The Relationship Between Actual and Perceived Motor Competence in Children, Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Identifying profiles of actual and perceived motor competence measured with aligned instruments: Differences in (enjoyment of) physical fitness

A person-centred approach was used to examine whether children with various actual and perceived motor competence (AMC and PMC) profiles differ in (enjoyment of) physical fitness (PF). The strength of the relationship between AMC and PMC was also assessed through aligned assessment tools. A sample of 287 7-11-year-old children (47.40% boys, Mage = 8.92 ± .78 years) was assessed on AMC with the KörperkoordinationsTest für Kinder (KTK3), and on PF with six validated fitness tests. Animated videos fully aligned with the AMC- and PF-tests were used to assess children's PMC and enjoyment of PF, respectively. Cluster analyses identified one convergent (i.e. high AMC-high PMC) and three partially convergent AMC-PMC profiles (i.e. low AMC-high PMC). Furthermore, children with relatively high AMC (i.e. high-average profile) reported higher PF (F = 30.99, p < .001), while children with relatively high PMC (i.e. average-high profile) reported higher enjoyment of PF (F = 9.02, p < .001). The correlation between AMC and PMC was significant but weak (r = .16). Overall, it seems important to invest in both children's AMC and PMC as they may support a higher (enjoyment of) PF, potentially leading to higher PA-levels.

An Evaluation of the Reliability of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence and Its Relationship With Actual Water Competence

In its recent development, the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence (PSPWC) showed good face and construct validity. However, additional reliability and validity research is needed, including test-retest reliability and a demonstration of the relationship between PSPWEC test scores and actual water competence. Toward that aim, we administered the PSPWC to 124 children, aged 5-8 years. We repeated this test administration after one week for a subset of 55 children to determine its test-retest reliability, and the remaining 69 children also performed the fully aligned Actual Aquatic Skills Test (AAST) in an indoor swimming pool to provide data for our investigation of the relationship between PSPWC scores and actual water competence. We found good test-retest reliability, both at the global level (ICC = 0.81, n = 55) and at the level of individual skills (Weighted kappa coefficients from 0.58 to 0.90), with no significant differences between these two test scores. We also found a moderate positive relationship between PSPWC and AAST total scores (r = .64, n = 69), with no significant difference between total scores of actual and perceived water competencies. Children overestimated their competence in three specific skills: the back star, swimming on the front, and diving in deep water. While these results underline specific situations in which children's higher self-perceptions of their water competence are a risk factor for their water safety, these data confirm that the PSPWC is reliable for measuring children's perceived competencies in aquatic education and drowning prevention, and there is further support for its validity through a moderate correlation with actual water competencies.

A person-centred investigation of the associations between actual and perceived physical fitness among youth with intellectual disabilities

The main objective of this person-centred study was to identify profiles of actual and perceived physical fitness among a sample of youth with intellectual disabilities (ID). Participants were 377 youth (60.4% boys) with mild (49.6%) to moderate (50.4%) ID recruited in Australia and Canada. Latent profile analyses revealed five profiles: (1) Underestimation of Average Physical Fitness (5.5% of the sample); (2) Moderate Overestimation of Low Physical Fitness (17.7%), (3) Moderate Underestimation of Average Physical Fitness (31.3%); (4) High Overestimation of Average Physical Fitness (28.3%); and (5) Moderate Underestimation of High Physical Fitness with an Accurate Estimation of Average Flexibility (17.2%). Profiles 1, 2, and 3 relatives to Profiles 4 and 5 included younger participants, more participants with moderate levels of ID, and participants with a higher body mass index. Additionally, profiles 1 and 3 also included a higher proportion of youth pursuing externally-driven motives and less frequently involved in sports outside of the school. In sum, our findings showed that the tendency of youth with ID to rely on upward or downward-lateral social comparisons may have resulted in a depreciation or overestimation of their low levels of physical fitness.

Psychometric evaluation of the pictorial scale of perceived movement skill competence in Chinese children: An item response theory analysis

AIM

This study aimed to investigate the psychometric characteristics of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) in Chinese children, utilizing the principles of item response theory (IRT).

METHODS

A total of 284 children (147 boys), aged 4-10 years (Mage = 7.39, SD = 2.18), from four schools were recruited for testing, adhering to the principle of random sampling. The Rasch model was applied to evaluate the rating scale validity, local independence, scale dimensionality, person and item fit statistics, and differential item functioning (DIF).

RESULTS

(1) The rating scale validity was confirmed by the monotonically increasing trend in both average item difficulty measures and Andrich thresholds. (2) However, the observation that standardized residual correlations for all items remained below 0.3 unequivocally confirmed the presence of local independence among the variables. (3) The scale's dimensions were substantiated, with Rasch measures explaining 40.6% of total variance, exceeding the 40% threshold. Additionally, the first contrast had an eigenvalue of 1.8 and explained 8.80% of the variance, both exceeding the minimum 3:1 ratio. Consequently, the unidimensionality assumption of the item was supported. (4) Person and item fit statistics indicated requisite reliability and separation, with all achieving suitable infit and outfit measures, and point-biserial correlations exceeding 0.55. (5) Regarding gender DIF, it was observed that the majority of items did not exhibit statistically significant gender DIF effects (p > 0.05) except item 8 (Bounce a ball, t = -2.74, p < 0.01, DIF = -0.51).

CONCLUSION

Rasch analysis revealed that the instrument exhibited strong scale validity among Chinese children, adhering to the Rasch model's unidimensionality and local independence principles, with robust person and item reliability and separation. All items demonstrated a good fit. Additionally, the significant gender difference in item 8 (Bounce a ball) warrants further consideration. In conclusion, PMSC is suitable for assessing the PMSC of Chinese children.

Is there an association between proficiency in fundamental movement skills and mderate-to-vigorous physical activity in childhood on weekdays and weekends? The REACT project

OBJECTIVE

The present study probes into the association between children's fundamental movement skills (FMS) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during weekdays and weekends.

METHODS

This cross-sectional sample included 1014 children aged 6-10 years from the REACT project. Physical activity was assessed with accelerometry, and five FMS (stationary dribble, kick, catch, overhand throw, and underhand roll) were assessed with the digital platform Meu Educativo®. Three groups were formed based on the frequency of FMS that each child mastered: group 1 (wizard level in four or five FMS); group 2 (wizard level in two or three FMS); and group 3 (wizard level in at most one skill). Multilevel models were used to analyze the data treating children (level-1) nested within schools (level-2).

RESULTS

Compared to group 1, groups 2 (-12.9 ± 2.3 min day-1) and 3 (-23.9 ± 2.4 min day-1) were less physically active during weekdays and weekends (group 2: -14.7 ± 2.7 min day-1 and group 3: -22.4 ± 2.9 min day-1), independent of age and sex. There was a decline in MVPA during the weekend. Further, on average, boys were more active than girls, and with increasing age, children were less active.

CONCLUSION

On average, children with higher FMS levels are generally more physically active than their peers with lower FMS levels. Even though MVPA tends to decline on weekends, FMS proficiency is a significant factor in maintaining 60 min of MVPA on weekends.

Psychometric Properties of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Norwegian Children

The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) for young Norwegian children, a scale that is aligned with skills assessed in the Test of Gross Motor Development- Third Edition. We used convenience sampling to recruit 396 Norwegian-speaking children (7-10-year-olds) who completed the PMSC. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed factorial validity for the proposed three-factor model of the PMSC, encompassing measures of self-perceived ball, locomotor, and active play competence. Internal item consistency coefficients of these sub-scales were acceptable, and subsequent measurement invariant analysis found a gender difference such that boys rated their competence higher than girls in running, jumping forward, hitting a ball (racket), kicking, throwing a ball and rope climbing, while girls rated themselves higher, compared to boys, in galloping and skating/blading. Furthermore, there was a slightly better model fit for boys than for girls. Several items were significantly related to children's age, and the three-factor model exhibited differential age related factor mean differences across older and younger children. Overall, we found the PMSC to have acceptable psychometric properties for confident use in assessing perceived motor competence among 7-10-year-old Norwegian children, though we observed age and gender differences in children's responses that warrant careful interpretation of results and further research investigation.

Associations Between Motor Competence and Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Motor competence and executive functions co-develop throughout childhood and adolescence, and there is emerging evidence that improvements in motor competence may have cognitive benefits in these populations. There is a need to provide a quantitative synthesis of the cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies that have examined the association between motor competence and executive functions in school-aged youth.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of our systematic review was to synthesise evidence of the association between motor competence and executive functions in school-aged children and adolescents (5-18 years). Our secondary aim was to examine key moderators of this association.

METHODS

We searched the PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and EMBASE databases from inception up to 27 June 2023. We included cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies that assessed the association between motor competence (e.g., general motor competence, locomotor skills, object control skills and stability skills) and executive functions (e.g., general executive functions, inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility) in children and adolescents aged 5-18 years.

RESULTS

In total, 12,117 records were screened for eligibility, and 44 studies were included. From the 44 included studies, we meta-analysed 37 studies with 251 effect sizes using a structural equation modelling approach in the statistical program R. We found a small positive association (r = 0.18, [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13-0.22]) between motor competence and executive functions. The positive associations were observed in cross-sectional (r = 0.17, [95% CI 0.13-0.22]), longitudinal (r = 0.15, [95% CI 0.03-0.28]) and experimental studies (r = 0.25, [95% CI 0.01-0.45]). We also found that general motor competence (r = 0.25, [95% CI 0.18-0.33]), locomotor (r = 0.15, [95% CI 0.09-0.21]), object control (r = 0.14, [95% CI 0.08-0.20]) and stability (r = 0.14, [95% CI 0.08-0.20]) skills were associated with executive functions. We did not find any moderating effects for participants' age on the associations between motor competence and executive functions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest a small-to-moderate positive association between motor competence and executive functions in children and adolescents. The small number of experimental studies included in this review support the assertion that interventions targeting children's motor competence may be a promising strategy to improve their executive functions; however, more research is needed to confirm these findings. Future studies should explore the underlying mechanisms linking motor competence and executive functions as their comprehension may be used to optimise future intervention design and delivery.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION

CRD42021285134.

The "thinking system" in a new school concept: A rhythmic teaching approach in physical education to develop creativity

System Thinking is an actual construct supported by several scientific evidence that offer a perspective on how phenomena relate. Rhythm methodology, teaching-learning, and enjoyment in physical education are the main system elements we hypothesize interacting closely to determine direct or mediated effects on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity. Seventy-six elementary and middle school students (8.9 ± 2.1 years) were randomly assigned to two groups: a) an intervention group that received a physical education lesson based on rhythmic methodology and b) a control group that received conventional lessons without specific rhythmic interventions. Participants were engaged in eight physical education lessons lasting one hour each for eight weeks. Tests and questionnaires were administered before and after the intervention to evaluate motor creativity, rhythmic perception capacity, self-perception and enjoyment. Two lessons were randomly analyzed to identify the teaching style and motor content (moderate and vigorous activity). The main results revealed direct effects on the intervention group's motor creativity (p = 0.001) and its rhythmic perception capacity (p = 0.02). Furthermore, enjoyment mediated the effects of the intervention on motor creativity (p = 0.01). Finally, the results have shown that self-perception does not mediate the effect of rhythmic intervention group on motor creativity and rhythmic perceptive capacity (p > 0.05). A rhythmic methodology proposed by specific multi-teaching styles can involve children and young people in an enjoyable activity with more moderate to vigorous physical activity.

Development and validation of a test instrument for the assessment of perceived basic motor competencies in first and second graders: the SEMOK-1-2 instrument

Both actual motor competencies (AMC) and perceived motor competencies (PMC) play an important role in motor development research and children's physical and psychological development. PMC refer to children's perceptions of their motor competencies. To assess the PMC of first and second grade children (aged 6-9 years), the SEMOK-1-2 instrument was developed. The instrument is aligned to the validated MOBAK-1-2 instrument which assesses AMC in the competence areas "object movement" and "self-movement" Accounting for possible reading difficulties in younger children, the motor tasks and answer options were illustrated and explained verbally. The purpose of this study was to test and validate the SEMOK-1-2 instrument and investigate the associations between the constructs AMC, PMC and physical activity (PA), whereby PA was measured by the participation in team and individual sports. Data from N = 404 pupils in the German-speaking part of Switzerland from first and second grades (M = 7.8 years, SD = 0.69, 49% boys) were analyzed. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to test the factorial validity of the SEMOK-1-2 instrument. Structural equation models were used to investigate the association between the constructs. The analyses confirmed a two-factor structure with the factors PMC "object movement" and PMC "self-movement", corresponding to the factors existing in the MOBAK-1-2 instrument. Latent correlations between AMC factors and the corresponding PMC factors were r = 0.79 for "object movement" and r = 0.76 for "self-movement". Associations with external criteria and covariates, such as sex, were associated with both AMC and PMC. Analyses also revealed that children who participated more often in individual and team sports showed higher levels in both AMC and PMC. The confirmation of the two-factorial structure of the SEMOK-1-2 instrument and the associations between AMC and PMC as well as external criteria indicate construct and criterion validity. The SEMOK-1-2 instrument can be economically utilized for assessing PMC and is also suitable for the monitoring of PMC in the context of Physical Education.

The Influence of Motor Competence on Broader Aspects of Health: A Systematic Review of the Longitudinal Associations Between Motor Competence and Cognitive and Social-Emotional Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Motor competence has important developmental associations with aspects of physical health, but there has been no synthesis of longitudinal associations with cognitive and social-emotional health.

OBJECTIVES

The first aim was to present a conceptual model that positions motor competence as a mediator between physical activity and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. The second aim was to synthesize the association of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development using longitudinal observational and experimental evidence, in particular to (i) identify the role of task, individual, and environmental characteristics in moderating the association between motor and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes and (ii) synthesize the strength of evidence pertaining to domain-specific relationships.

METHODS

This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched. Following study screening and risk-of-bias assessment by two authors, 49 eligible studies were identified for inclusion and grouped by study design. Evidence for domain-specific paths between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes was synthesized by calculating the significant analyses in the hypothesized direction, divided by the total number of analyses for that path. These percentages were then collated for each domain outcome. This collated influence was classified as either no association (0-33%), written as '0', or indeterminate/inconsistent (34-59%), written as '?' If there were fewer than three studies in the domain, the strength of evidence was classified as insufficient (I).

RESULTS

Of the 49 studies, 35% were able to satisfy six or more of the seven risk-of-bias criteria. Longitudinal observational evidence about domain-specific and global associations of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development is indeterminate. The included studies also did not provide evidence for a consistent moderating role of age and sex. Some preliminary experimental evidence does support the role of motor competence in moderating the influence of cognitively enriched physical activity on cognitive outcomes, especially working memory and social-emotional skills. However, too few studies were appropriately designed to acknowledge the moderating role of contextual mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

Between-study heterogeneity means it was not possible to identify definitive domain- and construct-specific relationships between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. To further develop our understanding, it is important that researchers acknowledge the complexity of these relationships within rigorous study designs.

Psychometric properties of the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire for Norwegian adolescents

The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ) for Norwegian adolescents. To this end, a sample of 349 Norwegian-speaking adolescents (13-16 years old) were recruited and completed the AMCQ. Initial results showed that confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) did not indicate statistical support for previous statistical models reported in the literature. Further analysis indicated factorial validity for a novel three-factor model identified through exploratory factor analysis, encompassing measures of fine motor skill (α = 0.65), gross motor skill (α = 0.74), and activities of daily living (ADL; α = 0.79) with acceptable internal consistency coefficients. Subsequent analysis indicated indices of measurement invariance in the study sample, as males rated their competence higher compared to females in 19 of the 27 items, and better model fit was obtained for the female adolescents. Strong invariance was tenable, and no factor mean differences were found across older and younger adolescents or across BMI scores. Overall results thus suggested that the AMCQ has acceptable psychometric properties and can be confidently used in further work with perceived motor competence in Norwegian 13-16 years-old adolescents.

Individual, family, and environmental correlates of fundamental motor skills among school-aged children: a cross-sectional study in China

OBJECTIVE

This cross-sectional study examined the socio-ecological factors influencing fundamental motor skills (FMS) in Chinese school-aged children.

METHODS

A total of 1012 parent-child pairs were randomly sampled between March-1st and April-15th, 2022. Based on the socio-ecological model of Children's FMS, three levels of factors: individual-level (e.g., demographic, physical, psychological, and behavioral characteristics of children), family-level (e.g., caregiver demographics, parental support, and socioeconomic status), and environmental factors (e.g., availability of physical activity equipment) were assessed using self-reported scales (e.g., the Self-perception Profile for Children, the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale, and the 12-item Psychological Well-Being Scale for Children) and objective measures (e.g., ActiGraph GT3X, the Chinese National Student Physical Fitness Standard, and the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition). Multi-level regression models were employed using SPSS.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that children's age, sex, physical fitness, parental support, and the quality of home and community physical activity environments consistently influenced all three types of FMS, including locomotor, ball, and composite skills. Additionally, seven individual-level factors (children's age, sex, body mass index, light physical activity, sleep duration, perceived motor competence, and physical fitness) were associated with different types of FMS.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings underscore the multidimensional and complex nature of FMS development, with individual-level factors playing a particularly significant role. Future research should adopt rigorous longitudinal designs, comprehensive assessment tools covering various FMS skills, and objective measurement of parents' movement behaviors to better understand the strength and direction of the relationship between socio-ecological factors and children's FMS.

Association between parent-proxy-reported and child-self-reported perceptions of children's motor competence and children's performance-based motor skill abilities

BACKGROUND

When assessing motor skills, occupational therapists are encouraged to seek the perspectives of children and their parents to promote the delivery of client-centered care.

AIM

To investigate whether 9-12-year-old children's views and their parents' proxy views of the children's motor skill competence and their performance on a standardized, performance-based assessment are associated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty 9-12-year-old children completed the Perceived Motor Competence Questionnaire in Childhood (PMC-C) and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence - version 2 (PMSC-2), while their parents completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd Edition Checklist (MABC-2 Checklist). Children's objective motor skills were measured by the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2nd Edition (BOT-2). Spearman's rho correlations were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Significant associations were found between the BOT-2 total motor composite and the PMC-C. A significant association was found between the MABC-2 Checklist and the BOT-2 Strength and Agility composite, as well as the PMC-C total score.

SIGNIFICANCE AND CONCLUSIONS

Occupational therapists are encouraged to include children and their parents in the therapeutic process to capture individual perspectives and deliver client-centered care.

Effects of sports experience on children's gross motor coordination level

Background

Gross motor coordination (GMC) development could be influenced by age, gender, weight status, geographical area, living setting, home environment, socio-economic status, sports practice.

Purpose

To verify whether practicing sports and practicing different sports could influence children's GMC level.

Methods

A total of 295 children aged 8-11 years were involved in the study and divided into 5 groups in relation to the sport they practiced: gymnastics group (n = 67; 51F, 16M), cycling group (n = 64; 15F, 49M), athletics group (n = 47; 22F, 25M), swimming group (n = 35; 20F, 15M), control group (n = 82; 42F, 40M). The four subtests of the Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder (KTK) assessed children's GMC level. The scores from each of the four subtests were summed into the KTK total raw score (RS) and then converted into a gender- and age-specific motor quotient (MQ).

Results

Children practicing sports showed significantly higher RS and MQ score than children of control group (203.14 ± 38.55 vs. 163.63 ± 43.50 and 98.56 ± 15.79 vs. 83.01 ± 16.71, respectively; p < 0.001). Children practicing gymnastics had a significantly higher RS and MQ than children of cycling, swimming, and control groups (p < 0.05), children of control group had a significantly lower RS and MQ than children of all other groups (p < 0.05). Children practicing gymnastics performed better walking backwards subtest than all other children's groups (p < 0.001). Children of control group performed worse jumping sideways subtest than children of gymnastics, athletics and swimming groups (p < 0.01). Children practicing gymnastics performed better moving sideways subtest than children of athletics, cycling and control groups (p < 0.01); children of control group performed worse than children of all other groups (p < 0.01). Children of control group performed worse hopping for height subtest than children of gymnastics, athletics and cycling groups (p < 0.05); children practicing gymnastics performed better than children of swimming and control groups (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

The performance model and therefore the specialized training that each sport discipline required, could justified the differences in children's GMC level among sports groups. Thus, coaches should plan individualized interventions and choose activity contents to support children's GMC development.

Configurations of actual and perceived motor competence among elementary school children in China: differences in physical activity

Background

Actual motor competence (AMC) and perceived motor competence (PMC), as determinants of children's active participation in physical activity (PA), were important for children's healthy development. The correlation between the two had been confirmed. To further understand this relationship, this study investigated the current status of AMC, PMC, and PA in Chinese school-age children, used a person-centered approach to reveal the characteristics of the development of motor competence (MC) in Chinese school-age children and the differences in the level of PA among different MC profiles of children.

Materials and methods

A total of 532 children (age: M = 9.37, SD = 1.80 years-old) from grades 1 to 6 participated in this cross-sectional study (male, n = 284, 53.4%; female, n = 248, 46.6%). The Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3) was used to measure children's AMC, the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) to measure children's PMC, and the revised Chinese version of Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C) to assess children's PA levels.

Results

There were some gender differences in AMC but no significant gender differences in PMC and PA in children. AMC and PA levels increased as the children aged, while PMC showed some decline. Cluster analysis identified four groups of children with different MC profiles. Two groups of children had corresponding AMC and PMC levels (the "high-high" cluster, N = 200, 38.91%; the "low-low" cluster, N = 63, 12.26%), and the other two groups were inconsistent in AMC and PMC (the "high-low" cluster, N = 100, 19.46%; the "low-high" cluster, N = 151, 29.38%). Significant differences in PA levels were found between children with different MC profiles. The "high-high" cluster children had the highest PA levels, whereas the "low-low" cluster children demonstrated the lowest PA levels.

Conclusion

AMC, PMC, and PA in Chinese school-age children were consistent with the pattern of child growth and development. Children with high AMC and high PMC usually had high levels of PA. Therefore, it was recommended to seize the best opportunity to intervene with children, and family, school, and community should synergize to help children improve AMC and PMC, and then actively participate in PA.

Influence of physical fitness components on personality factors and risk perception of children and adolescents: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

To examine the associations of cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2 max) and muscular strength with indicators related to the risk scale, such as perceived competence, sensation seeking, competitiveness, risk taking and risk perception in sports.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

High schools from the Region of Murcia (Spain).

PARTICIPANTS

Three-hundred-and-seventeen adolescents participated (mean age: 13.69±1.2 years old).

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Body mass, body height, Course-Navette test, upper limb strength and psychoeducational factors that determine the propensity towards sports accidents in school children, the Sports Accident Propensity Scale were evaluated. It was performance t-test for independent samples, stepwise multiple linear regression models and a multiple mediation analysis.

RESULTS

The analysis showed significant differences with respect to sex in height, VO2 max, handgrip strength and in all factors of the questionnaire (p=0.02-<0.01). Adolescents who presented greater VO2 max, strength in the handgrip test and age showed a higher score in factors 1 and 3. Higher scores in factor 2 were associated with better VO2 max and strength in handgrip test. Youngers and better values of strength in the handgrip showed higher score in factors 4 and 5. The mediation analysis with two mediating variables (handgrip strength and VO2 max) showed a significant indirect effect. When handgrip strength and VO2 max were included in the equations, the association between sex and each factor ceased to be significant.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the potential benefits of muscular strength (handgrip) and VO2 max in the perceived risk scale, and the variable of age on this.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

Clinical trial: NCT05544370 (pre-results).

Associations Between Motor Competence and Physical Activity, Physical Fitness and Psychosocial Characteristics in Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Motor competence is an integral component of the health and performance of youth. Numerous studies support the hypothesis that motor competence interacts with perceived motor competence and physical fitness during childhood to induce positive (e.g. healthy weight status) or negative (e.g. reduced physical activity engagement) trajectories. Yet, while adolescence is a key period of rapid growth and maturation, no systematic reviews and meta-analyses have examined the association between motor competence and physical activity, physical fitness and psychosocial characteristics solely within adolescents.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to (1) analyse the scientific literature evaluating associations between motor competence and physical activity, physical fitness and/or psychosocial characteristics amongst adolescents; (2) evaluate the associations between motor competence and physical activity, physical fitness characteristics and/or psychosocial characteristics amongst adolescents; and (3) investigate the impact of moderator variables (i.e., age, sex, type of motor competence assessment) on the associations.

METHODS

A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted, followed by a qualitative synthesis of study methods. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed to establish the magnitude and orientation of pooled correlation coefficients between motor competence and physical activity, physical fitness and psychosocial characteristics of adolescents, whilst considering potential moderators (i.e., age, sex, type of motor competence assessment).

RESULTS

Sixty-one studies were included, totalling 22,256 adolescents. Twenty-seven different assessments of motor competence were used, with 31 studies utilising product-orientated (i.e. outcome) motor competence assessments. Meta-analyses of 43 studies showed that motor competence was positively associated with physical activity (r = 0.20 to 0.26), some physical fitness characteristics (e.g. muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance; r = 0.03 to 0.60) and psychosocial characteristics (r = 0.07 to 0.34), and inversely associated with weight status (r =  - 0.36 to - 0.10), speed (r =  - 0.31) and agility (r =  - 0.37 to 0.41). Associations with flexibility were unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this systematic review and meta-analysis support the hypothesised interactions of motor competence with physical activity (positive), physical fitness (positive except for weight status, speed and agility) and psychosocial characteristics (positive) in adolescence. However, methodological approaches vary considerably (e.g. variety of motor competence assessments utilised), with limitations of the current literature including an inadequate assessment of motor competence, a lack of longitudinal observations and a failure to account for biological maturation. Future research assessing associations between motor competence and physical activity, physical fitness and psychosocial characteristics of adolescents should include longitudinal observations of a combined motor competence assessment (i.e. process and product) and account for biological maturation. Improved evaluation using these recommendations could provide more accurate data, leading to more targeted interventions to improve adolescents' physical and psychosocial outcomes.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

CRD42021233441 (PROSPERO ID).

Perceived motor competence in early childhood predicts perceived and actual motor competence in middle childhood

The study aims were to (1) identify perceived motor competence (PMC) and actual motor competence (AMC) profiles in children at two time points (early and middle childhood) 3 years apart, (2) explore transitions between the profiles from T1 to T2, and (3) investigate how PMC-AMC profiles at T1 differ in their mean values for AMC and PMC variables at T2. PMC was assessed by the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for young children (PMSC). At T1, AMC was measured with Test of Gross Motor Development-third version (TGMD-3), and at T2, a shortened TGMD-3 was used. To identify the PMC-AMC profiles using latent profile analysis, the Mplus statistical package (version 8.7) was used. For aim 3, the Bolck-Croon-Hagenaars (BCH) method was used. There were 480 children (mean age 6.26 years, 51.9% boys) at T1, 647 children (mean age 8.76 years, 48.8% boys) at T2 (some children were too young to have the PMC assessment at T1), and 292 at both time points. For aim 1, three profiles were identified at each time point for each gender. Boys had two realistic profiles with medium and low levels of PMC-AMC, and an overestimation profile. Girls had a medium realistic profile, an overestimation, and an underestimation profile. The PMC-AMC profile in early childhood predicted the PMC-AMC profile (aim 2) and AMC and PMC variables (aim 3) in middle childhood, especially if a child had low PMC in early childhood. Children with low PMC in early childhood are at risk of low PMC and less AMC development in middle childhood.

Correlations between motor competencies, physical activity and self-concept in children with intellectual disabilities in inclusive education

BACKGROUND

Reciprocal relationships exist between motor competencies, physical activity and self-concept.

AIMS

Using a structural equation model, this study examined whether these relationships also appear in children with intellectual disabilities, how they can be validly measured, and if there are differences between children with and without intellectual disabilities.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Data from a cross-sectional research project involving 121 children with intellectual disabilities and 1721 without intellectual disabilities were analysed.

RESULTS

The results demonstrate that reciprocal relationships also apply to children with intellectual disabilities and can be elucidated if inverse items are omitted.

DISCUSSION

Children with intellectual disabilities have less developed motor competencies and are less physically active but have a higher general self-concept compared to children without intellectual disabilities. The sport-related ability self-concept of both groups is comparable.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are broadly consistent with extant research and illustrate that the development of motor competencies, physical activity and self-concept in children with intellectual disabilities must be encouraged.

Child perceived motor competence as a moderator between physical activity parenting and child objectively measured physical activity

This longitudinal study aimed to examine how physical activity parenting (PAP) directly predicted objectively measured children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentariness over a three-year transitional period from early to middle childhood, and second, whether the children's perception of motor competence (PMC) mediated or moderated the influence of PAP to children's MVPA or sedentariness. At time 1 (T1), PAP and children's (N = 396, mean age 5.80, SD 1.04) PA were assessed by parental questionnaire. Three years later, at time 2 (T2), children's (N = 396, mean age 8.80, SD 1.04) PMC was measured by a validated pictorial scale, and MVPA and sedentariness were measured by accelerometers. All the analyses were conducted using the Mplus statistical package (Version 8.4). The models were adjusted for the following covariates: children's PA (T1), gender (T1), age (T1), mean accelerometer measurement in hours per day (T2), and parents' education level (T1). Results showed that PAP at T1 did not significantly predict level of MVPA or sedentary time at T2 and, therefore, PMC did not mediate the PAP-children's MVPA or sedentary time relationship either. However, PMC significantly moderated the relationship between PAP and MVPA but not between PAP and sedentary time. The results suggested that parental support positively predicts children's MVPA among children with low PMC but not among children with high PMC. This unique finding proposes that family-based PA interventions could benefit from screening of children with low PMC and provision of PA counselling to their parents.

The mediational role of motivation in the model of motor development in childhood: A longitudinal study

The aim of this study was twofold: first, to examine the stability of the hypothesized conceptual model of motor development (without and with including various types of motivation) when children are followed up one-year later, and second to examine longitudinally whether changes in one model variable predict changes in other variables, according to the hypothesized pathways in the model. A sample of 361 Spanish students (50.7% girls, 8-11 years old) voluntarily participated in this study. In relation to the first aim, structural equation modeling revealed the expected positive relationship between the model variables in both measurement times. That is: actual motor competence (MC) predicted physical activity (PA) (p < .001), perceived MC mediated the relationship between actual MC and PA (p < .001), and autonomous motivation mediated the relationship between perceived MC and PA (p < .05). Moreover, the comparison of the invariance analysis showed non-practical differences between the unconstrained model and the constrained model, supporting the stability of the model over time. In relation to the second aim, the hypothesized model in Time 2 controlling for Time 1 values showed that changes in children's actual MC positively predicted changes in their perceived MC (p < .001), which in turn, predicted changes in their autonomous motivation (p < .001), and PA (p < .001) at Time 2. Based on these findings Physical Education teachers are recommended to foster children's actual and perceived MC as well as their autonomous motivation over time in order to promote PA strategies for lifelong health.

Optimizing Fine Motor Coordination, Selective Attention and Reaction Time in Children: Effect of Combined Accuracy Exercises and Visual Art Activities

Optimizing fine motor coordination and cognitive abilities in middle childhood through new intervention programs remains one of the most essential orientations in motor development and skills proficiency. The present study aims to identify the effect of a structure-based program intervention, combining motor accuracy exercises with visual art activities (ceramics, pottery, and creations using raw materials), on fine motor coordination, selective attention, and reaction time in middle childhood. Sixty, right-handed typically developed male schoolchildren (age = 8.29 ± 0.74 years; body height = 130.25 ± 0.05 cm and body mass = 29.83 ± 4.68 kg; mean ± SD) volunteered to participate in the study. They were randomly assigned to a combined group intervention (MG) receiving a mixed program integrating visual art activities and motor accuracy exercises; an accuracy group intervention (AG) receiving oriented motor accuracy exercises; and a control group (CG). Selective attention, reaction time, and fine motor coordination skills (accuracy: darts throw; manual dexterity: grooved pegboard test) were measured. Repeated measure ANOVA, one-way ANOVA, and Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA were performed for analysis. The results showed higher changes in MG compared to AG in manual dexterity (p < 0.001), in motor accuracy (p < 0.001), and in reaction time (p < 0.01), but not in selective attention (p = 0.379). In addition, higher changes were recorded in AG compared to CG in motor accuracy (p < 0.05), reaction time (p < 0.05), and in selective attention (p < 0.01), but not in manual dexterity (p = 0.082). The structured combined program best assists accuracy, manual dexterity, reaction time, and selective attention. Therefore, instructors in sports academies and teachers at schools are advised to use the combined program in the training sessions and in the non-curricular activities, respectively, to improve fine motor coordination, selective attention, and reaction time in middle childhood.

Holistic Functioning from a Developmental Perspective: A New Synthesis with a Focus on a Multi-tiered System Support Structure

While research in specific academic disciplines has individually advanced knowledge and practice for promoting multiple aspects of health and well-being in children and adolescents, still missing is an understanding of the interconnectedness of many critical aspects of development and how to intentionally weave these factors to advance a more holistic approach. The need for a more holistic and inclusive approach to child and adolescent development is increasingly evident to promote long-term health and well-being as the overall percentage of children, adolescents, and adults who suffer from mental health disorders is increasing. To address this issue, our authorship team consists of researchers in the areas of developmental psychology, neuroscience, motor development, exercise science, and mental health. The collective ideas outlined in this paper are aligned to address the need to remove disciplinary-specific boundaries and elucidate synergistic linkages across multiple research domains that support holistic development and lifespan health and wellness. We propose a conceptual framework that comprehensively addresses the integration of physical, cognitive, psychological, social, and emotional domains of child and adolescent development. In addition, we also provide a holistic preventative approach that is aligned with a contemporary intervention structure (i.e., Multi-tiered Systems of Support) to promote, from a developmental perspective, positive trajectories of health and well-being across childhood and adolescence.

Validity evidence for the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence short form (PSPWC-4)

Promoting swimming and water safety is an important public health issue. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence (PSPWC) requires children to indicate their perceived competence using three difficulty levels for 17 swimming scenarios. The aim was to purposefully select four critical scenarios of the PSPWC to create the PSPWC-short form and test for associations with actual swim competence. Four of 17 scenarios were selected and extended to a four-point response scale by adding an extra difficulty level. Parents whose children had participated in at least 1-week swim-intensive programme in 2021 were invited to participate in the study, and perceptions of 139 children (mean age 6.9 years, SD = 1.9) were matched with certificate data of actual swim competence pre- (n = 139) and post-programme (n = 29). Moderate positive correlations were found between swim level at programme start and perception of: retrieving an object in deep water (rho = 0.57), swimming on front (rho = 0.60), swimming on back (rho = 0.69), treading water (rho = 0.63) and the summed score of all four (rho = 0.71). After adjusting for sex and age, higher perceived skill was still significantly associated with increasing achieved skill levels. The PSPWC-short form appears to provide a valid measure to be used as a brief screening assessment.

Relationship between Perceived Physical Competence and Outdoor Play among Children Aged 9-12 Years-Focused Sex-Specific Differences

BACKGROUND

Outdoor play (OP), which is considered important for children's development, is declining every year. Perceived physical competence (PPC) is a vital factor that promotes physical activity such as OP, sports clubs, etc., but the relationship between PPC and OP was unknown. The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between PPC and OP in children and consider whether there were any sex-specific changes.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Japan with 288 children (134 girls, age: 10.6 ± 1.01 years). OP was assessed using an original self-report questionnaire. Each weekday, the children reported the time of OP and were classified as "high" if they played outside for at least an hour three times. PPC was evaluated with a self-report questionnaire developed by Okazawa et al. (1996). It has 12 questions and was assessed on a 5-point Likert scale. After adjusting for age, sex, BMI, screen time, sports club participation, and the number of friends, logistic regression analyses were carried out.

RESULTS

Children with better PPC were significantly more likely to be classified as "high" [crude odds ratio (OR): 1.04; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.00-1.08; adjusted OR: 1.04; 95% CI: 1.00-1.08]. Only girls with better PPC were significantly more likely to be classified as "high" in a sex-based stratified analysis [crude OR: 1.08; 95% CI: 1.01-1.15, adjusted OR 1.09; 95% CI: 1.02-1.17].

CONCLUSIONS

Particularly among girls, OP could be promoted as a voluntary physical activity with improved PPC.

Self and proxy (parents and teachers') reports of child motor competence: A three-year longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to: 1) analyse the longitudinal trends in the evolution of the association between children's actual and perceived motor competence (AMC and PMC, respectively) according to the source of information: children, parents, and Physical Education (PE) teachers; 2) assess whether children, parents, and PE teachers can report on children's AMC longitudinally (considering the children's age, sex, and the type of motor competence).

DESIGN AND METHOD

A sample of 108 typically developing Spanish children (47.12% girls) from five schools participated in this study. AMC and PMC (locomotion, object control and overall MC) data was collected at three time points one year apart. Longitudinal mixed effects models with repeated measures were conducted.

RESULTS

Regardless of the domain of MC, no longitudinal association between children's AMC and PMC was found. Parents also exhibited limited capability to proxy report their children's AMC longitudinally. PE teachers' proxy reports of children' AMC were associated over time with object control and overall level.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms the necessity of specific training in AMC to effectively report on children's motor competence. PE teachers can be seen as a potential source to empower children's AMC and PMC development over time.

Motor competence, physical activity, and perceived motor competence: A relational systems approach

Being and perceiving oneself as proficient in motor skills seems essential for an active lifestyle; conversely, being active and perceiving oneself as proficient may be associated with greater motor competence. By expanding the causal path view about the relationship between active and healthy developmental system elements, this study tested the mediation hypothesis of perceived motor competence in the relationship between motor competence and physical activity - in both ways - and moderation by developmental phase and sex. This cross-sectional study sampled healthy schoolchildren (n = 379; 8.2 ± 1.7 years; 54.9% boys). Physical activity (questionnaire), motor competence (tests included locomotor and object control skills) and perception of motor competence (a pictorial scale) were assessed. Maximum likelihood structural equation models with fit statistics confirmed the mediation in both ways. Unexpectedly, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity was inverse. Sex was a moderating variable (boys). In a systemic relational paradigm of human development, perceived motor competence, motor competence, and physical activity interact in an active and healthy behavioural system, but the complexities of understanding how these elements relate to one another across childhood point to the need for future longitudinal studies.

Potential Relevance of a Motor Skill “Proficiency Barrier” on Health-Related Fitness in Youth

This study investigated the potential impact of a motor skill proficiency barrier on measures of cardiorespiratory (CRF) and musculoskeletal (MSF) fitness in youth. A sample of 241 youth (114 girls) aged 10 - 18 years, completed the Motor Competence Assessment battery with composite scores indexed according to age- and gender-adjusted percentile scores. Motor competence (MC) levels were categorized as low (≤ 25%tile - proficiency barrier), moderate (≥ 26%tile to < 75%tile), and high (≥ 75%tile). CRF levels (Health Risk, Needs Improvement, and Healthy) were assessed using the Fitnessgram® 20 m PACER test. Low (≤ 20%tile), moderate (≥ 21%tile to ≤ 80%tile), and high (≥ 80%tile) MSF levels were assessed using grip strength normative data. Two 3 × 3 chi-square tests were conducted to determine the probability of MC level predicting CRF and MSF levels. Results demonstrated statistically significant models for performance on both the PACER (χ2[4, N = 241] = 22.65, p < .001) and grip strength (χ2[4, N = 241] = 23.95, p < .001). Strong evidence of a proficiency barrier impacting CRF was noted, as no low skilled youth met the "Healthy" fitness zone standards for PACER performance. Evidence supporting a barrier with grip strength was not as strong, as 20.8% of youth exhibiting low MC displayed high grip strength. However, all individuals with high levels of MC demonstrated at least moderate grip strength. Results emphasize the importance of developing MC during childhood as it may provide a protective effect against unhealthy CRF and MSF across youth.HighlightsThese data support the notion of Seefeldt's (1980) proficiency barrier as it relates to CRF, as no youth demonstrating low MC met the healthy fitness zone criteria for PACER performance. The development of MC may both directly and indirectly provide a protective effect against unhealthy CRF levels across childhood and adolescence.Evidence supporting a proficiency barrier with MSF as measured by grip strength was not as strong; however, all individuals with high levels of MC demonstrated at least moderate grip strength. Thus, the development of MC may be a protective factor to mitigate low levels of MSF via enhanced neuromuscular function.Promoting the development of MC in a variety of developmentally appropriate activities and settings (e.g. MC skills practice, structured and unstructured play, and performance contexts) is important to promote positive trajectories of CRF and MSF across childhood and adolescence.

Motor Competence Assessment (MCA) Scoring Method

The Motor Competence Assessment (MCA) is a quantitative test battery that assesses motor competence across the whole lifespan. It is composed of three sub-scales: locomotor, stability, and manipulative, each of them assessed by two different objectively measured tests. The MCA construct validity for children and adolescents, having normative values from 3 to 23 years of age, and the configural invariance between age groups, were recently established. The aim of this study is to expand the MCA’s development and validation by defining the best and leanest method to score and classify MCA sub-scales and total score. One thousand participants from 3 to 22 years of age, randomly selected from the Portuguese database on MC, participated in the study. Three different procedures to calculate the sub-scales and total MCA values were tested according to alternative models. Results were compared to the reference method, and Intraclass Correlation Coefficient, Cronbach’s Alpha, and Bland–Altman statistics were used to describe agreement between the three methods. The analysis showed no substantial differences between the three methods. Reliability values were perfect (0.999 to 1.000) for all models, implying that all the methods were able to classify everyone in the same way. We recommend implementing the most economic and efficient algorithm, i.e., the configural model algorithm, averaging the percentile scores of the two tests to assess each MCA sub-scale and total scores.

Youth motor competence across stages of maturity: Perceptions of physical education teachers and strength and conditioning coaches

Physical education (PE) teachers and strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches are well placed to develop motor competence within youth populations. However, both groups’ perceptions of important motor competencies are relatively unknown, especially when considering stage of maturity. Therefore, this study aimed to 1) present PE teachers and S&C coaches’ perceptions of motor competence importance according to stage of maturity; 2) compare perceptions of motor competence between stages of maturity, and between PE teachers and S&C coaches; and 3) explore factors that influence PE teachers and S&C coaches’ perceptions of motor competence importance. Via a mixed-method questionnaire, 47 PE teachers (professional experience = 10.3±6.6 years) and 48 S&C coaches (professional experience = 8.6±4.8 years) rated the importance of developing 21 motor competencies across four stages of maturity (childhood, pre-peak height velocity [PHV], circa-PHV, and post-PHV) using a Likert-scale (1 = not important, 5 = very important). Participants also provided open-ended explanations for their perceptions. Frequency analysis indicated that participants rated a broad range of competencies important, with S&C coaches rating more competencies important than PE teachers across all stages of maturity. Mixed-model analysis highlighted several differences in motor competence importance when comparing perceptions between participant groups, and between stages of maturity for PE teachers and S&C coaches. For example, S&C coaches rated strength-based motor competencies less important during childhood (d = -1.83 to -0.43), while PE teachers rated them less important during childhood (d = -2.22 to -0.42) and pre-PHV (d = -1.70 to -0.51) compared to other stages of maturity. Codebook thematic analysis showed several factors that influenced participant’s perceptions of motor competence importance (e.g., participants understanding of themselves). The findings suggest that multiple environments may be required to adequately facilitate motor competence development amongst youth. Coach education should target misunderstandings around the risks of strength-based activity during early stages of maturity and the benefits of developing strength-based motor competencies across youth populations.

Differences in Motor Competence of Chilean Schoolchildren According to Biological and Sociocultural Correlates

(1) Background: In this study, we aimed to determine differences in the levels of motor competence according to biological factors (sex, age and weight status) and sociocultural factors (socioeconomic level and belonging to an indigenous people or not) in students of the La Araucanía Region, Chile. (2) Methods: A total of 552 students in 5th and 6th grade were evaluated (49.6% girls; age M = 11.3; SD = 0.8). To assess motor competence (domains of object control and self-movement), the MOBAK 5-6 test was applied. (3) Results: In the object control dimension, significant differences were found according to sex, with the boys performing higher than the girls. According to age, schoolchildren aged 11.0 to 11.9 performed higher than those aged 10.0 to 10.9, and according to socioeconomic status, schoolchildren from schools with a higher socioeconomic status showed a higher motor performance. No significant interaction effects were found between groups. With regard to the self-movement domain, statistically significant differences were only found according to weight status, where students of normal weight presented the highest performance. No significant effects were found between any of the groups. (4) Conclusions: This study shows the importance of considering the biological and sociocultural characteristics in the development of motor competence when interpreting data or planning interventions in different settings.

The Developmental Trajectory of Motor Competence of Children That Lived the COVID-19 Confinement Period: A Four-Year Follow-Up Study in Portuguese Children

Children’s motor competence (MC) was negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic; however, possible chronic effects have not been studied. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the possible impact of the forced lack of physical activity (PA) during the COVID-19 lockdown on children’s MC two years later. The motor competence of sixty-seven healthy children (7.4−12.2 years old) was assessed using the Motor Competence Assessment (MCA). All participants completed the MCA tests at two different moments (before and after the COVID-19 lockdown), four years apart. The mean values after the COVID-19 lockdown for all participants on the subscales and on the Total MCA are lower, but no significant changes were found when controlling for gender and age (p > 0.05 in all analyses). However, a significant decrease was found in the Locomotor subscale in boys (p = 0.003). After dividing the participants into three age groups, the youngest also suffered a decrease in the Locomotor subscale (p < 0.001) and their Total MCA (p = 0.04). In addition, those participants who had a higher MC at baseline decreased their scores for the Locomotor (p < 0.001) and Manipulative (p < 0.001) subscales, and for the Total MCA (p < 0.001). In conclusion, the younger children and the more motor proficient did not fully recover from the negative effects of the pandemic lockdown after two years.

Does Skill Performance Influence Young Children's Perceived Physical Competence?

Children's self-perceived competence is critical for their engagement in fundamental motor skills (FMS), although these perceptions are highly inaccurate until around age seven (grade 2). Moreover, FMS competence is highly correlated with physical activity engagement in childhood. In this study we examined: (a) if children's perceptions of their FMS competence differed after they were allowed to perform the skill or observe their performance, and (b) if the accuracy of children's perceived competence changed under those conditions. Child participants (N = 76; K-second grade) judged their own competence for three physical skills (running, skipping and dribble or hopping) on the Harter and Pike Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance under three conditions: (a) a no-performance baseline, (b) after performing each skill, and (c) after observing themselves performing the skill. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that their perceived competence differed across these conditions for running but not for skipping/hopping (p = .556) or for dribbling (p = .368). Spearman's rho correlations showed that their perceived running competence scores better predicted their actual competence after observing their performance (rs = .25, p = .029) than after other conditions. Both performing and observing their performance were associated with changes in perceptions of running competence. Future research should focus on how and when children's perceived competence is assessed and how perceptions relate to FMS and physical activity engagement.

Accuracy vs. Practicality of Inertial Measurement Unit Sensors to Evaluate Motor Competence in Children

The TGMD (i.e., Test of Gross Motor Development) has been considered as one of the gold standards of assessment tools for analysis of motor competence in children. However, it is rarely used by teachers in schools because the time, resources, and expertise required for one teacher to assess a class of students is prohibitive in most cases. A potential solution may be to automate the testing protocol using objective measures and inertial measurement unit sensors. An accurate method using 17 sensors to capture full body motion profiles and machine learning methods to objectively assess proficiency has been developed; however, feasibility of this method was low. Subsequently, a simplified method using four sensors (i.e., attached to wrists and ankles) was found to be effective, efficient, and potentially highly feasible for use in school settings. For some skills, however, not all skill criteria could be assessed. Additionally, misclassification on occasion, marred results. In the present paper we consider a previous experiment that used wireless motion capture to assess criteria from the TGMD-3. We discuss the advantages alongside the disadvantages of testing motor competence in children using sensors and consider the question—Can a compromise be struck between accuracy and feasibility?

School-Age Children's Actual Motor Competence and Perceived Physical Competence: A 3-Yr Follow-up

PURPOSE

This study examined school-age children's actual motor competence (MC) and perceived physical competence (PC) over 3 yr along with the covariate effects of gender and body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

Participants were 1121 (girls 573, boys 548) children (mean age, 11.26 ± 0.32 yr) from 35 randomly selected public schools across Finland. MC was assessed using three movement tests targeting locomotor, stability, and object control skills, and PC was assessed using the sport competence subscale of the Physical Self-Perception Profile via four-phase monitoring.

RESULTS

MC and PC remained stable over time. Of the three variables, locomotor skills showed the strongest association with PC. Lower BMI was associated with advanced MC skills and a less steep decrease in locomotor and stability skills over time.

CONCLUSIONS

The acquisition of fundamental motor skills in childhood and early adolescence is a prerequisite for enhancing MC and PC. The contribution of locomotor skills to PC indicated that versatile lower limb strength, speed, dynamic balance, and movement skills are important for positive subjective beliefs about PC capability. Increasing the MC skills of the children in most need, particularly those with high BMI scores, merits special attention.

Exploring a parent-focused physical literacy intervention for early childhood: a pragmatic controlled trial of the PLAYshop

Background

Parents play a key role in young children’s physical activity and physical literacy development. Little research has explored parent-focused interventions to improve young children’s physical literacy. We examined if a theory-based, feasible physical literacy training workshop (PLAYshop) for parents could improve their physical literacy knowledge and confidence and improve parenting practices related to facilitating the physical literacy development of their preschool-aged child (3-5 years). The secondary objective was to explore implementation facilitators and barriers.

Methods

We conducted a pragmatic controlled trial in two Canadian cities (Edmonton and Victoria) from November 2019 – March 2020. A total of 143/151 parents were eligible and assigned to intervention (n = 71) or control group (n = 72). The PLAYshop included: (i) a 75-min in-person workshop with interactive activities and physical literacy educational messages, (ii) educational materials, (iii) an equipment pack, and (iv) two post-workshop booster emails. Surveys measured parents’ knowledge and confidence at baseline and follow-up. Application of PLAYshop concepts and implementation facilitators and barriers were explored with interviews of parents and workshop leaders. Repeated measures ANOVAs and thematic analyses were completed.

Results

Parents’ knowledge and confidence improved significantly over time; intervention group changes were significantly greater than control group changes (p < 0.001; ɳ² = .32). Parents applied PLAYshop concepts at-home, including child-led play, making activities fun, and promoting child manipulative and locomotor skills. Time was a key parental implementation barrier. Program implementation issues varied by context (location and participants).

Conclusions

PLAYshop participation changed parents’ physical literacy knowledge and confidence and physical literacy enhancing play with their children. Implementation feasibility was high. The findings from this real-world trial highlight an efficacious and scalable intervention that warrants further testing.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04394312. Registered 19/05/2020.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-13048-5.

The Relationship Between Perceptions of Physical Self-Worth, Subdomain Importance, and Physical Fitness in Adolescents With Low Motor Competence: An Exploratory Study

Purpose: Adolescent perceptions of their physical self-worth (PSW) and the component domains draw upon physical attributes, such as motor competence, physical fitness, and self-perceptions, which in turn enhance the desire to engage in physical activity. Whilst these relationships have been researched in populations with typical motor development, little is known of the interplay of these contributors to PSW with those with low motor competence (LMC). Even less is known of how importance placed on particular physical subdomains may be used by the adolescent with LMC to mitigate negative effects on their perceptions of PSW. Method: Thirty-four adolescents with low motor competence, 25 boys and 9 girls (M_age = 13.89 yrs, SD = 1.49), completed the McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND), the Children's Physical Self-Perception Questionnaire (C-PSPP) and a range of physical fitness tests. Results: All self-perception subdomain score was lower than importance ratings. Physical fitness measures were also low but were not significantly associated with PSW. However, the higher importance scores relative to physical self-perceptions resulted in greater discrepancy scores in all subdomains. Conclusion: Adolescents with LMC have low PSW, and low self-perceptions relative to importance ratings for most physical self-subdomains. These discrepancies, rather than actual fitness, potentially reduce their motivation to be physically active.

Optimising long-term athletic development: An investigation of practitioners' knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges

Long-term athletic development practices have been recommended for the past two decades. However, limited research exists exploring the knowledge and skills required by practitioners to optimise long-term athletic development. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, adherence, practices, and challenges of practitioners responsible for delivering long-term athletic development. A mixed methods survey was completed by 236 practitioners (e.g., sport coaches, physical education teachers) consisting of four parts; 1) demographics, 2) knowledge, 3) adherence, and 4) practices and challenges. Quantitative and qualitative data were analysed by Friedman’s analysis of variance and thematic analyses, respectively. Quantitative findings showed practitioners 1) recognised their responsibility for delivering long-term athletic development, 2) have a familiarity with existing developmental models, and 3) had high adherence, focused upon health and wellbeing, to delivering long-term athletic development. However, practices associated with growth and maturity, monitoring and assessment, and the systematic progression and individualisation of training had lower adherence. Qualitative analysis indicated that practitioner’s perceived definitions of athleticism and long-term athletic development were inconsistent, especially according to the psychological components (i.e., confidence). Practitioners’ descriptions of their long-term athletic development practices identified two higher order themes; 1) goals, in which long-term athletic development “is for life” and the importance of “an individual centered journey” highlighted as sub-themes; and 2) realities of delivering long-term athletic development, whereby variety in programme delivery, monitoring development and practical challenges were noted as key priorities. Eight practical challenges were identified including governance and priorities, resources, education, early specialization, high training volumes, staff communication, parents and youth motivation. This mixed method survey highlighted a multitude of knowledge, adherence, practices and challenges towards long-term athletic development. These novel findings can help inform policy to optimise long-term athletic development and to support the complex problem of developing a healthier, fitter and more physically active youth population.

The Feasibility and Challenges of Conducting Online Research to Examine Movement Behavior in Parents and Children During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The global pandemic of COVID-19 shifted the methodology of this research project. The purpose of this perspective article is to discuss the feasibility and challenges of converting an in-person mixed methods study that examined associations among and beliefs about physical activity, motor competence, and perceived competence to an online format with parents and children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Recruitment was conducted through a University research registry, social media, and public listservs. All correspondence with participants was through email and secure platforms. Physical activity was assessed with accelerometers mailed to participants. Motor competence was assessed through participant-filmed trials of motor skills. Perceived competence was assessed with the Self-Perception Profile for Adults and Children delivered on Qualtrics. Semi- structured interviews to examine beliefs were conducted over Zoom. Approximately 200 families expressed interest in the study, 76 parent-child dyads consented and assented, and 61 parent-child dyads completed at least one component of the study. It is feasible to conduct online research that contributes to scientific knowledge and has potential advantages. However, various challenges need to be considered regarding the application of online research. These challenges included recruitment, the data collection process, and data quality. Future research needs to address these challenges by utilizing wide-reaching and diverse recruitment methods, easing participants' burden with technology, and developing motor competence and perceived competence assessments that can be administered online. The way research was conducted changed due to COVID-19 and adapting to and/or integrating online methods is both necessary and feasible, but modifications must be taken into consideration.

Actual and Perceived Motor Competence, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Physical Activity, and Weight Status in Schoolchildren: Latent Profile and Transition Analyses

Engagement in physical activity plays a central role in the prevention and treatment of childhood overweight/obesity. However, some children may lack the skills and confidence to be physically active. This 3-year follow-up study aimed to form profiles based on cardiorespiratory fitness, actual motor competence, perceived motor competence, physical activity, and weight status, and to examine if these profiles remain stable from late childhood to early adolescence. All these variables were annually assessed in 1,162 Finnish schoolchildren (girls = 583 and boys = 564, Mage = 11.27 ± 0.32 years). Latent profile analysis was used to identify profiles and latent transition analysis to examine the stability of latent statuses. Three profiles were identified: normal weight with high movement, normal weight with low movement, and overweight–obese with low movement. Profile memberships remained relatively stable over time, indicating that children with low actual and perceived motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and physical activity in late childhood also tended to exhibit these characteristics in early adolescence.

The Inter-Rater and Intra-Rater Reliability of the Actual Aquatic Skills Test (AAST) for Assessing Young Children's Motor Competence in the Water

As children’s actual aquatic skills are important for the prevention of drowning as well as their engagement in lifelong aquatic physical activity, researchers and practitioners should be able to assess this vital concept accurately and reliably. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the inter-rater and intra-rater reliability of the Actual Aquatic Skills Test (AAST), consisting of 17 different test items for the assessment of young children’s motor competence in the water. Six raters received a training and evaluation session on scoring the AAST, after which five of them assessed four test videos (of various children (n = 38) performing the test items) twice, with one to two weeks in between (i.e., test and re-test). Inter-rater and intra-rater reliability were determined per test video and for the different AAST test items across videos using Gwet’s Agreement Coefficient 2 (Gwet’s AC2). The Gwet’s AC2 for inter-rater reliability at the test varied from 0.414 to 1.000, indicating a moderate to perfect agreement between raters. For intra-rater reliability, it ranged from 0.628 to 1.000, demonstrating a good to perfect agreement between test and re-test scoring. In conclusion, the AAST is a promising tool to reliably assess young children’s actual aquatic skills in an indoor swimming pool.

Perception of Competence as Mediator between Motor Competence and Physical Activity

BACKGROUND

The practice of physical activity (PA) plays an important role in achieving an active-healthy lifestyle. Several authors have focused their studies on the relationship between motor competence (MC) and physical activity (PA). Stodden et al. proposed a conceptual model, where they postulated the existence of a positive and significant relationship between the two variables and that there are mediating variables that play a critical role in this relationship as perceived motor competence (PMC).

AIMS

Therefore, the purpose of this research is to provide empirical evidence to support the conceptual model. The aim is to examine the association of PMC and MC with PA and to determine whether PMC is a mediator of the association between MC and PA in Basque adolescents.

METHODS

897 students between 12 and 16 years old from the Basque Country (Spain) participated in this study. The SPORTCOMP battery was used to assess motor competence and the AMPET-R questionnaire was applied to measure the PMC. To know the level of PA participants were asked how many days per week they performed physical activity, considering physical activity to include any sport activity, organized or unorganized, that meets the conditions of a minimum duration of 60 min medium and vigorous intensity. A descriptive, correlational and direct/indirect effect approach was used, using the PROCESS macro for Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

RESULTS

The results highlight that, on the one hand, PMC significantly correlates with both MC and PA and, on the other hand, it is corroborated that PMC is a mediator variable in the relationship between MC and PA.

CONCLUSION

The mediation role of the PMC in the association between MC and PA raises the necessity not only to improve motor skills but also to provide successful experiences that allow adolescents to build a competent image of themselves that will contribute to the achievement and maintenance of an active lifestyle.

Identifying actual and perceived motor competence based profiles among children

This study aimed to develop motor competence (MC) profiles in children based on their actual and perceived MC, and to investigate differences in physical activity (PA) behaviour and motivation towards PA between profiles. Two hundred and sixteen British children (7-10 years) took part in this study. Perceived motor competence (PMC) was assessed using the pictorial scale of movement competence. MC was assessed using process-oriented and product-oriented measures. A validated questionnaire assessed motivation towards PA and an objective measure of PA was employed. K-means cluster analysis was used to create profiles. Differences in PA and motivation towards PA were examined using ANCOVAs. Four groups of divergent and convergent levels were identified based on the contribution of either product or process MC with PMC. Motivation towards PA differed by profiles that included actual-process and PMC. Children with high actual process and high PMC had significantly higher levels of autonomous motivation than children with high actual process but low PMC. No significant differences were found between PA levels and profiles. Developing the quality and execution of actual motor competence (AMC) and PMC is key to stimulate motivation towards PA. Furthermore, maintaining AMC and PMC simultaneously may be imperative to children's future PA behaviour.

The Reliability and Validation of the Aquatic Movement Protocol as an Instrument for Assessing Aquatic Motor Competence in Primary Aged Children

There is a dearth of research in aquatic motor competency, a key requirement for primary physical education in order to become physically literate. This study proposes a new assessment protocol for aquatic motor competence and sets out to examine the validity of the Aquatic Movement Protocol (AMP) in children between 7 and 9 years of age. Testing of Gross Motor Development—second edition was implemented to assess general motor competence, including a composite of 10-m running sprint time and standing long jump distance. Aquatic motor competence was assessed by the AMP. Univariate analyses of covariance were used to examine whether assessment of general motor competence differed as opposed to aquatic motor competence. Process and product measures of dryland motor competence were analyzed using male and female subjects measuring three aquatic motor competences (low, medium, and high). Cronbach’s alpha and exploratory factor analyses were implemented to show both construct and concurrent validity of the AMP. Children classified as high for aquatic motor competence had significantly higher general motor competence (p = .001). Those who achieved a higher composite score for faster sprint speeds and longer jump distances had significantly higher aquatic motor competence (p = .001). Cronbach’s alpha of .908, showed internal consistency of the AMP. Results extracted one factor from analysis with an eigenvalue = 6.2; %variance = 62.1, with loadings higher than 0.5. This data suggests that the items on the AMP measure a single construct that we would call “Aquatic Motor Competence.” This study demonstrates that the AMP is a valid measure of aquatic motor competence in primary aged children.

What factors relate to three profiles of perception of motor competence in young children?

The study aims were to 1) examine profiles of perception of motor competence (PMC) in relation to actual motor competence (AMC), i.e. under-estimators (UEs), realistic estimators (REs) and over-estimators (OEs) and 2) investigate associations between the profiles and selected socioecological factors at the individual, family and environmental levels. PMC (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence) and AMC (Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition) were administered to a representative sample of children from 37 childcare centres in Finland (n=441;6.2±0.6yrs;52% boys). Socioecological factors were investigated using a parental questionnaire. The three profiles were formed based on age- and gender-adjusted PMC and AMC z-scores. Multinomial logistic regression showed that OEs (n=81; p=0.04) tended to be younger than REs (n=306; p=0.04) and UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Parents of OEs reported more child health and developmental issues than parents of REs (p=0.03). Parents of UEs self-reported providing more support for physical activity than parents' of REs (p=0.04). REs tended to live in denser population areas than UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Whilst PMC profiles revealed some socioecological differences, future research needs to focus on a broader range of potential correlates and untangle methodological analyses challenges to deepen the knowledge about PMC development in children.

Relationship Between Actual and Perceived Locomotor and Ball Skills Competence Among Children: A Person-Centered Approach

This study examined whether profiles varying in actual and perceived locomotor and ball skill competencies would be identified and whether these profiles would differ in relation to children's characteristics. Participants were 127 (70 boys; 57 girls) French-speaking Canadian children (5-11 years). Actual and perceived motor competencies were, respectively, measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development - Third version and the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Latent profile analyses revealed four profiles: (1) Non-Alignment: Devaluation (children underestimated their slightly below average competencies; 17.9%); (2) Non-Alignment: Overestimation (children overestimated their slightly below average competencies; 24.7%); (3) Non-Alignment: Underestimation (children slightly underestimated their above average competencies; 24.9%); (4) Alignment: Low Competence (children displayed accurate but slightly below average competencies; 32.5%). Girls were more likely to correspond to profiles 1 and 4, older children and children more frequently involved in physical activity/sport practice were more likely to correspond to profile 3, and younger children were more likely to correspond to profile 2. These results emphasise the importance of considering the alignment between perceived and actual motor competencies. They also indicate that age and physical activity/sport practice were associated with higher competencies, whereas girls and younger children were associated with lower competencies.

Effects of an 8-Week Intervention Targeting the Veridicality of Actual and Perceived Motor Competence Among Irish Adolescents in Project FLAME

High levels of perceived motor competence and low levels of actual motor competence in youth populations have been reported world-wide. Both perceived and actual motor competence have been deemed independent correlates of health and physical activity (PA) behavior, and past research has indicated that their alignment may be linked to more consistent PA. Moreover, there is potential for a movement-based intervention to strengthen the alignment between perceived and actual motor competence, perhaps then guiding future health, PA, and community sport engagement globally. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an 8-week movement-based intervention on increasing the alignment (i.e., veridicality) between PMC and AMC among Irish adolescent youth. We collected data on adolescents (n = 324; females = 149; M age = 14.5, SD = 0.88 years) across six second-level schools in Ireland, including measurements of actual and perceived, motor competence at pre- and post-intervention. We observed low levels of actual in contrast to high levels of perceived motor competence. We found a small but significant veridical alignment between perceived and actual motor competence, but there was no intervention effect on alignment. Future research should prioritize a longer intervention duration that targets student learning and understanding in order to develop veridical perceptions in adolescents that might sustain their participation in PA.

Examining the psychometric properties of the digital scale of perceived motor competence in young children

This study examined the psychometric properties (i.e., reliability and validity) of the Digital Scale of Perceived Motor Competence (DSPMC) in preschool-aged children. One hundred eighteen children (M_age  = 4.5) completed Study 1 on internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and 87 children (M_age  = 4.5) completed Study 2 on construct validity. Study 1 results support that the DSPMC demonstrates an acceptable internal consistency at both the initial (α = 0.78) and retest (α = 0.75) and good test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.84; 95% CI = 0.76-0.89). Study 2 results demonstrate that the DSPMC is significantly correlated to two other measures of perceived competence (r_range  = 0.25-0.39) and all actual motor skill subscales (r_range  = 0.23-0.39). These results support that the DSPMC is a valid and reliable tool to measure perceived competence in young children.

Through the Looking Glass: A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Evidence, Providing New Insight for Motor Competence and Health

Introduction

In 2008, a conceptual model explaining the role of motor competence (MC) in children’s physical activity (PA), weight status, perceived MC and health-related fitness was published.

Objective

The purpose of the current review was to systematically compile mediation, longitudinal and experimental evidence in support of this conceptual model.

Methods

This systematic review (registered with PROSPERO on 28 April 2020) was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. Separate searches were undertaken for each pathway of interest (final search 8 November 2019) using CINAHL Complete, ERIC, Medline (OVID), PsycINFO, Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus and SportDiscus. Potential articles were initially identified through abstract and title checking (N = 585) then screened further and combined into one review (n = 152), with 43 articles identified for extraction. Studies needed to be original and peer reviewed, include typically developing children and adolescents first assessed between 2 and 18 years and objective assessment of gross MC and at least one other variable (i.e., PA, weight status, perceived MC, health-related fitness). PA included sport participation, but sport-specific samples were excluded. Longitudinal or experimental designs and cross-sectional mediated models were sought. Strength of evidence was calculated for each pathway in both directions for each domain (i.e., skill composite, object control and locomotor/coordination/stability) by dividing the proportion of studies indicating a significantly positive pathway in the hypothesised direction by the total associations examined for that pathway. Classifications were no association (0–33%), indeterminate/inconsistent (34–59%), or a positive ‘+’ or negative ‘ − ’ association (≥ 60%). The latter category was classified as strong evidence (i.e., ++or −−) when four or more studies found an association. If the total number of studies in a domain of interest was three or fewer, this was considered insufficient evidence to make a determination.

Results

There was strong evidence in both directions for a negative association between MC and weight status. There was strong positive evidence for a pathway from MC to fitness and indeterminate evidence for the reverse. There was indeterminate evidence for a pathway from MC to PA and no evidence for the reverse pathway. There was insufficient evidence for the MC to perceived MC pathway. There was strong positive evidence for the fitness-mediated MC/PA pathway in both directions. There was indeterminate evidence for the perceived MC-mediated pathway from PA to MC and no evidence for the reverse.

Conclusion

Bidirectional longitudinal associations of MC with weight status are consistent with the model authored by Stodden et al. (Quest 2008;60(2):290–306, 2008). However, to test the whole model, the field needs robust longitudinal studies across childhood and adolescence that include all variables in the model, have multiple time points and account for potential confounding factors. Furthermore, experimental studies that examine change in MC relative to change in the other constructs are needed.

Trial Registrations

PROSPERO ID# CRD42020155799.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01516-8.