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Abstract
Most tissues of the body contain enzymes capable of ethanol oxidation or nonoxidative metabolism, but significant activity occurs only in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the stomach. Hence, medical consequences are predominant in these organs. In the liver, ethanol oxidation generates an excess of reducing equivalents, primarily as NADH, causing hepatotoxicity. An additional system, containing cytochromes P-450 inducible by chronic alcohol feeding, was demonstrated in liver microsomes and found to be a major cause of hepatotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles S Lieber
- Bronx VA Medical Center (151-2), 130 West Kingsbridge Road, Bronx, NY 10468, USA.
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2
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Lieber CS. Alcoholic fatty liver: its pathogenesis and mechanism of progression to inflammation and fibrosis. Alcohol 2004; 34:9-19. [PMID: 15670660 DOI: 10.1016/j.alcohol.2004.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 430] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2004] [Revised: 07/16/2004] [Accepted: 07/20/2004] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Liver disease in the alcoholic is due not only to malnutrition but also to ethanol's hepatotoxicity linked to its metabolism by means of the alcohol dehydrogenase and cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) pathways and the resulting production of toxic acetaldehyde. In addition, alcohol dehydrogenase-mediated ethanol metabolism generates the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), which promotes steatosis by stimulating the synthesis of fatty acids and opposing their oxidation. Steatosis is also promoted by excess dietary lipids and can be attenuated by their replacement with medium-chain triglycerides. Through reduction of pyruvate, elevated NADH also increases lactate, which stimulates collagen synthesis in myofibroblasts. Furthermore, CYP2E1 activity is inducible by its substrates, not only ethanol but also fatty acids. Their excess and metabolism by means of this pathway generate release of free radicals, which cause oxidative stress, with peroxidation of lipids and membrane damage, including altered enzyme activities. Products of lipid peroxidation such as 4-hydroxynonenal stimulate collagen generation and fibrosis, which are further increased through diminished feedback inhibition of collagen synthesis because acetaldehyde forms adducts with the carboxyl-terminal propeptide of procollagen in hepatic stellate cells. Acetaldehyde is also toxic to the mitochondria, and it aggravates their oxidative stress by binding to reduced glutathione and promoting its leakage. Oxidative stress and associated cellular injury promote inflammation, which is aggravated by increased production of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha in the Kupffer cells. These are activated by induction of their CYP2E1 as well as by endotoxin. The endotoxin-stimulated tumor necrosis factor-alpha release is decreased by dilinoleoylphosphatidylcholine, the active phosphatidylcholine (PC) species of polyenylphosphatidylcholine (PPC). Moreover, defense mechanisms provided by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha and omega fatty acid oxidation are readily overwhelmed, particularly in female rats and also in women who have low hepatic induction of fatty acid-binding protein (L-FABPc). Accordingly, the intracellular concentration of free fatty acids may become high enough to injure membranes, thereby contributing to necrosis, inflammation, and progression to fibrosis and cirrhosis. Eventually, hepatic S-adenosylmethionine and PCs become depleted in the alcoholic, with impairment of their multiple cellular functions, which can be restored by PC replenishment. Thus, prevention and therapy opposing the development of steatosis and its progression to more severe injury can be achieved by a multifactorial approach: control of alcohol consumption, avoidance of obesity and of excess dietary long-chain fatty acids, or their replacement with medium-chain fatty acids, and replenishment of S-adenosylmethionine and PCs by using PPC. Progress in the understanding of the pathogenesis of alcoholic fatty liver and its progression to inflammation and fibrosis has resulted in prospects for their better prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Reuben
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
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Lieber CS. Microsomal Ethanol-Oxidizing System (MEOS): The First 30 Years (1968-1998)-A Review. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04217.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Sandig G, Kärgel E, Menzel R, Vogel F, Zimmer T, Schunck WH. Regulation of endoplasmic reticulum biogenesis in response to cytochrome P450 overproduction. Drug Metab Rev 1999; 31:393-410. [PMID: 10335443 DOI: 10.1081/dmr-100101926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Sandig
- Max-Delbrück-Centre for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
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Cameron R, Neuman M, Shear N, Katz G, Bellentani S, Tiribelli C. Modulation of liver-specific cellular response to ethanol in vitro in hep G2 cells. Toxicol In Vitro 1998; 12:111-22. [DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(97)00095-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/06/1997] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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7
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Lieber CS. Role of oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in alcoholic and nonalcoholic liver diseases. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 1996; 38:601-28. [PMID: 8895826 DOI: 10.1016/s1054-3589(08)61001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The main pathway for the hepatic oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde proceeds via ADH and is associated with the reduction of NAD to NADH; the latter produces a striking redox change with various associated metabolic disorders. NADH also inhibits xanthine dehydrogenase activity, resulting in a shift of purine oxidation to xanthine oxidase, thereby promoting the generation of oxygen-free radical species. NADH also supports microsomal oxidations, including that of ethanol, in part via transhydrogenation to NADPH. In addition to the classic alcohol dehydrogenase pathway, ethanol can also be reduced by an accessory but inducible microsomal ethanoloxidizing system. This induction is associated with proliferation of the endoplasmic reticulum, both in experimental animals and in humans, and is accompanied by increased oxidation of NADPH with resulting H2O2 generation. There is also a concomitant 4- to 10-fold induction of cytochrome P4502E1 (2E1) both in rats and in humans, with hepatic perivenular preponderance. This 2E1 induction contributes to the well-known lipid peroxidation associated with alcoholic liver injury, as demonstrated by increased rates of superoxide radical production and lipid peroxidation correlating with the amount of 2E1 in liver microsomal preparations and the inhibition of lipid peroxidation in liver microsomes by antibodies against 2E1 in control and ethanol-fed rats. Indeed, 2E1 is rather "leaky" and its operation results in a significant release of free radicals. In addition, induction of this microsomal system results in enhanced acetaldehyde production, which in turn impairs defense systems against oxidative stress. For instance, it decreases GSH by various mechanisms, including binding to cysteine or by provoking its leakage out of the mitochondria and of the cell. Hepatic GSH depletion after chronic alcohol consumption was shown both in experimental animals and in humans. Alcohol-induced increased GSH turnover was demonstrated indirectly by a rise in alpha-amino-n-butyric acid in rats and baboons and in volunteers given alcohol. The ultimate precursor of cysteine (one of the three amino acids of GSH) is methionine. Methionine, however, must be first activated to S-adenosylmethionine by an enzyme which is depressed by alcoholic liver disease. This block can be bypassed by SAMe administration which restores hepatic SAMe levels and attenuates parameters of ethanol-induced liver injury significantly such as the increase in circulating transaminases, mitochondrial lesions, and leakage of mitochondrial enzymes (e.g., glutamic dehydrogenase) into the bloodstream. SAMe also contributes to the methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine. The methyltransferase involved is strikingly depressed by alcohol consumption, but this can be corrected, and hepatic phosphatidylcholine levels restored, by the administration of a mixture of polyunsaturated phospholipids (polyenylphosphatidylcholine). In addition, PPC provided total protection against alcohol-induced septal fibrosis and cirrhosis in the baboon and it abolished an associated twofold rise in hepatic F2-isoprostanes, a product of lipid peroxidation. A similar effect was observed in rats given CCl4. Thus, PPC prevented CCl4- and alcohol-induced lipid peroxidation in rats and baboons, respectively, while it attenuated the associated liver injury. Similar studies are ongoing in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Lieber
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine (CUNY), Alcohol Research and Treatment Center, Bronx, USA
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Traiger GJ, Bruckner JV, Jiang WD, Dietz FK, Cooke PH. Effect of 2-butanol and 2-butanone on rat hepatic ultrastructure and drug metabolizing enzyme activity. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1989; 28:235-48. [PMID: 2507790 DOI: 10.1080/15287398909531343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The effect of a single oral dose of 2-butanol (2.2 ml/kg) or 2-butanone (1.87 ml/kg) on hepatic ultrastructure and drug-metabolizing enzyme activity was studied in the rat. A 135-197% increase in acetanilide hydroxylase activity was found in rats sacrificed 12-40 h after dosing with 2-butanol or 2-butanone. A 40-h pretreatment with 2-butanone produced a 155% increase in aminopyrine N-demethylase activity. NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity and the concentrations of cytochromes P-450 and b5 were largely unaltered 2-40 h after dosing with either agent. Electron microscopic examination of hepatocytes from rats sacrificed 16 h after 2-butanol or 2-butanone revealed a marginal increase in the prevalence of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. However, by 40 h, there was a marked proliferation of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and reduction in rough endoplasmic reticulum in response to both agents. The most marked potentiation of CCl4 hepatotoxicity occurred when rats were pretreated with 2-butanol or 2-butanone 16 h before CCl4 administration. The coincidental finding of maximal CCl4-induced hepatic injury and elevation of microsomal xenobiotic activity within the same time frame following 2-butanol or 2-butanone supports the hypothesis that aliphatic alcohols and ketones potentiate CCl4 hepatotoxicity by enhancing biotransformation of the halocarbon to cytotoxic metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Traiger
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence 66045
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Parker CM, Wimberly HC, Lam AS, Gardiner TH, Van Gelder GA. Subchronic feeding study of decarboxyfenvalerate in rats. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 1986; 18:77-90. [PMID: 3701883 DOI: 10.1080/15287398609530849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Groups of 30 male and 30 female Fischer-344 rats were fed dietary concentrations of 0, 30, 100, 300, 3000, or 10,000 ppm decarboxyfenvalerate (DC-FEN) for up to 13 wk. An interim kill of 10 rats/sex X group was performed at 7 wk. Following 7 or 13 wk of dietary treatment, groups of rats were necropsied, which included evaluation of hemocellular, hemochemical, and uretic parameters, selected absolute and relative organ weights, and macroscopic and microscopic observations. DC-FEN did not affect mortality. Body weight was decreased in male rats fed 10,000 ppm DC-FEN. Statistically and toxicologically significant differences in clinicopathologic parameters were observed at either the highest or two highest exposure levels. Some statistically significant differences were noted in some hemocellular and/or hemochemical parameters at either 100 or 300 ppm. These subtle changes were either not dose-related, inconsistent, or not of sufficient difference to be determined to have biological significance. Absolute and relative liver weights of male and female rats fed greater than or equal to 300 ppm DC-FEN were all higher than control values except for absolute weights in female rats (300 ppm) at the interim kill. Consistent significant increases in absolute or relative kidney weights were observed in male and female rats fed 3000 or 10,000 ppm DC-FEN. Other statistically significant differences in absolute and/or relative organ weights were seen primarily where the higher doses had caused decreased carcass weight. Macroscopic treatment-related liver enlargement (hepatomegaly) was observed in male and female rats fed 3000 or 10,000 ppm DC-FEN. Only one female rat fed 300 ppm DC-FEN had hepatomegaly at the terminal kill. Significant treatment-related microscopic effects were limited to glomerulonephrosis in male and female rats fed 10,000 ppm and hepatocellular hypertrophy and other associated liver changes in male and female rats fed 3000 or 10,000 ppm DC-FEN. Liver effects at doses less than 3000 ppm were indicative of a physiologic adaptive response and were not toxicologically significant. Therefore, the biologically significant no-effect level was 300 ppm.
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Abstract
The author provides an excellent overview of the three major pathways for the metabolism of ethanol. Many of the toxic effects of ethanol can be attributed to two specific products, hydrogen and acetaldehyde, and these effects are explored in detail.
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Skaare JU, Nafstad I. Interaction of vitamin E and selenium with the hepatotoxic agent dimethylnitrosamine. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA ET TOXICOLOGICA 1978; 43:119-28. [PMID: 696341 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1978.tb02245.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Pretreatment of rats with vitamin E, 0.02% w/w of the diet and a sc dose, 200 mg/kg, given 48 hrs. before dimethylnitrosamine, DMNA, was found to ameliorate the acute hepatotoxicity of DMNA (30 mg/kg) as reflected in reduced plasma asparagine-amino-transferase (AspAT) activity. This effect was confirmed by histological evaluation. No significant effect of DMNA on plasma levels of vitamin E was observed, however, DMNA significantly increased the hepatic level of vitamin E supplemented rats. Pretreatment with selenium, 0.5 mg/kg given intraperitoneally 48 hrs. before DMNA, was found to enhance the acute hepatotoxicity of DMNA as reflected in increased elevation of plasma AspAT activity. This effect was not confirmed morphologically. DMNA did not have any effect on the hepatic selenium state in selenium pretreated rats; however, selenium pretreatment tended to decrease hepatic and plasma tocopherol levels. To explain the effects observed in the present investigation, various mechanisms were discussed. If the compounds were acting as antioxidants, then the difference in intracellular localization had to be important. More likely a specific biochemical function involving drug metabolizing enzymes could be involved. Finally vitamin E could protect membranes from damage during the necrotizing action of DMNA.
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Depierre JW, Ernster L. Disappearance of induced endoplasmic reticulum after cessation of phenobarbital treatment. FEBS Lett 1976; 68:219-24. [PMID: 185089 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(76)80440-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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15
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16
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Depierre JW, Ernster L. Liver levels of alpha-glycerophosphate, glycerophosphate dehydrogenase and acetyl-CoA carboxylase during phenobarbital induction. FEBS Lett 1975; 52:240-1. [PMID: 236913 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(75)80814-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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17
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Tandon BN, Tandon HD, Puri BK. An electron microscopic study of liver in hepatomegaly presumably caused by amebiasis. Exp Mol Pathol 1975; 22:118-32. [PMID: 163757 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4800(75)90057-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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18
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Schulte-Hermann R. Induction of liver growth by xenobiotic compounds and other stimuli. CRC CRITICAL REVIEWS IN TOXICOLOGY 1974; 3:97-158. [PMID: 4373214 DOI: 10.3109/10408447409079856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 271] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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19
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Grasso P, Wright MG, Gangolli SD, Hendy RJ. Liver response tests. IX. Cytopathological changes in the enlarged but histologically normal rat liver. FOOD AND COSMETICS TOXICOLOGY 1974; 12:341-50. [PMID: 4140829 DOI: 10.1016/0015-6264(74)90006-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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20
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Marek J, Motlĩk K. Ultrastructural changes of rat liver cells produced by aminoglutethimide (Elipten Ciba). VIRCHOWS ARCHIV. B, CELL PATHOLOGY 1972; 11:161-6. [PMID: 4628151 DOI: 10.1007/bf02889395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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21
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Wright AS, Potter D, Wooder MF, Donninger C, Greenland RD. The effects of dieldrin on the subcellular structure and function of mammalian liver cells. FOOD AND COSMETICS TOXICOLOGY 1972; 10:311-32. [PMID: 4339899 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-6264(72)80251-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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22
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Topham JC, McIntosh DA, Platt DS. Biochemical changes in rat liver in response to treatment with drugs and other agents. IV. Biochem Pharmacol 1972; 21:1019-24. [PMID: 4402677 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(72)90406-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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23
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Stenram U, Willén R. The effect of 5-fluorouracil on ultrastructure and RNA labelling in the liver of rats following partial hepatectomy. Chem Biol Interact 1970; 2:79-88. [PMID: 5526732 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(70)90041-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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24
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Einheber A, Wren RE, Klobukowski CJ. Interference of hepatic drug metabolism in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice and its therapeutic modification: A study of hexobarbital sleeping time and phenobarbital-induced liver stimulation. Exp Parasitol 1970; 27:424-43. [PMID: 5419453 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4894(70)90048-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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25
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Botham CM, Conning DM, Hayes J, Litchfield MH, McElligott TF. Effects of butylated hydroxytoluene on the enzyme activity and ultrastructure of rat hepatocytes. FOOD AND COSMETICS TOXICOLOGY 1970; 8:1-8. [PMID: 5435754 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-6264(70)80217-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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26
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Porta EA, Koch OR, Hartroft WS. Recent advances in molecular pathology: a review of the effects of alcohol on the liver. Exp Mol Pathol 1970; 12:104-32. [PMID: 4392309 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4800(70)90078-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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27
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Hines WJ. The effect of two synthetic steroids on the ultrastructure of the liver of rattus norvegicus l. J Pharm Pharmacol 1969; 21:509-13. [PMID: 4389714 DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1969.tb08303.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Flumedroxone acetate and an analogue [17-acetoxy-3β(β-carboxypropionyloxy)-6-trifluoromethylpregn-5-ene-20-one] each produce a liver weight increase and a change in hepatic cell ultrastructure, following chronic administration in mice and rats. In all liver cells there is much proliferation of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which arises from the ergastoplasm, or rough membranes. An effect on esterase enzyme specificity and the evidence for the induction of an esterase isoenzyme after treatment with these steroids, is referred to. The distribution of the new smooth endoplasmic reticulum is of interest as it varies with each analogue.
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28
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Effects of Phenobarbital on the Synthesis and Degradation of the Protein Components of Rat Liver Microsomal Membranes. J Biol Chem 1969. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)94361-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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29
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Platt DS, Cockrill BL. Biochemical changes in rat liver in response to treatment with drugs and other agents. 3. Effects of centrally acting drugs. Biochem Pharmacol 1969; 18:459-73. [PMID: 4305571 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(69)90222-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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30
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Die Fr�hwirkung von Tetrachlorkohlenstoff auf die Ascorbins�ure-Konzentration in der Leber und die Ascorbins�ure-Ausscheidung mit dem Urin bei der Ratte. Arch Toxicol 1969. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00577784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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31
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Pantelouris EM, Hines WJ. Steroid effects on the substrate profile of a liver esterase. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1968; 26:129-36. [PMID: 5758296 DOI: 10.1016/0010-406x(68)90319-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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