precision as well as dribbling and agility are crucial components of performance in basketball. We examined the effects of anodal tDCS over the dominant primary motor cortex in supporting these basketball specific abilities. Fifty-two sports students were enrolled in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with two interventions. Twenty minutes of anodal 1 mA tDCS/sham tDCS were applied over the primary motor cortex of the dominant hemisphere. Basketball shooting precision (basketball shooting accuracy test) and basketball specific dribbling and agility (Illinois ball-dribbling test) were tested prior and after each intervention. Basketball shooting precision and basketball specific dribbling and agility improved after real tDCS but not after sham tDCS. ANOVAs show significant intervention*time effects on both the shooting accuracy test (F_1,51= 5.6; P = 0.022) and on the Illinois ball-dribbling test (F_1,51 = 4.5; P = 0.038). Anodal 1 mA tDCS over the dominant primary motor cortex is effective in supporting short-term performance in basketball. However, the available data is insufficient for application of this novel method within the framework of conventional sports training.

Declining track and field performance trends in recent years in the Austrian best results 1897-2019

OBJECTIVES

Plateauing of world records in sports has been suggested to reflect the limits of human physiology. Possible explanations include reduced doping or declining popularity that may even lead to a decrease in human performance. Such a decrease, however, has not yet been observed. We hypothesized that rather than a performance plateau, performance has recently declined.

METHODS

Fifteen athletic disciplines of the Austrian annual rankings were analyzed by regression statistics and the average best performance of the last 20 years compared to earlier periods.

RESULTS

The best performances occurred between 1980-1999 and were on average 2.56% (men) and 1.67% (women) better than between 2000-2019. This attenuation was significant in men in 200 m, 800 m, 1500 m, 10 km, long jump, javelin throw (p<0.05), high jump, pole vault, discus throw, shot put and hammer throw (p<0.001); and in women in 400 m, long jump, discus throw (p<0.05) and high jump (p<0.001). The greatest performance declines were observed in the men's shot put (9.11%) and hammer throw (11.44%).

CONCLUSIONS

The Austrian track and field annual best results show a performance decline following a peak, instead of a plateau. Future studies should address the causes and whether this also applies to other sports and countries.

Scaling Invariance of Sports Sex Gap

The controversy over the evolution of sex gap in sports stems from the reported that women’s performance will 1 day overtake men’s in the journal Nature. After debate, the recent studies suggest that the sports sex gap has been stable for a long time, due to insurmountable physiological differences. To find a mathematical model that accurately describes this stable gap, we analyze the best annual records of men and women in 25 events from 1992 to 2017, and find that power-law relationship could be acted as the best choice, with an R-squares as high as 0.999 (p ≤ 0.001). Then, based on the power law model, we use the records of men in 2018 to predict the performance of women in that year and compare them with real records. The results show that the deviation rate of the predicted value is only about 2.08%. As a conclusion, it could be said that there is a constant sex gap in sports, and the records of men and women evolve in parallel. This finding could serve as another quantitative rule in biology.

Covid-19 Mortality: A Matter of Vulnerability Among Nations Facing Limited Margins of Adaptation

Context: The human development territories have been severely constrained under the Covid-19 pandemic. A common dynamics has been observed, but its propagation has not been homogeneous over each continent. We aimed at characterizing the non-viral parameters that were most associated with death rate.

Methods: We tested major indices from five domains (demography, public health, economy, politics, environment) and their potential associations with Covid-19 mortality during the first 8 months of 2020, through a Principal Component Analysis and a correlation matrix with a Pearson correlation test. Data of all countries, or states in federal countries, showing at least 10 fatality cases, were retrieved from official public sites. For countries that have not yet finished the first epidemic phase, a prospective model has been computed to provide options of death rates evolution.

Results: Higher Covid death rates are observed in the [25/65°] latitude and in the [−35/−125°] longitude ranges. The national criteria most associated with death rate are life expectancy and its slowdown, public health context (metabolic and non-communicable diseases (NCD) burden vs. infectious diseases prevalence), economy (growth national product, financial support), and environment (temperature, ultra-violet index). Stringency of the measures settled to fight pandemia, including lockdown, did not appear to be linked with death rate.

Conclusion: Countries that already experienced a stagnation or regression of life expectancy, with high income and NCD rates, had the highest price to pay. This burden was not alleviated by more stringent public decisions. Inherent factors have predetermined the Covid-19 mortality: understanding them may improve prevention strategies by increasing population resilience through better physical fitness and immunity.

Training or Synergizing? Complex Systems Principles Change the Understanding of Sport Processes

There is a need to update scientific assumptions in sport to promote the critical thinking of scientists, coaches, and practitioners and improve their methodological decisions. On the basis of complex systems science and theories of biological evolution, a systematization and update of theoretical and methodological principles to transform the understanding of sports training is provided. The classical focus on learning/acquiring skills and fitness is replaced by the aim of increasing the diversity/unpredictability potential of teams/athletes through the development of synergies. This development is underpinned by the properties of hierarchical organization and circular causality of constraints, that is, the nestedness of constraints acting at different levels and timescales. These properties, that integrate bottom-up and top-down all dimensions and levels of performance (from social to genetic), apply to all types of sport, ages, or levels of expertise and can be transferred to other fields (e.g., education, health, management). The team as the main training unit of intervention, the dynamic concept of task representativeness, and the co-adaptive and synergic role of the agents are some few practical consequences of moving from training to synergizing.

Inconvenient Truths About Human Longevity

The rise in human longevity is one of humanity's crowning achievements. Although advances in public health beginning in the 19th century initiated the rise in life expectancy, recent gains have been achieved by reducing death rates at middle and older ages. A debate about the future course of life expectancy has been ongoing for the last quarter century. Some suggest that historical trends in longevity will continue and radical life extension is either visible on the near horizon or it has already arrived; whereas others suggest there are biologically based limits to duration of life, and those limits are being approached now. In "inconvenient truths about human longevity" we lay out the line of reasoning and evidence for why there are limits to human longevity; why predictions of radical life extension are unlikely to be forthcoming; why health extension should supplant life extension as the primary goal of medicine and public health; and why promoting advances in aging biology may allow humanity to break through biological barriers that influence both life span and health span, allowing for a welcome extension of the period of healthy life, a compression of morbidity, but only a marginal further increase in life expectancy.

Breaking the athletics world record in the 100 and 400 meters: an alternative method for assessment

BACKGROUND

The top 10 athletes in the International Association of Athletic Federations in 100-m and 400-m ranking for each sex were assessed for their history of race times before achieving their personal record (PR). The main goal of this study was to create a new method for optimal performance improvement rate assessment for coaches and athletes aiming the World Record.

METHODS

The difference between PR ('current' season) and the best race time in the last season was defined as the first season improvement rate (1-SIR), whereas the average improvement rate in the last and preceding seasons was the multi-season improvement rate (M-SIR). 1-SIR and M-SIR were calculated for each athlete.

RESULTS

The sex comparison for the 100 m event showed a significant difference in the M-SIR in favor of women. No statistical differences were identified for the 400 m event, with a trivial effect in both 1-SIR and M-SIR.

CONCLUSIONS

As a practical applicability, graph plots were designed to help verifying the improvement rate of athletes and to evaluate whether a long-term training strategy induced an acceptable performance improvement or whether some adjustments needed and check within the plots if the improvement rate is within the average of the top-10 athletes of their event.

Caffeine and Exercise: What Next?

Caffeine is a widely utilized performance-enhancing supplement used by athletes and non-athletes alike. In recent years, a number of meta-analyses have demonstrated that caffeine's ergogenic effects on exercise performance are well-established and well-replicated, appearing consistent across a broad range of exercise modalities. As such, it is clear that caffeine is an ergogenic aid-but can we further explore the context of this ergogenic aid in order to better inform practice? We propose that future research should aim to better understand the nuances of caffeine use within sport and exercise. Here, we propose a number of areas for exploration within future caffeine research. These include an understanding of the effects of training status, habitual caffeine use, time of day, age, and sex on caffeine ergogenicity, as well as further insight into the modifying effects of genotype. We also propose that a better understanding of the wider, non-direct effects of caffeine on exercise, such as how it modifies sleep, anxiety, and post-exercise recovery, will ensure athletes can maximize the performance benefits of caffeine supplementation during both training and competition. Whilst not exhaustive, we hope that the questions provided within this manuscript will prompt researchers to explore areas with the potential to have a large impact on caffeine use in the future.

The age-performance relationship in the general population and strategies to delay age related decline in performance

The age-performance relationship describes changes in the organism's structural and functional capabilities over the course of the lifespan. The typical, empirical pattern is an asymmetrical inverted-U shape association with peak capacity occurring early in life. This process is well described in the literature, with an increasing interest in features that characterize this pattern, such as the rate of growth, age of peak performance, and rate of decline with aging. This is usually examined in cohorts of individuals followed over time with repeat assessments of physical or cognitive abilities. This framework ought to be integrated into public health programs, embedding the beneficial (such as physical or cognitive training) or adverse effects (such as chronic diseases or injuries) that respectively sustain or limit capabilities. The maintenance of physical or cognitive performances at older ages would result in both optimal health and promote resistance to disabling conditions and chronic diseases, such as obesity and type 2 diabetes. The causes of accelerated degeneration of health optima are mainly: sedentary and unhealthy lifestyles -including poor nutrition-, exposure to environmental pollutants, and heterogeneity in aging. Better knowledge of optima, compatible with or required for good health, should also allow for establishing ideal conditions for longevity.

Age-Related Changes in Para and Wheelchair Racing Athlete's Performances

During the last decades, all para-athletes with disabilities have significantly increased their performance level due to technological progress and human investment, through better training or recovery protocols, medical care and nutritional monitoring. Among these elements, the athlete’s age is one of the determining factors in performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of age on maximal performances for para-athletes and wheelchair racing athletes, scaled on able-bodied records. We collected 53,554 results including athlete’s best performance of the year, event, age and disability classification from the International Paralympic Committee competitions between 2009 and 2017 for both female and male para-athletics and wheelchair racing disciplines for a total of 472 sport events in Track and Field (considering each impairment type for each event) and gathered the all-time able-bodied records from the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) at the end of 2017. Maximal performance by age was fitted with the Moore function for each para-athletics and wheelchair racing event. This study finds a similar age-related pattern in maximal performance among para-athletes and wheelchair racing athletes. The age at peak performance varies according to sex, impairment type and event and increases gradually from sprint to endurance events. The best Top 100 performances include a large age range suggesting that performance has probably not been optimized yet for most elite para-athletes and wheelchair racers. The next Paralympic Games of Tokyo 2020 and Paris 2024 will certainly offer exceptional performance.

Self-reported Measures of Strength and Sport-Specific Skills Distinguish Ranking in an International Online Fitness Competition

Serafini, PR, Feito, Y, and Mangine, GT. Self-reported measures of strength and sport-specific skills distinguish ranking in an international online fitness competition. J Strength Cond Res 32(12): 3483-3493, 2018-To determine if self-reported performance measures could distinguish ranking during the 2016 CrossFit Open, data from 3,000 male (n = 1,500; 27.2 ± 8.4 years; 85.2 ± 7.9 kg; 177.0 ± 6.5 cm) and women (n = 1500, 28.7 ± 4.9 years; 63.7 ± 5.8 kg; 163.7 ± 6.6 cm) competitors was used for this study. Competitors were split by gender and grouped into quintiles (Q1-Q5) based upon their final ranking. Quintiles were compared for one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat, deadlift, clean and jerk (CJ), snatch, 400 m sprint, 5,000 m run, and benchmark workouts (Fran, Helen, Grace, Filthy-50, and Fight-Gone-Bad). Separate one-way analyses of variance revealed that all competitors in Q1 reported greater (p ≤ 0.05) 1RM loads for squat (men: 201.6 ± 19.1 kg; women: 126.1 ± 13.0 kg), deadlift (men: 232.4 ± 20.5 kg; women: 148.3 ± 14.5 kg), CJ (men: 148.9 ± 12.1 kg; women: 95.7 ± 8.4 kg), and snatch (men: 119.4 ± 10.9 kg; women 76.5 ± 7.6 kg) compared with other quintiles. In addition, men in Q1 (59.3 ± 5.9 seconds) reported faster (p ≤ 0.05) 400 m times than Q3 only (62.6 ± 7.3 seconds), but were not different from any group in the 5,000 m run. Women in Q2 (67.5 ± 8.8 seconds) reported faster (p ≤ 0.05) 400 m times than Q3-Q5 (73.5-74.8 seconds), and faster (21.3 ± 1.8 minutes, p < 0.02) 5,000 m times than Q4 (22.6 ± 2.2 minutes) and Q5 (22.6 ± 1.9 minutes). Faster (p ≤ 0.05) Fran times were reported by Q1 (men: 138.2 ± 13.3 seconds; women: 159.4 ± 28.3 seconds) compared with other groups, while the results of other workouts were variable. These data indicate that the most successful athletes excel in all areas of fitness/skill, while lower-ranking athletes should focus on developing strength and power after achieving sufficient proficiency in sport-specific skills.

An integrative modeling approach to the age-performance relationship in mammals at the cellular scale

Physical and cognitive performances change across lifespan. Studying cohorts of individuals in specific age ranges and athletic abilities remains essential in assessing the underlying physiological mechanisms that result in such a drop in performance. This decline is now viewed as a unique phenotypic biomarker and a hallmark of the aging process. The rates of decline are well documented for sets of traits such as running or swimming but only a limited number of studies have examined the developmental and senescent phases together. Moreover, the few attempts to do so are merely descriptive and do not include any meaningful biological features. Here we propose an averaged and deterministic model, based on cell population dynamics, replicative senescence and functionality loss. It describes the age-related change of performance in 17 time-series phenotypic traits, including human physical and cognitive skills, mouse lemur strength, greyhound and thoroughbred speed, and mouse activity. We demonstrate that the estimated age of peak performance occurs in the early part of life (20.5% ± 6.6% of the estimated lifespan) thus emphasizing the asymmetrical nature of the relationship. This model is an initial attempt to relate performance dynamics to cellular dynamics and will lead to more sophisticated models in the future.

Effects of Plyometric Training on Explosive and Endurance Performance at Sea Level and at High Altitude

Plyometric training performed at sea level enhance explosive and endurance performance at sea level. However, its effects on explosive and endurance performance at high altitude had not been studied. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the effects of a sea level short-term (i.e., 4-week) plyometric training program on explosive and endurance performance at sea level and at high altitude (i.e., 3,270 m above sea level). Participants were randomly assigned to a control group (n = 12) and a plyometric training group (n = 11). Neuromuscular (reactive strength index – RSI) and endurance (2-km time-trial; running economy [RE]; maximal oxygen uptake - VO₂max) measurements were performed at sea level before, at sea level after intervention (SL +4 week), and at high altitude 24-h post SL +4 week. The ANOVA revealed that at SL +4 week the VO₂max was not significantly changed in any group, although RE, RSI and 2-km time trial were significantly (p < 0.05) improved in the plyometric training group. After training, when both groups were exposed to high altitude, participants from the plyometric training group showed a greater RSI (p < 0.05) and were able to maintain their 2-km time trial (11.3 ± 0.5 min vs. 10.7 ± 0.6 min) compared to their pre-training sea level performance. In contrast, the control group showed no improvement in RSI, with a worse 2-km time trial performance (10.3 ± 0.8 min vs. 9.02 ± 0.64 min; p < 0.05; ES = 0.13). Moreover, after training, both at sea level and at high altitude the plyometric training group demonstrated a greater (p < 0.05) RSI and 2-km time trial performance compared to the control group. The oxygen saturation was significantly decreased after acute exposure to high altitude in the two groups (p < 0.05). These results confirm the beneficial effects of sea level short-term plyometric training on explosive and endurance performance at sea level. Moreover, current results indicates that plyometric training may also be of value for endurance athletes performing after an acute exposure to high altitude.

Functional Data Analysis in Sport Science: Example of Swimmers’ Progression Curves Clustering

Many data collected in sport science come from time dependent phenomenon. This article focuses on Functional Data Analysis (FDA), which study longitudinal data by modelling them as continuous functions. After a brief review of several FDA methods, some useful practical tools such as Functional Principal Component Analysis (FPCA) or functional clustering algorithms are presented and compared on simulated data. Finally, the problem of the detection of promising young swimmers is addressed through a curve clustering procedure on a real data set of performance progression curves. This study reveals that the fastest improvement of young swimmers generally appears before 16 years old. Moreover, several patterns of improvement are identified and the functional clustering procedure provides a useful detection tool.

A Medal in the Olympics Runs in the Family: A Cohort Study of Performance Heritability in the Games History

Introduction: Elite performance in sports is known to be influenced by heritable components, but the magnitude of such an influence has never been quantified.

Hypothesis/Objectives: We hypothesized that having a former world-class champion in the family increases the chances of an athlete to repeat the achievement of her or his kinship. We aimed to measure the heritability of a medal in the Olympic Games (OG) among Olympians and to estimate the percentage of the genetic contribution to such a heritance.

Study Design: Twin-family study of a retrospective cohort.

Methods: All the 125,051 worldwide athletes that have participated in the OG between 1896 and 2012 were included. The expected probability to win a medal in the OG was defined as the frequency of medallists among Olympians without any blood kinship in the OG. This expected probability was compared with the probability to win a medal for Olympians having a kinship (grandparent, aunt/uncle, parent, or siblings) with a former Olympian that was a (1) non-medallist or (2) medallist. The heritability of the genetically determined phenotype (h²) was assessed by probandwise concordance rates among dizygotic (DZ) and monozygotic (MZ) twins (n = 90).

Results: The expected probability to win a medal in the OG was 20.4%. No significant difference of medal probability was found in the subgroups of Olympians with a Non-medallist kinship, except among siblings for whom this probability was lower: 13.3% (95% CI 11.2–14.8). The medal probability was significantly greater among Olympians having a kinship with a former Olympic Medallist: 44.4% for niece/nephew (33.7–54.2); 43.4% for offspring (37.4–48.6); 64.8% for siblings (61.2–68.8); 75.5% for DZ twins (63.3–86.6); and 85.7% for MZ twins (63.6–96.9); with significantly greater concordance between MZ than DZ (p = 0.01) and h² estimated at 20.5%.

Conclusion: Having a kinship with a former Olympic medallist is associated with a greater probability for an Olympian to also become a medallist, the closer an athlete is genetically to such kinship the greater this probability. Once in the OG, the genetic contribution to win a medal is estimated to be 20.5%.

The heart of the matter: years-saved from cardiovascular and cancer deaths in an elite athlete cohort with over a century of follow-up

To quantify the years of life saved from cardiovascular (CVD), cancer and overall deaths among elite athletes according to their main type of physiological effort performed in the Olympic Games. All French athletes participating in the Games from 1912 to 2012, with vital status validated and cause of death (if concerned) identified by the national registries were included (n = 2814, 455 died) and classified according to 6 groups of effort: POWER (continuous effort < 45 s); INTERMEDIATE (45 s ≤ continuous effort < 600 s); ENDURANCE (continuous effort ≥ 600 s); POLYVALENT (participating in different events entering different classifications), INTERMITTENT (intermittent effort, i.e. team sports); PRECISION (targeting events). The theoretical years-lost method was adapted to calculate gains in longevity (years-saved) according to specific-risks under the competing risks model and was implemented in R software. Considering overall-deaths, all groups significantly saved, on average, 6.5 years of life (95% CI 5.8-7.2) compared to the general population. This longevity advantage is mainly driven by a lower risk of cancer which, isolated, contributed to significantly save 2.3 years of life (95% CI 1.2-1.9) on average in each group. The risk of CVD-related mortality in the ENDURANCE and PRECISION groups is not significantly different from the general population. The other groups significantly saved, on average, 1.6 years of life (95% CI 1.2-1.9) from CVD death. The longevity benefits in elite athletes are associated with the type of effort performed during their career, mainly due to differences on the CVD-risk of death.

Are We Reaching the Limits of Homo sapiens?

Echoing scientific and industrial progress, the Twentieth century was an unprecedented period of improvement for human capabilities and performances, with a significant increase in lifespan, adult height, and maximal physiological performance. Analyses of historical data show a major slow down occurring in the most recent years. This triggered large and passionate debates in the academic scene within multiple disciplines; as such an observation could be interpreted as our upper biological limits. Such a new phase of human history may be related to structural and functional limits determined by long term evolutionary constraints, and the interaction between complex systems and their environment. In this interdisciplinary approach, we call into question the validity of subsequent forecasts and projections through innovative and related biomarkers such as sport, lifespan, and height indicators. We set a theoretical framework based on biological and environmental relevance rather than using a typical single-variable forecasting approach. As demonstrated within the article, these new views will have major social, economical, and political implications.

Age-Related Changes in Locomotor Performance Reveal a Similar Pattern for Caenorhabditis elegans, Mus domesticus, Canis familiaris, Equus caballus, and Homo sapiens

Locomotion is one of the major physiological functions for most animals. Previous studies have described aging mechanisms linked to locomotor performance among different species. However, the precise dynamics of these age-related changes, and their interactions with development and senescence, are largely unknown. Here, we use the same conceptual framework to describe locomotor performances in Caenorhabditis elegans, Mus domesticus, Canis familiaris, Equus caballus, and Homo sapiens. We show that locomotion is a consistent biomarker of age-related changes, with an asymmetrical pattern throughout life, regardless of the type of effort or its duration. However, there is variation (i) among species for the same mode of locomotion, (ii) within species for different modes of locomotion, and (iii) among individuals of the same species for the same mode of locomotion. Age-related patterns are modulated by genetic (such as selective breeding) as well as environmental conditions (such as temperature). However, in all cases, the intersection of the rising developmental phase and the declining senescent phase reveals neither a sharp transition nor a plateau, but a smooth transition, emphasizing a crucial moment: the age at peak performance. This transition may define a specific target for future investigations on the dynamics of such biological interactions.

Changes in body mass, stature and BMI in South African elite U18 Rugby players from different racial groups from 2002-2012

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are differences between racial groups for body mass, stature and body mass index (BMI) in South African elite U18 rugby players and whether there were significant changes in these measurements between 2002 and 2012. Self-reported body mass and stature were obtained from U18 players (n = 4007) who attended the national tournament during this period. BMI was calculated for each player.White players were 9.8 kg heavier than black players, who were 2.3 kg heavier than coloured players (P < 0.0001). The body mass of all groups increased from 2002 to 2012 (P < 0.0001). White players were 7.0 cm taller than black players who were 0.5 cm taller than coloured players (P < 0.0001). Players' stature measurements did not change significantly during the study period. The average BMI of white players was 0.9 kg·m^-2 greater than black players who were on average 0.7 kg·m^-2 greater than coloured players (P < 0.0001). The BMI of all groups changed similarly over the study period. The body mass, stature and BMI of elite under-18 rugby players in South Africa were significantly different between racial groups. This has implications for transforming the game to make it representative of the South African population.

The age of the best ultramarathon performance - the case of the "Comrades Marathon"

The aim of the present study was to determine the age of the fastest running speed in 202,370 runners (34,090 women and 168,280 men) competing in the "Comrades Marathon" between 1994 and 2015 using non-linear regression analysis (second order polynomial function). When all runners were considered in 1-year age intervals, the fastest running speed (9.61 ± 1.65 km/h) was achieved at the age of 29.89 years in men, whereas women achieved it at the age of 35.96 years 8.60 ± 1.10 km/h. When the fastest runners were considered in 1-year intervals, the fastest running speed (16.65 km/h) was achieved in men at the age of 36.38 years. For the fastest women, the age of the fastest running speed (13.89 km/h) was 32.75 years. To summarize, for all runners, men achieved the best ultramarathon performance ~6 years earlier than women. When the fastest runners were considered, however, men achieved the best performance ~4 years later than women.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Effects on Athletes' Cognitive Performance: An Exploratory Proof of Concept Trial

Among the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games' unforgettable moments, one could not overlook performances by Phelps and Bolt, which challenge old premises about the maximum extension of individual supremacism in ultracompetitive modalities and the doping scandals. Different media channels resonated these two trends, with an unseen rise on discussions about traits and practices that may set ultrahigh performance athletes apart from the more ordinary ones. Yet, some key issues remain undebated. This paper aims to add to this debate, with a proof of concept trial, which investigates whether transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may serve as an aid for professional athletes. Ten professional athletes of three different modalities (judo, N = 4 athletes, swimming, N = 3 athletes, and rhythmic gymnastics, N = 3 athletes) received anodal stimulation (2 mA) for 20 min on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for ten consecutive weekdays. We observed a positive effect of tDCS in their cognitive performance, including a significant improvement in alternated, sustained, and divided attention and in memory scores. We also observed a decrease in Beck Depression Inventory scores (4.50 points) in this non-clinical population. These preliminary results suggest that tDCS sessions may translate into competitive advantages for professional athletes and recommend the deepening of the discussion on its ethical use in sports, which is ultimately tied to the wider debate around the risks and opportunities that neuromodulation brings to the table.