Pacing Decision Making in Sport and the Effects of Interpersonal Competition: A Critical Review

Mental fatigue in golf: A systematic review

Mental fatigue, or cognitive fatigue, is a multi-aspect of exhaustion resulting from prolonged engagement in mentally demanding tasks, characterized by diminished energy, mental exhaustion, and distraction, which can adversely impact various aspects of golfers' performance. However, there are still limited systematic reviews on the interaction between mental fatigue and athletes' performance in golf. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the correlation between mental fatigue and golf and demonstrate the current state of research and characterization of research in the field. The systematic review was conducted using a PRISMA flow chart, with thorough literature searches across PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases. The quality of the literature was assessed using Qualsyst. The study summarized findings from 10 articles on the interaction between mental fatigue and athletes' performance in golf. It indicates that mental fatigue is influenced by factors such as duration of play and walking distance, with prolonged golf tasks inducing mental fatigue. Mental fatigue directly affects golf performance, including the overall score for 18 holes, iron club accuracy, drive distance, and especially impacts putting performance. However, the results of these studies are limited and one-sided because studies conducted on driving ranges or in laboratories focus only on putting performance and ignore other golf skills. The study on the effects of mental fatigue on iron accuracy and driving distance was conducted under competitive conditions on an outdoor golf course, making it impossible to eliminate confounding factors. The lack of intervention studies on other specific golf skills may limit a comprehensive understanding of the impact of mental fatigue on golf performance. Trial registration Systematic Review Registration: [https://inplasy.com/][INPLASY202410111].

Pacing Demands in Competitive Nordic Skiing

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cross-country skiing, biathlon, and Nordic combined are Winter Olympics sports that involve cross-country skiing in undulating terrain, characterized by various subtechniques and repeated intensity fluctuations. The stochastic interval profile of these sports necessitates the continuous regulation of work and energy expenditure throughout training sessions and competitions, a concept known as pacing. With the advent of technological advancements that allow for the measurement of these features during training and competitions, scientific studies have broadened our understanding of the associated racing and pacing demands. We provide the current scientific overview of pacing demands in competitive cross-country skiing, biathlon, and Nordic combined and propose guidelines for how performance can be enhanced by adjusting pacing behavior.

CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The study of pacing in skiing has evolved from basic lap-to-lap, or segment, analyses to detailed insights into micropacing strategies. This includes analysis of speed, internal and external power, subtechnique distribution, and associated temporal patterns, combined with subjective ratings of effort. While several objective tools such as heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and speed measurements are widely used in practice, current understanding suggests that these measures should supplement, rather than replace, the use of perceived effort (eg, rating of perceived exertion) to regulate intensity during training and competition in undulating terrain. Therefore, the ability to self-regulate effort appears to be an important performance characteristic and should be developed in adolescents and systematically used to optimize and evaluate the training process and race performance throughout athletes' careers.

Comparative Pacing Profile and Chronometric Performance in Elite Swimmers with Intellectual Impairments and Able-Bodied Athletes

Pacing strategy is a complex self-regulation process, crucial for optimising sports performance. Athletes with Intellectual Impairments (IIs) face unique challenges due to cognitive limitations that may hinder their ability to pace effectively, impacting chronometric performance. This study analysed the pacing profiles and chronometric performance across 253 event entries by elite swimmers with II, divided into three groups: 100 entries for group II1 (intellectual disability), 85 for group II2 (Down syndrome), and 68 for group II3 (autism spectrum disorder). These results were compared with 112 event entries from athletes without disabilities (AWDs). Data were collected from the 2023 Virtus Global Games and the 2023 World Aquatics Championships, focusing on middle-distance and long-distance events. Performance metrics were assessed using 50 m split times, and within-group variability was evaluated through coefficients of variation. Swimmers with IIs showed slower overall chronometric performance than AWDs, with the largest deficits observed in II2 athletes. The II1 and II3 groups displayed more comparable results, with the II1 group outperforming the others slightly. Despite the slower times, pacing profiles were largely similar across all groups, following a parabolic pacing strategy, especially for longer distances. Greater within-group variability in both chronometric performance and pacing profiles was observed in II2 and II3 athletes, reflecting higher functional heterogeneity. In contrast, II1 athletes, and even more so AWDs, exhibited more consistent performance and pacing across all events. While swimmers with II recorded slower times, their pacing strategies resembled those of AWDs, suggesting that cognitive limitations may not significantly impair pacing regulation in swimming. However, the higher variability in II2 and II3 athletes highlights the potential need for revised classification systems to ensure fair competition.

Evolution of 1500-m Olympic Running Performance

PURPOSE

This study determined the evolution of performance and pacing for each winner of the men's Olympic 1500-m running track final from 1924 to 2020.

METHODS

Data were obtained from publicly available sources. When official splits were unavailable, times from sources such as YouTube were included and interpolated from video records. Final times, lap splits, and position in the peloton were included. The data are presented relative to 0 to 400 m, 400 to 800 m, 800 to 1200 m, and 1200 to 1500 m. Critical speed and D' were calculated using athletes' season's best times.

RESULTS

Performance improved ∼25 seconds from 1924 to 2020, with most improvement (∼19 s) occurring in the first 10 finals. However, only 2 performances were world records, and only one runner won the event twice. Pacing evolved from a fast start-slow middle-fast finish pattern (reverse J-shaped) to a slower start with steady acceleration in the second half (J-shaped). The coefficient of variation for lap speeds ranged from 1.4% to 15.3%, consistent with a highly tactical pacing pattern. With few exceptions, the eventual winners were near the front throughout, although rarely in the leading position. There is evidence of a general increase in both critical speed and D' that parallels performance.

CONCLUSIONS

An evolution in the pacing pattern occurred across several "eras" in the history of Olympic 1500-m racing, consistent with better trained athletes and improved technology. There has been a consistent tactical approach of following opponents until the latter stages, and athletes should develop tactical flexibility, related to their critical speed and D', in planning prerace strategy.

Coaching styles and sports motivation in athletes with and without Intellectual Impairments

The cognitive limitations of athletes with Intellectual Impairments (II) may influence their sport behaviour and lead them to rely on coaches' support. However, it is still unclear how II may influence sports performance progression and motivation and how coaches perceive their athletes with II and coach them. Thus, this study aims to examine 1) coach's perceptions of motivation and performance progression in athletes with and without II, 2) coaching style (dis)similarities, and 3) the association between these factors. Coaches of athletes with (n = 122) and without II (n = 144) were recruited and completed three online questionnaires, analysed using a series of non-parametric analyses (p ≤ .05). Results showed that perceived performance progression and controlled motivation were higher of athletes with II while perceived autonomous motivation was higher of athletes without II. No coaching style differences were found between the two groups. Additionally, a need-supportive coaching style negatively predicted amotivation, and a need-thwarting coaching style predicted lower autonomous motivation in athletes with II only. Overall, it seems that the coaches perceived that their athletes with II demonstrate different motivations and react dissimilarly to their coaching styles compared to athletes without II. They may also adopt different standards of sporting success for them. Due to these differences, it is important to offer appropriate training and knowledge to coaches about disability sports and the adaptations needed to effectively coach athletes with II. In summary, this paper gives some insights about the coach-athlete relationship and highlights the necessity to further support the sports development of people with II.

Pacing strategy in trail running: A cognitive subtractive model of the affective balance between effort and pleasure?

The objective of the present study was to undercover the cognitive rules developed by athletes in pacing strategy during a trail running competition. Fifty participants completed a questionnaire on how decisions were made around pacing. Each questionnaire consisted of 12 scenarios that featured the two components of affective balance (effort and pleasure) as information cues. We applied repeated-measures analyses of variance and Tukey's post hoc tests to the data. The results showed that pleasure and effort had a significant effect on deciding to reduce the pace and deciding to maintain the pace. The type of cognitive rule depended on the pacing outcome, with a subtractive integration rule when deciding to maintain the pace and a conjunction integration rule when deciding to reduce the pace. The presence of two different cognitive rules emphasized the importance of information integration in pacing strategy.

Drafting in long-track speed skating team pursuit on the ice rink

Drafting is distinctive for team pursuit races in long-track speed skating. This study aims to compare the impact of drafting on physical intensity (heart rate [HR]) and perceived intensity (ratings of perceived exertion [RPE]) per drafting position. Eighteen skilled male (n = 9) and female (n = 9) skaters (20.0 ± 4.8 years) skated three trials, in first, second or third position, with consistent average velocity (F_2,10 = 2.30, p = 0.15, η_p² = 0.32). Differences in HR and RPE (Borg CR-10 scale) were compared within-subjects (three positions) using a repeated-measures ANOVA (p < 0.05). Compared to the first position, HR was lower in the second (benefit 3.2%) and third (benefit 4.7%) position and lower in third compared to second position (benefit 1.5%), observed in 10 skaters (F_2,28 = 28.9, p < 0.001, η_p²= 0.67). RPE was lower when comparing second (benefit 18.5%) and third (benefit 16.8%) position to first (F_1.3,22.1 = 7.02, p < 0.05, η_p²= 0.29) and similar for third and second positions., observed in 8 skaters. Even though the physical intensity was lower when drafting in third versus second position, the perceived intensity was equal. There were large interindividual differences between skaters. Coaches are advised to adopt a multidimensional, tailored approach when selecting and training skaters for a team pursuit.

Tactical positioning behaviours in short-track speed skating: A static and dynamic sequence analysis

Tactical positioning is essential for success in short-track speed skating as the race format (direct, head-to-head competition over multiple laps) prioritises finishing position over finishing time. Despite this, current research into tactical positioning treats the race's laps as discrete, independent events. Accordingly, the aggregate metrics used to summarise each lap's tactical positioning behaviour do not allow us to explore the sequential nature of the data, e.g., Lap 2 occurs after Lap 1 and before Lap 3. Here, we capture the sequential relationships between laps to investigate tactical positioning behaviours in short-track speed skating. Using intermediate and final rankings from 500 m, 1,000 m, and 1,500 m elite short-track races, we analyse whole-race and sub-race race sequences of group and winner tactical positioning behaviours. This approach, combined with a large dataset of races collected over eight seasons of competition (n  = 4,135), provides the most rigorous and comprehensive description of tactical positioning behaviours in short-track speed skating to date. Our results quantify the time-evolving complexity of tactical positioning, offer new thoughts on race strategy, and can help practitioners design more representative learning tasks to enhance skill transfer.

Cognitive function in soccer athletes determined by sleep disruption and self-reported health, yet not by decision-reinvestment

Background

Sleep disruption (SD) increases sympathetic activity and cortisol secretion, and delays cognitive functions such as reaction-time (RT). Sympathetic activity of disturbed sleepers, is similar to those of so-called decision-reinvesters. Decision-reinvestment refers to traits in individuals with greater tendency to ruminate and reinvest in their decisions, with significant decrease in both motor-control and cognitive performance. Decision-making quality is a crucial attribute to athletic performance which relies on RT. Consequently, SD affects pitch-performance negatively, particularly in decision-reinvesters. This observational pilot-study examined the relationship between SD and cognitive function, perceived health, as well as reinvestment strategies. The hypothesis was that athletes with lower SD perceive their health better, report lower stress levels, perform better in cognitive tasks, and show lower tendency for decision-reinvestment.

Methods

Twenty-one football player recorded their sleep with fit-trackers for 7 nights. Participants self-reported their mental and physical health, decision-reinvestment strategy, sleep behaviour, and perceived stress levels. Athletes then performed a set of cognitive tests to examine memory function (Backwards Corsi), selective attention (STROOP), and cognitive flexibility (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, WCST). Normality was tested with a Shapiro-Wilk test, and analysed with a Pearson's or Spearman's correlation test.

Results

Significant correlation appeared between extended sleep-interruptions and Backwards Corsi RT, r = 0.66, p = 0.010, as further in total sleep time and wellbeing r = 0.50, p = 0.029. A negative correlation exist in regard of pain scores and Backwards Corsi scores r = -0.57, p = 0.110. Physical health correlated with error-rates in the WCST, r = 0.69, p ≤ 0.001. Also, reinvestment negatively correlated with physical health, r = -0.80, p ≤ 0.001.

Conclusion

Wellbeing relies on total sleep-time. Athletes with extended sleep-interruptions are slower in recalling memory, and those with greater reported pain have lower memory scores. Participants who rate physical health greater, have more error-rates in the WCST; indicating that cognitive flexibility is enhanced in individuals with inferior perceived health. However, individuals with lower physical health scores also have greater tendency to ruminate and reinvest in decisions, suggesting interrelation between reinvestment and physical health.

The Role of Cognition and Social Factors in Competition: How Do People with Intellectual Disabilities Respond to Opponents?

Exploring pacing behaviour in people with intellectual disabilities (ID) in competition will help to better understand the impact of cognition and social environment in sports, providing support for the shaping of proper inclusive sports environments. The present experimental study aimed to (1) compare the pacing behaviour and performance between people with and without ID who are inexperienced in cycling and (2) investigate how these are influenced by an opponent. Participants with (n = 8) and without ID (n = 10) performed two randomised 4-km maximal cycling trials, alone and against an opponent. Non-parametric tests for repeated measures data (p ≤ 0.05) revealed that people with ID cycled slower, but with higher inter-individual variation (both conditions) and paced themselves differently compared to people without ID when competing against an opponent. In contrast to the previous literature in athletes without ID, the presence of a faster opponent resulted in a decrease in the performance in the participants with ID. The negative influence of the opponent highlights the potential difficulties people with ID experience to adequately use their opponents to enhance their self-regulatory processes and optimize their pacing and performance in maximal exercise trials. Coaches who want to offer inclusive sports environments for people with ID could take these findings into consideration.

Effect of different pacing strategies on 4-km cycling time trial performance

In cycling, there is a body of evidence that supports that an all-out start strategy is superior to an even-pacing strategy, but it is unknown whether an all-out start strategy is superior to a self-paced strategy. In the present study, we investigated the effects of three different pacing strategies on 4-km cycling time trial performance. After preliminary trials (familiarization trials and a baseline 4-km cycling time trial), in a randomized and counterbalanced order, twelve male cyclists (32.3±7.2 years old, maximum rate of O2 uptake (V̇O2peak) 4.3±0.4 L/min) completed: 1) a self-paced 4-km cycling time trial; 2) an all-out start (∼10 s), followed by maintenance of the average baseline trial power for the first km and self-paced cycling for the remaining trial (all-out+mean); and 3) an all-out start (∼10 s), followed by a power 5% above the average baseline trial power for the first km and self-paced cycling for the remaining trial (all-out+5%mean). Although there was a significant interaction between power and distance (P=0.001) with different power distribution profiles throughout the trial, there was no significant difference (P=0.99) between the three strategies for overall exercise performance (self-paced 379.8±13.9 s, all-out+mean 380.0±16.0 s, and all-out+5%mean 380.2±11.5 s). Oxygen uptake, rating of perceived effort, and heart rate were also similar across the pacing strategies. Different all-out start strategies did not confer additional benefits to performance compared to a self-paced strategy.

Competition Between Desired Competitive Result, Tolerable Homeostatic Disturbance, and Psychophysiological Interpretation Determines Pacing Strategy

Scientific interest in pacing goes back >100 years. Contemporary interest, both as a feature of athletic competition and as a window into understanding fatigue, goes back >30 years. Pacing represents the pattern of energy use designed to produce a competitive result while managing fatigue of different origins. Pacing has been studied both against the clock and during head-to-head competition. Several models have been used to explain pacing, including the teleoanticipation model, the central governor model, the anticipatory-feedback-rating of perceived exertion model, the concept of a learned template, the affordance concept, the integrative governor theory, and as an explanation for "falling behind." Early studies, mostly using time-trial exercise, focused on the need to manage homeostatic disturbance. More recent studies, based on head-to-head competition, have focused on an improved understanding of how psychophysiology, beyond the gestalt concept of rating of perceived exertion, can be understood as a mediator of pacing and as an explanation for falling behind. More recent approaches to pacing have focused on the elements of decision making during sport and have expanded the role of psychophysiological responses including sensory-discriminatory, affective-motivational, and cognitive-evaluative dimensions. These approaches have expanded the understanding of variations in pacing, particularly during head-to-head competition.

Factors associated with high-level endurance performance: An expert consensus derived via the Delphi technique

There is little agreement on the factors influencing endurance performance. Endurance performance often is described by surrogate variables such as maximum oxygen consumption, lactate threshold, and running economy. However, other factors also determine success and progression of high-level endurance athletes. Therefore, the aim was to identify the relevant factors for endurance performance assessed by international experts by adhering to a structured communication method (i.e., Delphi technique). Three anonymous evaluation rounds were conducted initiated by a list of candidate factors (n = 120) serving as baseline input variables. The items that achieved ≥70% of agreement in round 1 were re-evaluated in a second round. Items with a level of agreement of ≥70% in round 2 reached consensus and items with a level of agreement of 40-69% in round 2 were re-rated in a third round followed by a consensus meeting. Round 1 comprised of 27 panellists (n = 24 male) and in round 2 and 3 18 (n = 15 male) of the 27 panellists remained. Thus, the final endurance expert panel comprised of 18 international experts (n = 15 male) with 20 years of experience on average. The consensus report identified the following 26 factors: endurance capacity, running economy, maximal oxygen consumption, recovery speed, carbohydrate metabolism, glycolysis capacity, lactate threshold, fat metabolism, number of erythrocytes, iron deficiency, muscle fibre type, mitochondrial biogenesis, hydrogen ion buffering, testosterone, erythropoietin, cortisol, hydration status, vitamin D deficiency, risk of non-functional overreaching and stress fracture, healing function of skeletal tissue, motivation, stress resistance, confidence, sleep quality, and fatigue. This study provides an expert-derived summary including 26 key factors for endurance performance, the "FENDLE" factors (FENDLE = Factors for ENDurance Level). This consensus report may assist to optimize sophisticated diagnostics, personalized training strategies and technology.

Pacing Behaviour Development and Acquisition: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The goal-directed decision-making process of effort distribution (i.e. pacing) allows individuals to efficiently use energy resources as well as to manage the impact of fatigue on performance during exercise. Given the shared characteristics between pacing behaviour and other skilled behaviour, it was hypothesized that pacing behaviour would adhere to the same processes associated with skill acquisition and development.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO databases between January 1995 and January 2022 were searched for articles relating to the pacing behaviour of individuals (1) younger than 18 years of age, or (2) repeatedly performing the same exercise task, or (3) with different levels of experience.

RESULTS

The search resulted in 64 articles reporting on the effect of age (n = 33), repeated task exposure (n = 29) or differing levels of experience (n = 13) on pacing behaviour. Empirical evidence identifies the development of pacing behaviour starts during childhood (~ 10 years old) and continues throughout adolescence. This development is characterized by an increasingly better fit to the task demands, encompassing the task characteristics (e.g. duration) and environment factors (e.g. opponents). Gaining task experience leads to an increased capability to attain a predetermined pace and results in pacing behaviour that better fits task demands.

CONCLUSIONS

Similar to skilled behaviour, physical maturation and cognitive development likely drive the development of pacing behaviour. Pacing behaviour follows established processes of skill acquisition, as repeated task execution improves the match between stimuli (e.g. task demands and afferent signals) and actions (i.e. continuing, increasing or decreasing the exerted effort) with the resulting exercise task performance. Furthermore, with increased task experience attentional capacity is freed for secondary tasks (e.g. incorporating opponents) and the goal selection is changed from achieving task completion to optimizing task performance. As the development and acquisition of pacing resemble that of other skills, established concepts in the literature (e.g. intervention-induced variability and augmented feedback) could enrich pacing research and be the basis for practical applications in physical education, healthcare, and sports.

The Role of the Social Environment in Pacing and Sports Performance: A Narrative Review from a Self-Regulatory Perspective

As proposed by Triplett in 1898 and evidenced by a recent series of lab and field studies, racing against other competitors consistently results in increased performance compared to when racing alone. To explain this phenomenon, we will explore the process of self-regulation, a process relevant to pacing, which is linked to athletes' emotions and facilitates their sports performance optimization. We will apply the cyclical model of Self-regulation of Learning to pacing and sports performance settings and explore the role of the social environment (in particular, opponents but also coaches) in each phase of the self-regulatory model. It seems that the social environment could be considered as a significant self-regulatory and sports performance facilitator. More specifically, athletes can focus on their social environment (opponents) when they have to set goals and select appropriate strategies to achieve them (forethought phase), monitor and manage their actions and their emotions (performance phase), and make self-judgements and choose self-reactions (self-reflection). Moreover, the social environment (coaches) can observe, step in, and facilitate these intricate processes. These findings could guide athletes and their coaches towards more effective pacing acquisition and development, and better sports performance, which could be of particular relevance for youth athletes or athletes with disabilities impacting on their self-regulatory skills.

The Effects of Sex, Age and Performance Level on Pacing in Ultra-Marathon Runners in the ‘Spartathlon’

Background

Pacing has been investigated in different kinds of ultra-marathon races, but not in one of the toughest ultra-marathons in the world, the ‘Spartathlon’.

Objective

The aim of the present study was to analyse the pacing of female and male finishers competing in the ‘Spartathlon’ in regards to their age and performance groups.

Methods

A total of 2598 runners (2255 men and 343 women) finishing ‘Spartathlon’ between 2011 and 2019 were analysed. We selected 10 checkpoints with split times corresponding to important race sections. Average running speed was calculated for each participant and the average checkpoint running speed for each of the 10 race checkpoints. Furthermore, to assess the pacing strategy of each runner, the percentage of change in checkpoint speed (CCS) in relation to the average race speed was calculated (for each of 10 checkpoints). Finally, the average change in checkpoint speed (ACCS) was calculated for each participant as a mean of the 10 CCSs.

Results

Both women and men slowed down through the first 7 checkpoints but increased running speed towards the end of the race (reverse J-shaped pacing). Men showed a significantly greater CCS in the first and second checkpoint (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05, respectively), whereas women showed a more significant change in CCS in the last checkpoint (p < 0.05). Furthermore, age and sex showed no effect on ACCS, whereas ACCS differed between the performance groups. In particular, the slowest and the fastest runners showed a more minor change in ACCS than the two medium groups of both men and women (p < 0.01).

Conclusions

In summary, successful finishers in ‘Spartathlon’ showed a reverse J-shaped pacing curve with a decrease in running speed from the start to the 7th checkpoint and an increase in running speed thereafter. This strategy was most probably due to the profile of the race course. Men showed a more significant change in checkpoint speed in the first two checkpoints, whereas women showed a more substantial change in the last checkpoint. Age and sex did not affect average checkpoint speed, whereas this speed was different between the different performance groups. The slowest and the fastest runners showed fewer changes in average checkpoint speed than the two medium groups in men and women.

COVID-19 Lockdown: A Global Study Investigating the Effect of Athletes' Sport Classification and Sex on Training Practices

PURPOSE

To investigate differences in athletes' knowledge, beliefs, and training practices during COVID-19 lockdowns with reference to sport classification and sex. This work extends an initial descriptive evaluation focusing on athlete classification.

METHODS

Athletes (12,526; 66% male; 142 countries) completed an online survey (May-July 2020) assessing knowledge, beliefs, and practices toward training. Sports were classified as team sports (45%), endurance (20%), power/technical (10%), combat (9%), aquatic (6%), recreational (4%), racquet (3%), precision (2%), parasports (1%), and others (1%). Further analysis by sex was performed.

RESULTS

During lockdown, athletes practiced body-weight-based exercises routinely (67% females and 64% males), ranging from 50% (precision) to 78% (parasports). More sport-specific technical skills were performed in combat, parasports, and precision (∼50%) than other sports (∼35%). Most athletes (range: 50% [parasports] to 75% [endurance]) performed cardiorespiratory training (trivial sex differences). Compared to prelockdown, perceived training intensity was reduced by 29% to 41%, depending on sport (largest decline: ∼38% in team sports, unaffected by sex). Some athletes (range: 7%-49%) maintained their training intensity for strength, endurance, speed, plyometric, change-of-direction, and technical training. Athletes who previously trained ≥5 sessions per week reduced their volume (range: 18%-28%) during lockdown. The proportion of athletes (81%) training ≥60 min/session reduced by 31% to 43% during lockdown. Males and females had comparable moderate levels of training knowledge (56% vs 58%) and beliefs/attitudes (54% vs 56%).

CONCLUSIONS

Changes in athletes' training practices were sport-specific, with few or no sex differences. Team-based sports were generally more susceptible to changes than individual sports. Policy makers should provide athletes with specific training arrangements and educational resources to facilitate remote and/or home-based training during lockdown-type events.

Caffeine ingestion increases endurance performance of trained male cyclists when riding against a virtual opponent without altering muscle fatigue

PURPOSE

Caffeine improves cycling time trial (TT) performance; however, it is unknown whether caffeine is ergogenic when competing against other riders. The aim of this study was to investigate whether caffeine improves performance during a 4-km cycling TT when riding against a virtual opponent, and whether it is associated with increased muscle activation and at the expense of greater end-exercise central and peripheral fatigue.

METHODS

Using a randomized, crossover, and double-blind design, eleven well-trained cyclists completed a 4-km cycling TT alone without supplementation (CON), or against a virtual opponent after ingestion of placebo (OP-PLA) or caffeine (5 mg^.kg^-1, OP-CAF). Central and peripheral fatigue were quantified via the pre- to post-exercise decrease in voluntary activation and potentiated twitch force, respectively. Muscle activation was continually measured during the trial via electromyography activity.

RESULTS

Compared to CON, OP-PLA improved 4-km cycling TT performance (P = 0.018), and OP-CAF further improved performance when compared to OP-PLA (P = 0.050). Muscle activation was higher in OP-PLA and OP-CAF than in CON throughout the trial (P = 0.003). The pre- to post-exercise reductions in voluntary activation and potentiated twitch force were, however, similar between experimental conditions (P > 0.05). Compared to CON, OP-PLA increased the rating of perceived exertion during the first 2 km, but caffeine blunted this increase with no difference between the OP-CAF and CON conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Caffeine is ergogenic when riding against a virtual opponent, but this is not due to greater muscle activation or at the expense of greater end-exercise central or peripheral fatigue.

Tactical positioning in short-track speed skating: The utility of race-specific athlete-opponent interactions

In short-track speed skating, tactical positioning is essential for success as the race format (head-to-head) prioritises finishing position over finishing time. At present, our understanding of this phenomenon is based on measuring the similarity between athletes' intermediate and final rankings. However, as this approach groups athlete performances across races, each lap's estimate of tactical importance ignores the athlete-opponent interactions specific to each race. Here, we examine the utility of race-specific athlete-opponent interactions for investigating tactical positioning. Using intermediate and final rankings of elite 1,000 m short-track speed skating competitors collected from 2010/11 to 2017/18 (n = 6,196, races = 1,549), we compared the current method to a novel approach that accounted for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions. This approach first applied the current method to each race independently before using these values to form (1) discrete, empirical distributions of each lap's tactical importance and (2) race-specific tactical positioning sequences. Our results showed that accounting for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions provided a higher measurement granularity (i.e., level of detail) for investigating tactical positioning in short-track speed skating, which better captured the complexity of the phenomenon. We observed 61 different tactical positioning behaviours and 1,269 unique tactical positioning sequences compared to the current approach's nine-point estimates of tactical positioning importance. For this reason, we recommend that researchers and practitioners account for race-specific athlete-opponent interactions in the future as it offers a deeper understanding of tactical positioning that will enhance both strategic and tactical decisions.

The Problem of Effort Distribution in Heavy Glycolytic Trials with Special Reference to the 400 m Dash in Track and Field

Simple Summary

Short, intensive, but above lactate threshold physical trials or competitions which last <1 min but are close to this time limit, are on the border between glycolytic and aerobic efforts. The distribution of effort is critical in these tasks to achieve the best possible results. However, it is still unclear which of the general rules, descending from the theory, should be adopted by athletes (or any other subject facing a similar task). The 400 m dash competition of track and field has been taken in this systematic review as a paradigm for surveying the determinant factors which influence the pacing strategy and the end of effort. From the literature it emerges that there are several approaches, grounded in the philosophical basis of effort, which determine effort distribution. The problem is still open and a clear direction has not yet emerged from the available studies on the topic.

Abstract

Background. Biological factors are ultimately responsible for the cessation of effort in short, maximal glycolytic efforts. However, how these factors are sensed by the brain and act in a loop or feedforward way to regulate the distribution of effort is still unclear. Methods: A systematic review of existing literature on short term glycolytic exercise has been performed on publicly available databases (Google Scholar and Pudmed). Results: The problem of effort termination in fast maximal glycolytic activities after 100 years of research is still open. It is not clear if a central governor of effort exists, if the limitations are in the energy transport and utilization system, or in the psycho-social factors. Conclusions. The solution probably resides in a mixture of factors, but how the different components interact is still a mystery for science due to the philosophical grounding of the experimental approaches.

The Road to the Beijing Winter Olympics and Beyond: Opinions and Perspectives on Physiology and Innovation in Winter Sport

Beijing will host the 2022 Winter Olympics, and China strengthens research on various aspects to allow their athletes to compete successfully in winter sport. Simultaneously, Government-directed initiatives aim to increase public participation in recreational winter sport. These parallel developments allow research to advance knowledge and understanding of the physiological determinants of performance and health related to winter sport. Winter sport athletes often conduct a substantial amount of training with high volumes of low-to-moderate exercise intensity and lower volumes of high-intensity work. Moreover, much of the training occur at low ambient temperatures and winter sport athletes have high risk of developing asthma or asthma-related conditions, such as exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. The high training volumes require optimal nutrition with increased energy and dietary protein requirement to stimulate muscle protein synthesis response in the post-exercise period. Whether higher protein intake is required in the cold should be investigated. Cross-country skiing is performed mostly in Northern hemisphere with a strong cultural heritage and sporting tradition. It is expected that innovative initiatives on recruitment and training during the next few years will target to enhance performance of Chinese athletes in classical endurance-based winter sport. The innovation potential coupled with resourcing and population may be substantial with the potential for China to become a significant winter sport nation. This paper discusses the physiological aspects of endurance training and performance in winter sport highlighting areas where innovation may advance in athletic performance in cold environments. In addition, to ensure sustainable development of snow sport, a quality ski patrol and rescue system is recommended for the safety of increasing mass participation.

Older or Wiser? Age and Experience Trends in 20 Years of Olympic and World Swimming Championships Open Water 10-km Races

The aims of the present research were to estimate the age of peak performance (APP) and to examine the role of previous experience at the world-level open water race performances. Finishing positions and age of swimmers (639 females and 738 males) in the 10-km events of World Championship (WCH) and Olympic Games (OG) from 2000 to 2019 were obtained from the official results websites. Years of previous experience were computed using the number of previous participations in WCH or OG. APP was estimated using quadratic models of the 10th percentile top race positions and resulted in 28.94 years old for males (R² = 0.551) and 27.40 years old for females (R² = 0.613). Regression analysis revealed an improvement of 1.36 or 8.19 finishing positions for each additional year of age or experience, respectively (R² = 0.157). However, significant differences (p < 0.001) between age and experience showed that the swimmer's age became less relevant for performance as years of experience increased. These results, in terms of age, are in line with other mass-start disciplines of similar duration (≈2 h) and, in terms of experience, confirm the importance of previous participation in improving tactical decision making during open water races.

Stroking Rates of Open Water Swimmers during the 2019 FINA World Swimming Championships

The aim of the present research was to examine the stroking rate (SR) values of successful and non-successful swimmers in the 10 km and 25 km races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. Data from 175 participants (95 men and 80 female) were classified according to their finishing positions. There were no meaningful differences in the overall SR values displayed by successful or non-successful participants during the 10 km and 25 km open water races of the FINA 2019 World Swimming Championships. However, there were changes in the SR throughout the races that depended on the swimmer’s performance group and gender. Successful swimmers in the 10 km event typically displayed even SR in the first 5 km but, unlike the remaining performance groups, increased their SR at some point in the second 5 km of the race. In the 25 km race, successful female swimmers presented an even SR profile for most of the race, whereas successful males presented a more variable profile. Nevertheless, no relationships between partial or average SR and finishing positions occurred, either in the 10 km or in the 25 km race. Changes in the SR values should be included in the race plan of open water swimmers according to tactical and pacing strategies.

Effects of different goal orientations and virtual opponents performance level on pacing strategy and performance in cycling time trials

We investigated the effects of different performance goals (best time vs. beat the opponent) on pacing behaviour during a 10-km cycling race and explored the influence of different performance level of opponents on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), affective feelings and self-efficacy. Thirteen cyclists performed two time-trials (TT) and two races against a faster (FAST +6%) or a slower (SLOW -3%) virtual opponent. Power output (PO), RPE, affective feelings and self-efficacy were recorded at each kilometre point. Race average and race phases [starting (P1 = first kilometre); first half (P2 = 2nd-5th kilometre); second half (P3 = 6th-9th kilometre) and final sprint (FS = last kilometre)] were analysed. There was no difference in performance, assessed by race time between conditions (p = .84). PO during TT was lower in P3 compared to FS (p = .03; ES 0.6; 90%CI 0.4-0.7). In SLOW and FAST, PO was higher in P1 compared to other phases (p < .05). PO in FS was higher in TT compared to FAST (p = .01; ES -0.97; 90%IC -1.4 to -0.5). RPE increased and affective feelings decreased during all conditions. Self-efficacy was stable through TT and SLOW, but decreased during FAST with higher values in P1 compared to P2 (p = .01; ES -1.1; 90%IC -1.6 to -0.6), P3 (p < .001; ES -2.2; 90%IC -2.8 to -1.6) and FS (p < .001; ES -2.6; 90%IC -3.3 to -1.8). Pacing behaviour, specifically starting and final sprint, was affected by virtual opponents independent of performance level, demonstrating the importance of goal orientation. HighlightsAdjustments in exercise intensity result from a complex decision-making process involving physiological, psychological, environmental and tactical information.Goal pursuit is an important determinant of pacing behaviour since athletes must balance their efforts with expectations of success.A competitive environment may be included to motivate participants to maintain their effort and at the same time to improve their self-confidence.The presence of a final sprint seems to be related to the goal orientation and perceived outcomes of success or failure.

Pacing behaviour of middle-long distance running & race-walking athletes at the IAAF U18 and U20 World Championship finals

ABSTRACTThe current study analysed the pacing behaviour of athletes competing in the middle-long track event finals of the IAAF Under 18 and Under 20 World Championships between 2015 and 2018. Official finishing times, 1000-m split times and positioning data of 116 female and 153 male athletes, competing in the middle-long distance running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000 m) and race walking (5000 m and 10,000 m) events, were gathered. Repeated measures analysis of variance, with 1000-m speed as within-subjects factor and final ranking (medallist, Top 8 or Top 12, rest of the field) as between-subjects factor, was performed to compare the pacing behaviour between athletes. Positioning of the athletes was analysed by Kendall tau-b (T_b) correlation between the intermediate position and final position. Overall, medallists increased their speed throughout a race, with the exception of the 5000 m running event, in which a parabolic pacing behaviour was exhibited. The 1000-m segment in which a significant (P > 0.05) difference in speed was exhibited between differently ranked athletes coincided with a strong (T_b> 0.7) correlation between intermediate and final positioning. These combined results point towards a separation between the athletes during the race, as the Top 8 or Top 12 and the rest of the field are unable to match the speed of the medallists. The distance, discipline, sex, age category and behaviour of competitors all influence the pacing behaviour of young track athletes during international level competition, emphasising the importance and complexity of developing adequate pacing behaviour in track athletes. HighlightsThe distribution of effort over an exercise task (i.e. pacing) is an important factor in endurance exercise competition. The pacing behaviour of athletes is determined by many aspects, such as the biomechanical characteristics of the task, the exercise environment and the age of the athleteSport specific competition data from youth athlete sports events can provide insight into the pacing behaviour of developing athletes. These insights could assist in the optimalisation of the development of pacing behaviour of young athletes in the future.The current study analysed the 1000-m split times and positioning data of athletes competing in the running (3000 m, 5000 m and 10,000) and racewalking (5000 m and 10,000m) finals of the U18 and U20 IAAF world-championship.The difference in final ranking impacted the pacing behaviour of the athletes, with the medallists increasing their speed throughout the race and the other athletes separating from the medallists either early (rest of field) or later in the race (Top 8 or Top 12 athletes).

Longitudinal Master Track and Field Performance Decline Rates Are Lower and Performance Is Better Compared to Athletes Competing Only Once

In master athletics research, cross-sectional data are easier to obtain than longitudinal data. While cross-sectional data give the age-related performance decline for a population, longitudinal data show individual trajectories. It is not known whether athletes who repeatedly compete have (a) a better performance and (b) a slower age-related decline in performance than that obtained from cross-sectional data from athletes competing only once. To investigate this, we analyzed 33 254 results of 14 118 male athletes from 8 disciplines in the database of "Swedish Veteran Athletics." For each discipline and for the pooled data of all disciplines, quadratic models of the evolution of performance over time were analyzed by ANCOVA/ANOCOVA using MATLAB. The performance was higher in athletes with 2 or more data points compared to those with only n = 1 (p < .001), with further increases in performance with an increasing number of data points per athlete. The estimated performance decline was lower in people with 2 or more results (sprint, 10 km, jumps; p < .001). In conclusion, we showed that longitudinal data are associated with higher performance and lower performance decline rates.

25 Years of Session Rating of Perceived Exertion: Historical Perspective and Development

The session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) method was developed 25 years ago as a modification of the Borg concept of rating of perceived exertion (RPE), designed to estimate the intensity of an entire training session. It appears to be well accepted as a marker of the internal training load. Early studies demonstrated that sRPE correlated well with objective measures of internal training load, such as the percentage of heart rate reserve and blood lactate concentration. It has been shown to be useful in a wide variety of exercise activities ranging from aerobic to resistance to games. It has also been shown to be useful in populations ranging from patients to elite athletes. The sRPE is a reasonable measure of the average RPE acquired across an exercise session. Originally designed to be acquired ∼30 minutes after a training bout to prevent the terminal elements of an exercise session from unduly influencing the rating, sRPE has been shown to be temporally robust across periods ranging from 1 minute to 14 days following an exercise session. Within the training impulse concept, sRPE, or other indices derived from sRPE, has been shown to be able to account for both positive and negative training outcomes and has contributed to our understanding of how training is periodized to optimize training outcomes and to understand maladaptations such as overtraining syndrome. The sRPE as a method of monitoring training has the advantage of extreme simplicity. While it is not ideal for the precise recording of the details of the external training load, it has large advantages relative to evaluating the internal training load.

The Impact of Sex and Performance Level on Pacing Behavior in a 24-h Ultramarathon

Purpose: We analyzed the impact of sex, performance level and substantial speed reductions (SSR) on pacing in the VI Rio 24-h Marines Ultramarathon. This will provide insights into the importance of minimizing speed variations in relation to optimal pacing in endurance events.

Methods: Runners (30 males and 21 females), classified as high- (HP) and low-performance (LP) ran the race while having their time recorded every 400 m. The pacing was analyzed as the first 10% (initial epoch), the following 80% (intermediate epoch) and the last 10% of the race (final epoch). The time percentage spent at speeds <3.5 km·h⁻¹ (SSR), 3.5 to 5.9 km·h⁻¹ (walking speed), 6.0 to 8.0 km·h⁻¹ (walk-to-running transition speed) and > 8.0 km·h⁻¹ (running speed) was calculated.

Results: Runners showed a reverse J-shaped pacing (P < 0.001) regardless of sex and performance level, although male (P < 0.004) and HP runners (P < 0.001) have preserved a higher mean speed throughout the race. Male and HP runners spent more time at running speed (P < 0.001) and less time at SSR (P < 0.001) than female and LP runners. Total distance was inversely correlated with the number of SSR and speed CV in male (r = −0.47 and r = −0.64, respectively) and female (r = −0.61 and r = −0.47, respectively).

Conclusion: Male, HP runners showed less SSR, conserving a higher mean speed with less variation throughout the race. Results suggest that conservative pacing strategies, with lower speeds in the beginning and higher speeds toward the end, may be the most adequate for different endurance running disciplines. Results also show different competition dynamics between men and women, which warrants further exploration in ultramarathons as well as other IAAF events.

Preexercise Cycling Protocol Alters Pacing Behavior in Competitive Time Trials

PURPOSE

The behavior of an opponent has been shown to alter pacing and performance. To advance our understanding of the impact of perceptual stimuli such as an opponent on pacing and performance, this study examined the effect of a preexercise cycling protocol on exercise regulation with and without an opponent.

METHODS

Twelve trained cyclists performed 4 experimental, self-paced 4-km time-trial conditions on an advanced cycle ergometer in a randomized, counterbalanced order. Participants started the time trial in rested state (RS) or performed a 10-min cycling protocol at 67% peak power output (CP) before the time trial. During the time trials, participants had to ride alone (NO) or against a virtual opponent (OP). The experimental conditions were (1) RS-NO, (2) RS-OP, (3) CP-NO, and (4) CP-OP. Repeated-measures analyses of variance (P < .05) were used to examine differences in pacing and performance in terms of power output.

RESULTS

A faster pace was adopted in the first kilometer during RS-OP (318 [72] W) compared with RS-NO (291 [81] W; P = .03), leading to an improved finishing time during RS-OP compared with RS-NO (P = .046). No differences in either pacing or performance were found between CP-NO and CP-OP.

CONCLUSIONS

The evoked response by the opponent to adopt a faster initial pace in the 4-km time trial disappeared when cyclists had to perform a preceding cycling protocol. The outcomes of this study highlight that perceived exertion alters the responsiveness to perceptual stimuli of cyclists during competition.

Partial sleep deprivation affects endurance performance and psychophysiological responses during 12-minute self-paced running exercise

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the effects of partial sleep deprivation (PSD) on physical performance and psychophysiological responses during 12-minute self-paced running exercise.

METHODS

Twenty runners (20.8±1.1 years, 70.6±4.9 kg, 175.1±3.9 cm) performed, in a randomized order, two running self-paced field exercises after a normal sleep night (CONT, bedtime from 22:30 h to 06:30 h) and one night of PSD (bedtime from 00:30 h to 04:30 h). Core temperature and motivation were recorded before exercise. Speed, covered distance, heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and respiratory parameters (i.e., minute ventilation (VE), oxygen uptake (VO₂) and carbon dioxide production (VCO₂)) were assessed during exercise. Blood lactate concentration [La] was assessed 2 min after exercise. Simple reaction time (SRT), mood and barrage test (BT) were assessed before and after exercise.

RESULTS

Higher RPE (p=0.01, d=0.90) and lower physical performance (i.e., p=0.001, d=0.59 for running speed and p=0.01, d=0.7 and Δ (%)=-6% for covered distance), following PSD, were obtained compared to CONT. Similarly, PSD attenuated core temperature (p=0.01, d=0.84), HR (p=0.006, ɳp²=0.45), VE (p=0.001, ɳp²=0.73), VO₂ (p=0.001, ɳp²=0.96), BT (p<0.0005, ɳp²=0.86), SRT (p=0.0009, ɳp²=0.44) and mood (p<0.0005). However, VCO₂, [La] and motivation score were not affected by sleep conditions.

CONCLUSION

The decrease of running performance and the increase of physical discomfort after PSD could be the origin of the lower cardio-respiratory responses to the 12-minute self-paced exercise. Effective strategies should be introduced to overcome the deterioration of physical performance and physiological responses after PSD.

Pre-planned Vs. Executed Real-Time Pacing Strategies during 3-km Race: Role of Rating Perceived Exertion

Purpose: The aim of the study was to verify the agreement between preplanned and executed pacing during a 3-km race and determine whether adjustments are mediated by the rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Method: Thirteen young runners (eight males and five females, 17.5 ± 2.1 and 17.0 ± 1.6 years old, respectively) with national and international experience participated in the study. Before the simulated competition, the athletes informed of their preplanned pacing for the distance through a dashboard with the most common pacing profiles and were also asked to complete a questionnaire communicating their preplanned RPE for each lap of race. During 3-km, heart rate (HR), executed RPE and lap time were recorded. Results: Our results showed no significant association between preplanned and executed pacing (p = .631). Moreover, no significant difference between preplanned and executed RPE was found, including the analysis by laps and phases. RPE and HR increased over time during the race (p < .001). Conclusions: The athletes changed from their preplanned pacing, however, their RPE were similar in the preplanned and executed during the 3-km race. These findings indicate that the RPE could be responsible for adjustments in the pacing strategy.

Metabolic Cost of Paddling on Different Commercially Available Kayak Ergometers

PURPOSE

To compare the metabolic cost of paddling on different commercially available kayak ergometers using a standardized kayak incremental exercise protocol.

METHODS

Six male sprint kayak athletes undertook an incremental exercise protocol on 3 different kayak ergometers utilizing a randomized counterbalanced pair-matched design.

RESULTS

Mean maximal aerobic power on the WEBA ergometer (265 [14] W) was significantly higher than on the Dansprint (238 [9] W) and KayakPro® (247 [21] W, P < .01, effect size [ES] = 0.80). At the fifth stage, absolute oxygen consumption on the WEBA (3.82 [0.25] L·min-1) was significantly lower (P < 0.05, ES = 0.20) than KayakPro and Dansprint (4.10 [0.28] and 4.08 [0.27] L·min-1, respectively). Blood lactate concentration response at the sixth stage was significantly lower for the WEBA (3.5 [0.8] mmol·L-1), compared with KayakPro and Dansprint (5.4 [1.2] and 5.6 [1.5] mmol·L-1, P = .012, ES = 0.20). Stroke rate was significantly higher, without any effect of pacing during the submaximal stages for the Dansprint, compared with the WEBA (P < .001, ES = 0.28) and KayakPro (P < .001, ES = 0.38). A pacing effect was present at the maximal stage for all ergometers.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that paddling on different kayak ergometers when controlling power output elicits different metabolic and work outputs. It is recommended that scientists and coaches avoid testing on different ergometers and regularly calibrate these devices. Moreover, when an ergometer has been calibrated against a first principle device, it is necessary to consider calibration of various drag settings, due to their impact on stroke rate. Further research should explore the relationship between drag settings and stroke rate.

Winning by hiding behind others: An analysis of speed skating data

In some athletic races, such as cycling and types of speed skating races, athletes have to complete a relatively long distance at a high speed in the presence of direct opponents. To win such a race, athletes are motivated to hide behind others to suppress energy consumption before a final moment of the race. This situation seems to produce a social dilemma: players want to hide behind others, whereas if a group of players attempts to do so, they may all lose to other players that overtake them. To support that speed skaters are involved in such a social dilemma, we analyzed video footage data for 14 mass start skating races to find that skaters that hid behind others to avoid air resistance for a long time before the final lap tended to win. Furthermore, the finish rank of the skaters in mass start races was independent of the record of the same skaters in time-trial races measured in the absence of direct opponents. The results suggest that how to strategically cope with a skater's dilemma may be a key determinant for winning long-distance and high-speed races with direct opponents.

Pacing Behavior Development of Youth Short-Track Speed Skaters: A Longitudinal Study

PURPOSE

This study aimed to analyze the development of pacing behavior of athletes during adolescence using a longitudinal design.

METHODS

Lap times of male short-track speed skaters (140 skaters, 573 race performances) over two or more 1500-m races during Junior World Championships between 2010 and 2018 were analyzed. Races were divided into four sections (laps 1-3, 4-7, 8-11, and 12-14). Using MLwiN (P < 0.05), multilevel prediction models in which repeated measures (level 1) were nested within individual athletes (level 2) were used to analyze the effect of age (15-20 yr), race type (fast, slow), and stage of competition (final, nonfinal) on absolute section times and relative section times (percentage of total time spent in a section).

RESULTS

Between the ages of 15 and 20 yr, total race time decreased (-6.99 s) and skaters reached lower absolute section time in laps 8-11 (-2.33 s) and 12-14 (-3.28 s). The relative section times of laps 1-3 (1.42%) and 4-7 (0.66%) increased and of laps 8-11 (-0.53%) and 12-14 (-1.54%) decreased with age. Fast races were more evenly paced compared with slow races, with slow races having a predominantly slow first half and fast finish. Athletes in finals were faster (2.29 s), specifically in laps 4-7 (0.85 s) and laps 8-11 (0.84 s).

CONCLUSION

Throughout adolescence, short-track speed skaters develop more conservative pacing behavior, reserving energy during the start of the race in order to achieve a higher velocity in the final section of the race and a decrease in total race time. Coaches should take into consideration that the pacing behavior of young athletes develops during adolescence, prepare athletes for the differences in velocity distribution between race types, and inform them on how to best distribute their efforts over the different stages of competition.

Effects of Experience and Opponents on Pacing Behavior and 2-km Cycling Performance of Novice Youths

Purpose: To study the pacing behavior and performance of novice youth exercisers in a controlled laboratory setting. Method: Ten healthy participants (seven male, three female, 15.8 ± 1.0 years) completed four, 2-km trials on a Velotron cycling ergometer. Visit 1 was a familiarization trial. Visits 2 to 4 involved the following conditions, in randomized order: no opponent (NO), a virtual opponent (starting slow and finishing fast) (OP-SLOWFAST), and a virtual opponent (starting fast and finishing slow) (OP-FASTSLOW). Repeated measurement ANOVAs (p < .05) were used to examine differences in both pacing behavior and also performance related to power output, finishing- and split times, and RPE between the four successive visits and the three conditions. Expected performance outcome was measured using a questionnaire. Results: Power output increased (F_3,27 = 5.651, p = .004, η²_p = .386) and finishing time decreased (F_3,27 = 9.972, p < .001, η²_p = .526) between visit 1 and visits 2, 3 and 4. In comparison of the first and second visit, the difference between expected finish time and actual finishing time decreased by 66.2%, regardless of condition. The only significant difference observed in RPE score was reported at the 500 m point, where RPE was higher during visit 1 compared to visits 3 and 4, and during visit 2 compared to visit 4 (p < .05). No differences in pacing behavior, performance, or RPE were found between conditions (p > .05). Conclusion: Performance was improved by an increase in experience after one visit, parallel with the ability to anticipate future workload.

Racing Fast and Slow: Defining the Tactical Behavior That Differentiates Medalists in Elite Men's 1,500 m Championship Racing

Background: 1,500 m running has long been a blue ribbon event of track championship racing. The eventual medalists employ common tactical behaviors such as a fast sustained pace from the start (gun-to-tape), or, slow initial laps that precede a precisely timed race kick. Before the kick, there are positional changes caused by surging, that can go uncharacterized. The inter-relationship of surge events, tactical positioning, and kick execution may have important implications for eventual medal winning outcomes and require further definition.

Methods: In a randomized order, three middle-distance running experts were provided publically available video (YouTube) of 16 men's 1,500 m championship races across, European, World and Olympic championships. Each expert determined the occurrence of surges (defined as any point in the 1,500 m after the first 300 m where an athlete repositions by ≥3 places; or noticeably dictates a raise in the pace from the front) and the race kick. Following a second level verification of expert observations, tactical behaviors (quantity and distance marker within each race) mean distance from the finish were compared between fast (≤3:34.00, n = 5), medium (>3:34.00– ≤3:41.99, n = 7) and slow (≥3:42.00, n = 4) race categories.

Results: Before the race kick, there were more surges in slow (5 ± 1.7, mean ±90% confidence limits) vs. fast races (1 ± 0.4, very large difference, very likely). The final surge before the race kick occurred earlier in fast (704 ± 133 m from the finish) vs. medium (427 ± 83 m, large difference, most likely), and slow races (370 ± 137 m, large difference, most likely). At initiation of the race kick in fast races, large positional differences were found between eventual gold (2 ± 1.2; likely) and silver (2.2 ± 1.6; likely) vs. bronze medalists (4.4 ± 1.2). In slow races, positional differences were unclear between eventual gold (4.3 ± 4.7), silver (4.8 ± 4.8) and bronze medalists (5.3 ± 1.5). Regardless of category, the race kick occurred on the last lap, with unclear differences between fast 244 ± 92 m medium 243 ± 56 m and slow 236 ± 142 m races.

Conclusions: Presenting tactical behaviors by race categorization (slow, medium, fast race times), provides a novel understanding of the nuance of racing tactics. The present findings highlight the importance of considering within race athlete decision making across multiple-race scenarios during championship preparation.

Head-to-head competition does not affect pacing or performance in 1 km cycling time trials

Previous research has shown enhanced performance and altered pacing behaviour in the presence of a virtual opponent during middle-distance cycling time trials with a duration of 2 min and longer. The purpose of this study was to determine whether these effects are also present in cycling time trials of shorter duration. Twelve physically active men completed three 1-km time trials. After a familiarisation trial (FAM), participants performed two experimental conditions: one without opponent (NO) and one with a virtual opponent (OP). Repeated-measures ANOVAs were used to assess differences in pacing and performance using power output and duration (p<0.05). No differences in mean finishing times (FAM: 91.5 ± 7.7 s; NO: 91.6 ± 6.4 s; OP: 90.9 ± 4.9 s; p=0.907) or power output (FAM: 382 ± 111 W; NO: 363 ± 80 W; OP: 367 ± 67; p=0.564) were found between experimental conditions. Furthermore, no differences in pacing profiles between experimental conditions were found (p=0.199). Similarly, rate of perceived exertion did not differ between experimental conditions at any moment (p=0.831). In conclusion, unlike events of a more prolonged duration (>2 min), the presence of an opponent did not affect participants' pacing behaviour in short duration 1-km time trials.

The effects of a single night of complete and partial sleep deprivation on physical and cognitive performance: A Bayesian analysis

This study investigated the effects of complete and partial sleep deprivation on multiple aspects of athletic performance. Ten males completed a cognitive function test, maximal handgrip strength, countermovement jump (CMJ) and a 15 min all out cycling test to assess aerobic performance. These tests were performed following 3 different sleep conditions; normal sleep (CON), a 4 hr sleep opportunity (PART) and complete sleep deprivation (DEP). Data were analysed using a Bayesian multi-level regression model to provide probabilities of impairment (p = %). Aerobic performance, CMJ and handgrip strength were impaired by 11.4% (p = 100%), 10.9% (p = 100%) and 6% (p = 97%) following DEP, while aerobic performance and CMJ were highly likely impaired by 4.1% (p = 90%) and 5.2% (p = 94%) following PART. Cognitive reaction time was not impacted by PART or DEP. In contrast the accuracy of responses was highly likely impaired by 2% (91) following DEP, while there was less certainty of impaired accuracy following PART (-1%, p = 73). Multiple aspects of physical and cognitive performance were impacted by sleep deprivation. The greatest detrimental effects were seen for aerobic performance and CMJ. Partial sleep deprivation equating to 4 hrs of sleep causes subtle, but potentially important negative impairments on athletic performance.

Optimal Development of Youth Athletes Toward Elite Athletic Performance: How to Coach Their Motivation, Plan Exercise Training, and Pace the Race

Elite athletes have invested many years in training and competition to reach the elite level. One very important factor on the road to elite performance is the decision-making process regarding the regulation of effort over time, termed as pacing behavior. The regulation of effort is vital for optimal athletic performance during a single race and over a longer period of time (e.g., a competitive season) as an inadequate regulation could result in a higher risk of injuries, overtraining, and drop-out. Despite this, there is limited knowledge on how young athletes learn and develop the abilities related to pacing. Pacing behavior of athletes develops from childhood throughout adolescence and is thought to be closely connected to physical maturation, the development of pre-frontal cortical related (meta-) cognitive functions, as well as the gathering of experience with exercise tasks. The motivation of an athlete can critically influence how an athlete paces a single race, but also how they distribute their effort over a longer period of time. Coaches are advised to closely monitor the development of pacing behavior during adolescence (e.g., by gathering split times, and related physiological measurement, during training and competition), as well as the underlying factors including physical maturation (meta-) cognitive development and the motivation of young athletes. Furthermore, pacing behavior development could be aided by providing training in which the task, individual, and environment are manipulated. Hereby, presenting athletes with the opportunity to gain experience in situations which closely resemble the perceptual-motor conditions of upcoming competitions.

The Science Behind Competition and Winning in Athletics: Using World-Level Competition Data to Explore Pacing and Tactics

The purpose of this study was to examine whether World Championship and Olympic medallist endurance athletes pace similarly to their race opponents, where and when critical differences in intra-race pacing occur, and the tactical strategies employed to optimally manage energy resources. We analyzed pacing and tactics across the 800, 1,500, 5,000, 10,000 m, marathon and racewalk events, providing a broad overview for optimal preparation for racing and pacing. Official electronic splits from men's (n = 275 performances) and women's (n = 232 performances) distance races between 2013 and 2017 were analyzed. Athletes were grouped for the purposes of analysis and comparison. For the 800 m, these groups were the medalists and those finishing 4th to 8th ("Top 8"). For the 1,500 m, the medalists and Top 8 were joined by those finishing 9th to 12th ("Top 12"), whereas for all other races, the Top 15 were analyzed (those finishing 9th to 15th). One-way repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted on the segment speeds (p < 0.05), with effect sizes for differences calculated using Cohen's d. Positive pacing profiles were common to most 800 m athletes, whereas negative pacing was more common over longer distances. In the 1,500 m, male medalists separated from their rivals in the last 100 m, whereas for women it was after 1,200 m. Similarly, over 5,000 m, male medalists separated from the slowest pack members later (4,200 m; 84% of duration) than women (2,500 m; 50% of duration). In the 10,000 m race, the effect was very pronounced with men packing until 8,000 m, with the Top 8 athletes only dropped at 9,600 m (96% of duration). For women, the slowest pack begin to run slower at only 1,700 m, with the Top 8 finishers dropped at 5,300 m (53% of duration). Such profiles and patterns were seen across all events. It is possible the earlier separation in pacing for women between the medalists and the other runners was because of tactical racing factors such as an early realization of being unable to sustain the required speed, or perhaps because of greater variation in performance abilities.

Athlete-Opponent Interdependency Alters Pacing and Information-Seeking Behavior

PURPOSE

The influence of interdependency between competitors on pacing decision-making and information-seeking behavior has been explored. This has been done by only altering instructions, and thereby action possibilities, while controlling environment (i.e., competitor behavior) and exercise task.

METHODS

Twelve participants performed a 4-km time trial on a Velotron cycle ergometer in a randomized, counterbalanced order alone with no virtual opponent (NO), against a virtual opponent with no restrictions (low athlete-opponent interdependency [OP-IND]), or against a virtual opponent who the participant was permitted to overtake only once during the trial (high athlete-opponent interdependency [OP-DEP]). Information-seeking behavior was evaluated using an SMI eye tracker. Differences in pacing, performance, and information-seeking behavior were examined using repeated-measures ANOVA (P < 0.05).

RESULTS

Neither mean power output (NO, 298 ± 35 W; OP-IND, 297 ± 38 W; OP-DEP, 296 ± 37 W) nor finishing time (NO, 377.7 ± 17.4 s; OP-IND, 379.3 ± 19.5 s; OP-DEP, 378.5 ± 17.7 s) differed between experimental conditions. However, power output was lower in the first kilometer of OP-DEP compared with the other experimental conditions (NO, 332 ± 59 W; OP-IND, 325 ± 62 W; OP-DEP, 316 ± 58 W; both P < 0.05), and participants decided to wait longer before they overtook their opponent (OP-IND, 137 ± 130 s; OP-DEP, 255 ± 107 s; P = 0.040). Moreover, total fixation time spent on the avatar of the virtual opponent increased when participants were only allowed to overtake once (OP-IND, 23.3 ± 16.6 s; OP-DEP, 55.8 ± 32.7 s; P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

A higher interdependency between athlete and opponent altered pacing behavior in terms of in-race adaptations based on opponent's behavior, and it induced an increased attentional focus on the virtual opponent. Thus, in the context of exercise regulation, attentional cues are likely to be used in an adaptive way according to their availability and situational relevance, consistent with a decision-making framework based on the interdependence of perception and action.

Influence of a slow-start on overall performance and running kinematics during 6-h ultramarathon races

The aim of this study was to describe the pacing during a 6-h ultramarathon (race 1) and to investigate whether a slow-start affects performance, running kinematic changes, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and fatigue (ROF) (race 2). After a critical speed test, participants completed two 6-h ultramarathons. Race 1 (n = 16) was self-paced, whereas in race 2 (n = 10), athletes performed the initial 36 min at speeds 18% below the mean speed of the initial 36 min of race 1. In race 1, participants adopted an inverse sigmoid pacing. Contact times increased after 1 h, and flight times decreased after 30 min (all P ≤ .009); stride length reduced after 1 h 30 min (all P = .022), and stride frequency did not change. Despite the lower speeds during the first 10% of race 2, and higher speeds at 50% and 90%, performance remained unchanged (57.5 ± 10.2 vs. 56.3 ± 8.5 km; P = .298). However, RPE and ROF were lowered for most of race 2 duration (all P < .001). For the comparison of kinematic variables between races, data were normalised by absolute running speed at each time point from 1 h onwards. No differences were found for any of the kinematic variables. In conclusion, decreasing initial speed minimises RPE and ROF, but does not necessarily affect performance. In addition, running kinematic changes do not seem to be affected by pacing manipulation.

Pacing of Women and Men in Half-Marathon and Marathon Races

Background and objective: Half-marathon is the most popular endurance running race in terms of number of races and runners competing annually; however, no study has compared pacing strategies for this race distance with marathon. The aim of the present study was to profile pacing in half-marathon, compare half-marathon and marathon for pacing, and estimate sex differences in pacing. Materials and methods: A total of 9137 finishers in the half-marathon (n = 7258) and marathon race (n = 1853) in Ljubljana 2017 were considered for their pacing in five race segments (0–23.7%, 23.7–47.4%, 47.4–71.1%, 71.1–94.8%, and 94.8–100% of the race. Results: Half-marathon runners followed a positive pacing with every segment being slower than its previous one without the presence of an endspurt. Compared to marathon (where the average percent of change in speed (ACS) was 5.71%), a more even pacing was observed in half-marathon (ACS = 4.10%). Moreover, women (ACS = 4.11%) had similar pacing as men (ACS = 4.09%) in half-marathons. Conclusions: In summary, running a half-marathon followed a unique pattern that differentiated this race distance from marathon, with the former showing a more even pacing with an absence of endspurt, and sex difference compared to the latter. Consequently, runners should be advised to adopt a less variable pacing when competing in a half-marathon, regardless of their sex. To the best of our knowledge, the more even pacing in half-marathon, than in marathon, was a novel finding, as it was the first study to compare the two race distances for this characteristic.