Three beta-tubulin cDNAs from the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus

In Silico Docking of Nematode β-Tubulins With Benzimidazoles Points to Gene Expression and Orthologue Variation as Factors in Anthelmintic Resistance

The efficacy of benzimidazole anthelmintics can vary depending on the target parasite, with Ascaris nematodes being highly responsive, and whipworms being less responsive. Anthelmintic resistance has become widespread, particularly in strongyle nematodes such as Haemonchus contortus in ruminants, and resistance has recently been detected in hookworms of humans and dogs. Past work has shown that there are multiple β-tubulin isotypes in helminths, yet only a few of these contribute to benzimidazole interactions and resistance. The β-tubulin isotypes of ascarids and soil-transmitted helminths were identified by mining available genome data, and phylogenetic analysis showed that the ascarids share a similar repertoire of seven β-tubulin isotypes. Strongyles also have a consistent pattern of four β-tubulin isotypes. In contrast, the whipworms only have two isotypes, with one of these clustering more basally and distinct from any other group. Key β-tubulin isotypes selected based on previous studies were the focus of in silico molecular docking simulations to look at the interactions with benzimidazoles. These showed that all β-tubulins had similar interactions with benzimidazoles and maintained the key bond with residue E198 in all species, indicating similar mechanisms of action. However, the interaction was stronger and more consistent in the strongyles and whipworms than it was in the ascarids. Alteration of β-tubulin isotypes with the common resistance-associated mutations originally identified in H. contortus resulted in similar interaction modeling for all species. In conclusion, ascarids, strongyles, and whipworms all have their own unique repertoire of β-tubulins, which could explain why benzimidazole resistance and susceptibility varies between these groups of parasites. These data complement recent work that has highlighted the roles of essential residues in benzimidazole drug binding and shows that there is a separation between strongyle parasites that frequently develop resistance and ascarid parasites, which have been much less prone to developing resistance.

Homology modelling, molecular dynamics simulation and docking evaluation of β-tubulin of Schistosoma mansoni

Schistosomiasis is one of the neglected diseases causing considerable morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Microtubules with its main component, tubulin play a vital role in helminthes including schistosomes. Benzimidazoles represent potential drug candidates by binding β-tubulin. The study aimed to generate a homology model for the β-tubulin of S. mansoni using the crystal structure of O visaries (Sheep) β-tubulin (PDB ID: 3N2G D) as a template, then different β-tubulin models were generated and two previously reported benzimidazole derivatives (NBTP-F and NBTP-OH) were docked to the generated models, the binding results indicated that both S. mansoni, S. haematobium were susceptible to the two NBTP derivatives. Additionally, three mutated versions of S. mansoni β-tubulin wild-type were generated and the mutation (F185Y) seems to slightly enhance the ligand binding. Dynamics simulation experiments showed S. haematobium β-tubulin is highly susceptible to the tested compounds; similar to S. mansoni, moreover, mutated models of S. mansoni β-tubulin altered its NBTPs susceptibility. Moreover, additional seven new benzimidazole derivatives were synthesized and tested by molecular docking on the generated model binding site of S. mansoni β-tubulin and were found to have good interaction inside the pocket.

Haemonchosis: A Challenging Parasitic Infection of Sheep and Goats

The paper reviews the challenges about haemonchosis-a significant and common parasitic infection of small ruminants. Haemonchus contortus is a highly pathogenic parasite that localises in the abomasum of affected animals and exerts its pathogenicity by blood-sucking activity, adversely affecting the health and productivity of animals. The first challenge is the uneven distribution of the infection globally, this being more prevalent in tropical and subtropical and warm temperate and summer rainfall regions than in cool and cold temperate and arid regions; hence, this leads in differences in the approaches required for its control. Another challenge is the widespread presence of Haemonchus strains resistant to the various anthelmintics available: Benzimidazoles, imidazothiazoles, macrocyclic lactones, closantel and monepantel, which makes the control of the infection difficult. The third challenge refers to the difficulty of diagnosing the disease, given that field evidence can provide suspicion about the infection, which needs to be subsequently confirmed by laboratory tests through parasitological or molecular techniques. The final challenge relates to the difficulties in the control of the infection and the necessity to use pharmaceutical products cautiously and with a planned approach, to avoid further development of anthelmintic resistance, also given that use of a recently licenced vaccine is not widespread. In conclusion, at the moment, we should be concerned, but not worried, about this infection, and apply correctly the appropriate health management plans.

A 4 year observation of gastrointestinal nematode egg counts, nemabiomes and the benzimidazole resistance genotypes of Teladorsagia circumcincta on a Scottish sheep farm

Anthelmintic resistance threatens the sustainability of sheep production globally. Advice regarding strategies to reduce the development of anthelmintic resistance incorporates the outcomes of modelling exercises. Further understanding of gastrointestinal nematode species diversity, and population dynamics and genetics (which may vary between species) is required to refine these models; and field studies combining faecal egg outputs, species composition and resistance genetics are needed to calibrate them. In this study, faecal samples were taken from ewes and lambs on a commercial farm in south-eastern Scotland at approximately 3 t-4 week intervals between spring and autumn over a period of 4 years. Faecal egg counts were performed on these samples, and L₃ were collected from pooled coprocultures. Deep amplicon sequencing was used to determine both the species composition of these L₃ and the proportions of benzimidazole-resistant single nucleotide polymorphisms in the isotype-1 β-tubulin locus of the predominant species, Teladorsagia circumcincta L₃. Despite consistent management throughout the study, the results show variation in gastrointestinal nematode species composition with time and between age groups, that was potentially associated with weather conditions. The F200Y benzimidazole resistance mutation is close to genetic fixation in the T. circumcincta population on this farm. There was no evidence of variation in isotype-1 β-tubulin single nucleotide polymorphisms frequency between age groups, and no genetic evidence of reversion to benzimidazole susceptibility, despite targeted benzimidazole usage. This study highlights the need to include speciation when investigating gastrointestinal nematode epidemiology and anthelmintic resistance, and serves as an example of how genetic data may be analysed alongside species diversity and faecal egg counts, when markers for other anthelmintic classes are identified.

Widespread resistance to macrocyclic lactones in cattle nematodes in Ecuador

The aim of the present study was to assess the resistance status of bovine gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) against ivermectin (IVM) and fenbendazole (FBZ) in Ecuador. The study involved five cattle farms located in different topographic zones of the country. Anthelmintic efficacy was assessed by calculating the percentage of fecal egg counts reduction (FECR) after treatment. Additionally, DNA from pooled larval cultures was screened to ascertain benzimidazole resistance alleles. For animals treated with IVM, FECR percentages ranged from 0 to 68%, indicating the presence of highly resistant worms. The opposite was found for animals treated with FBZ, where FECR percentages were above 90% on all the farms tested. Pooled coprocultures revealed that Cooperia spp. were the predominant species pre and post-treatment although minor proportions of Haemonchus spp. and Ostertagia spp. were also identified. No mutations conferring resistance to benzimidazoles were identified in the beta-tubulin isotype 1 gene of the isolated Cooperia spp. worms, which is in line with the results of the FECR performed with FBZ. Overall, the present study highlights widespread resistance of bovine GINs to IVM but no to FBZ in Ecuador.

Anthelmintic resistance and common worm control practices in sheep farms in Flanders, Belgium

In contrast to many other European countries, no data were available on the presence of anthelmintic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep in Belgium. A faecal egg count reduction test was performed in 26 sheep flocks in Flanders, Northern Belgium. Results indicated widespread resistance against benzimidazoles (albendazole, fenbendazole and mebendazole), with treatment failure on all 8 farms investigated. Haemonchus contortus and Teladorsagia circumcincta were the predominant species after treatment failure. Amino acid substitutions associated with benzimidazole resistance were detected at the codon positions 167 (8%) and 200 (92%) of the isotype-1 beta tubulin gene in H. contortus, codon positions 198 (47%) and 200 (43%) in T. circumcincta and position 200 (100%) in T. colubriformis. Resistance against macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin, doramectin and moxidectin) was recorded on 7 out of 20 flocks, mainly in H. contortus and T. circumcincta. Treatment failure was also observed for closantel (in combination with mebendazole) and for monepantel, on one farm each. Trichostrongylus spp. were implicated with resistance against monepantel. A questionnaire survey on farm management and worm control measures indicated that worm control was often not sustainable. Ewes and lambs were treated frequently (on average 2.6 and 3.2 times per year), mostly without weighing. Only few sheep farmers (9%) regularly used faecal egg counts to monitor worm infections. Despite the FECRT showing otherwise, most of the farmers perceived the efficacy of anthelmintics as very good (30%) or good (54%).

Development of amplicon sequencing for the analysis of benzimidazole resistance allele frequencies in field populations of gastrointestinal nematodes

Anthelmintic resistant gastrointestinal helminths have become a major cause of poor health in sheep and goats. Sensitive and specific molecular markers are needed to monitor the genotypic frequency of resistance in field parasite populations. Gastrointestinal nematode resistance to benzimidazole is caused by a mutation in one of three positions within the isotype 1 β-tubulin gene. In the absence of markers for resistance to the other broad spectrum anthelmintic classes, these provide a relevant study example. Determination of the prevalence of these single nucleotide polymorphisms in field nematode populations can be impractical using conventional molecular methods to examine individual parasites; which can be laborious and lack sensitivity in determining low levels of resistance in parasite populations. Here, we report the development of a novel method based on an Illumina MiSeq deep amplicon sequencing platform to sequence the isotype 1 β-tubulin locus of the small ruminant gastrointestinal nematode, Teladorsagia circumcincta, and determine the frequency of the benzimidazole resistance mutations. We validated the method by assessing sequence representation bias, comparing the results of Illumina MiSeq and pyrosequencing, and applying the method to populations containing known proportions of resistant and susceptible larvae. We applied the method to field samples collected from ewes and lambs on over a period of one year on three farms, each highlighting different aspects of sheep management and approaches to parasite control. The results show opportunities to build hypotheses with reference to selection pressures leading to differences in resistance allele frequencies between sampling dates, farms and ewes or lambs, and to consider the impact of their genetic fixation or otherwise. This study provides proof of concept of a practical, accurate, sensitive and scalable method to determine frequency of anthelmintic resistance mutations in gastrointestinal nematodes in field studies and as a management tool for livestock farmers.

Emergence and the spread of the F200Y benzimidazole resistance mutation in Haemonchus contortus and Haemonchus placei from buffalo and cattle

Benzimidazoles have been intensively (for over 40 years) used in the livestock sector, particularly in small ruminants. This has been led to the widespread emergence of resistance in a number of small ruminant parasite species, especially Haemonchus contortus. In many countries benzimidazole resistance has severely compromised the control of H. contortus in small ruminants; but there is a little information on benzimidazole resistance in H. contortus infecting buffalo and cattle. Resistance to benzimidazoles have also been reported in the large ruminant parasite, Haemonchus placei, but again there is relatively little information on its prevalence. Hence it is very important to understand how resistance-conferring mutations emerge and spread in both parasites in buffalo and cattle hosts in order to develop approaches for the recognition of the problem at an early stage of its development. The present study suggests that the F200Y (TAC) mutation is common in H. contortus, being detected in 5/7 populations at frequencies between 7 and 57%. Furthermore, 6/10 H. placei populations contained the F200Y (TAC) mutation, albeit at low frequencies of between 0.4 and 5%. The phylogenetic analysis suggests that the F200Y (TAC) mutation in H. contortus has emerged on multiple occasions in the region, with at least three independent emergences across the populations. In contrast, the F200Y (TAC) resistance-conferring mutation in H. placei is only seen on a single haplotype. A high level frequency of the resistance haplotypes in the region, suggests that the unique resistance conferring-mutation has spread from a single emergence; likely by anthropogenic animal movement. Overall, these results provide the first clear genetic evidence for the spread of benzimidazole resistance-conferring mutations to multiple different locations from a single emergence in H. placei; while being consistent with previous small ruminant-based observations of multiple emergence of resistance mutations in H. contortus.

Benzimidazole resistance survey for Haemonchus, Teladorsagia and Trichostrongylus in three European countries using pyrosequencing including the development of new assays for Trichostrongylus

Resistance to benzimidazoles (BZs) in trichostrongyloid nematodes is a worldwide problem for livestock production, particularly regarding small ruminants. Sensitive and reliable methods are required to assess anthelmintic resistance status. Currently available methods for BZ resistance detection can be divided into three main groups, in vivo (e.g. faecal egg count reduction test), in vitro (e.g. egg hatch assay) and molecular tests. Three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the isotype-1 β-tubulin gene of various nematode species correlate with BZ resistance. While PCR-based methods have been reported for the three most economically important nematodes of sheep, namely, Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus and Teladorsagia, pyrosequencing assays are so far only available for the latter two. Here, the design and evaluation of pyrosequencing assays for isotype-1 and isotype-2 β-tubulin genes of Trichostrongylus colubriformis are described. PCR fragments carrying the susceptible and corresponding resistant genotype were combined in defined ratios to evaluate assay sensitivity and linearity. The correlation between the given and the measured allele frequencies of the respective SNPs (codons F167Y, E198A and F200Y) was very high. Pyrosequencing assays for Haemonchus, Teladorsagia and Trichostrongylus were subsequently used for a BZ resistance survey, carried out in the three European countries, namely Ireland, Italy and Switzerland. Larval cultures obtained from field survey samples in 2012 and 2013 were used for pyrosequencing. The test was applied when the target species represented at least 10% of the sample. Trichostrongylus and Teladorsagia were detected in all countries' samples whereas Haemonchus was not detected in samples from Ireland. SNPs in isotype-1 associated with resistance were detected for all three species, with frequencies at codon F200Y far exceeding those at codons F167Y and E198A. Elevated SNP frequencies in isotype-2 of Trichostrongylus were only rarely detected. Farms with BZ resistance-associated SNP frequencies above 10% were most often found in Switzerland followed by Ireland and Italy.

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Successful development of a pyrosequencing assay for Trichostrongylus.

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Resistance survey revealed high number of SNPs present in all three countries.

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SNP at codon 200 most prevalent in European trichostrongyloid populations.

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Low number of SNPs found in Italy corresponds to FECRT data.

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Pyrosequencing successfully employed as a tool for large scale surveys.

Anthelmintic Resistance in Haemonchus contortus: History, Mechanisms and Diagnosis

Haemonchus contortus has shown a great ability to develop resistance to anthelmintic drugs. In many instances, resistance has appeared less than 10years after the introduction of a new drug class. Field populations of this species now show resistance to all major anthelmintic drug classes, including benzimidazoles (BZs), imidazothiazoles and macrocyclic lactones. In addition, resistance to the recently introduced amino-acetonitrile derivative class (monepantel) has already been reported. The existence of field populations showing resistance to all three major drug classes, and the early appearance of resistance to monepantel, threatens the sustainability of sheep and goat production systems worldwide. This chapter reviews the history of the development of resistance to the various anthelmintics in H. contortus and examines the mechanisms utilized by this species to resist the effects of these drugs. Some of these mechanisms are well understood, particularly for BZ drugs, while our knowledge and understanding of others are increasing. Finally, we summarize methods available for the diagnosis of resistance. While such diagnosis currently relies largely on the faecal egg count reduction test, which suffers from issues of expense and sensitivity, we describe past and current efforts to utilize cheaper and less laborious phenotypic assays with free-living life stages, and then describe progress on the development of molecular assays to provide sensitive resistance-detection tests.

Macrocyclic lactones and their relationship to the SNPs related to benzimidazole resistance

Haemonchus contortus is an abomasal nematode of ruminants that is widely present across the world. Its ability to cause death of infected animals and rapidly develop anthelmintic resistance makes it a dangerous pathogen. Ivermectin (IVM) and moxidectin (MOX) are macrocyclic lactones (MLs). They have been successfully used to treat parasitic nematodes over the last three decades. A genetic association between IVM selection and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on the β-tubulin isotype 1 gene was reported in H. contortus. These SNPs result in replacing phenylalanine (F, TTC) with tyrosine (Y, TAC) at position 167 or 200 on the β-tubulin protein. Recently we reported a direct interaction of IVM with α- and β-tubulin. It had been hypothesized that the SNPs (F167Y and F200Y) may change tubulin dynamics and directly affect IVM binding. The goal of the current study was to observe the effects of SNPs (F167Y and F200Y) on tubulin polymerization and IVM binding. It was also of interest to evaluate the differences between IVM and MOX on tubulin polymerization. We conclude that the SNPs cause no difference in the polymerization of wild and mutant tubulins. Furthermore, neither of the SNPs reduced IVM binding. Varying results were obtained in the degree of polymerization of parasitic and mammalian tubulin for IVM and MOX, i.e., the extent of polymerization was greater for IVM compared with MOX, for H. contortus tubulin, and vice versa for mammalian tubulin. Molecular modeling showed that IVM and MOX docked into the taxane binding pocket of both mammalian and parasitic wild type and mutant tubulins. However the binding was stronger for mammalian tubulin as compared to parasitic tubulin.

Advances in the diagnosis of key gastrointestinal nematode infections of livestock, with an emphasis on small ruminants

Parasitic nematodes (roundworms) of livestock have major economic impact globally. In spite of the diseases caused by these nematodes and some advances in the design of new therapeutic agents (anthelmintics) and attempts to develop vaccines against some of them, there has been limited progress in the establishment of practical diagnostic techniques. The specific and sensitive diagnosis of gastrointestinal nematode infections of livestock underpins effective disease control, which is highly relevant now that anthelmintic resistance (AR) is a major problem. Traditional diagnostic techniques have major constraints, in terms of sensitivity and specificity. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief background on gastrointestinal nematodes (Strongylida) of livestock and their control; to summarize conventional methods used for the diagnosis and discuss their constraints; to review key molecular-diagnostic methods and recent progress in the development of advanced amplification-based and sequencing technologies, and their implications for epidemiological investigations and the control of parasitic diseases.

Impact of gastrointestinal parasitic nematodes of sheep, and the role of advanced molecular tools for exploring epidemiology and drug resistance - an Australian perspective

Parasitic nematodes (roundworms) of small ruminants and other livestock have major economic impacts worldwide. Despite the impact of the diseases caused by these nematodes and the discovery of new therapeutic agents (anthelmintics), there has been relatively limited progress in the development of practical molecular tools to study the epidemiology of these nematodes. Specific diagnosis underpins parasite control, and the detection and monitoring of anthelmintic resistance in livestock parasites, presently a major concern around the world. The purpose of the present article is to provide a concise account of the biology and knowledge of the epidemiology of the gastrointestinal nematodes (order Strongylida), from an Australian perspective, and to emphasize the importance of utilizing advanced molecular tools for the specific diagnosis of nematode infections for refined investigations of parasite epidemiology and drug resistance detection in combination with conventional methods. It also gives a perspective on the possibility of harnessing genetic, genomic and bioinformatic technologies to better understand parasites and control parasitic diseases.

Characterization and comparative analysis of the complete Haemonchus contortus β-tubulin gene family and implications for benzimidazole resistance in strongylid nematodes

Parasitic nematode β-tubulin genes are of particular interest because they are the targets of benzimidazole drugs. However, in spite of this, the full β-tubulin gene family has not been characterized for any parasitic nematode to date. Haemonchus contortus is the parasite species for which we understand benzimidazole resistance the best and its close phylogenetic relationship with Caenorhabditis elegans potentially allows inferences of gene function by comparative analysis. Consequently, we have characterized the full β-tubulin gene family in H. contortus. Further to the previously identified Hco-tbb-iso-1 and Hco-tbb-iso-2 genes, we have characterized two additional family members designated Hco-tbb-iso-3 and Hco-tbb-iso-4. We show that Hco-tbb-iso-1 is not a one-to-one orthologue with Cel-ben-1, the only β-tubulin gene in C. elegans that is a benzimidazole drug target. Instead, both Hco-tbb-iso-1 and Hco-tbb-iso-2 have a complex evolutionary relationship with three C. elegans β-tubulin genes: Cel-ben-1, Cel-tbb-1 and Cel-tbb-2. Furthermore, we show that both Hco-tbb-iso-1 and Hco-tbb-iso-2 are highly expressed in adult worms; in contrast, Hco-tbb-iso-3 and Hco-tbb-iso-4 are expressed only at very low levels and are orthologous to the Cel-mec-7 and Cel-tbb-4 genes, respectively, suggesting that they have specialized functional roles. Indeed, we have found that the expression pattern of Hco-tbb-iso-3 in H. contortus is identical to that of Cel-mec-7 in C. elegans, being expressed in just six "touch receptor" mechano-sensory neurons. These results suggest that further investigation is warranted into the potential involvement of strongylid isotype-2 β-tubulin genes in mechanisms of benzimidazole resistance.

Next-generation molecular-diagnostic tools for gastrointestinal nematodes of livestock, with an emphasis on small ruminants: a turning point?

Parasitic nematodes of livestock have major economic impact worldwide. Despite the diseases caused by these nematodes, some advances towards the development of new therapeutic agents and attempts to develop effective vaccines against some of them, there has been limited progress in the development of practical diagnostic methods. The specific and sensitive diagnosis of parasitic nematode infections of livestock underpins effective disease control, which is now particularly important given the problems associated with anthelmintic resistance in parasite populations. Traditional diagnostic methods have major limitations, in terms of sensitivity and specificity. This chapter provides an account of the significance of parasitic nematodes (order Strongylida), reviews conventional diagnostic techniques that are presently used routinely and describes advances in polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods for the specific diagnosis of nematode infections. A particular emphasis is placed on the recent development of a robotic PCR-based platform for high-throughput diagnosis, and its significance and implications for epidemiological investigations and for use in control programmes.

A vacuolar-type proton (H+) translocating ATPase alpha subunit encoded by the Hc-vha-6 gene of Haemonchus contortus

In the present study, a full-length cDNA (designated Hc-vha-6) inferred to encode an alpha subunit of a vacuolar-type proton translocating adenosine triphosphatase (V-ATPase) was isolated from the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus, and characterized. The transcript for Hc-vha-6 was detected in all developmental stages and both sexes of H. contortus. Elements, including two TATA box (TATAA), two inverted CAAT box (ATTGG), five E box (CANNTG) and six GATA as well as five inverse GATA (TTATC) transcription factor motifs, were identified in the non-coding region upstream of Hc-vha-6. The open reading frame (ORF) of 2601 nucleotides encoded a protein (Hc-VHA-6) of 866 amino acids and a molecular weight of approximately 98.7 kDa. Comparison with a published protein sequence for a homologue (VPH1P) from yeast showed that Hc-VHA-6 had nine transmembrane domains and the 14 essential amino acid residues associated with enzyme activity, assembly, intracellular and/or membrane targeting. Phylogenetic analyses of selected amino acid sequence data revealed Hc-VHA-6 to be most closely related to VHA-6 of Caenorhabditis elegans. A predictive network analysis inferred that vha-6 interacts with at least seven other genes encoding V-ATPase subunits and a small Rab GTPase. This study provides the first insight into a V-ATPase of parasitic nematodes and a sound basis for future functional genomic work.

Control of nematode parasites with agents acting on neuro-musculature systems: lessons for neuropeptide ligand discovery

There are a number of reasons why the development of novel anthelmintics is very necessary. In domestic animals, parasites cause serious loss of production and are a welfare concern. The control of these parasites requires changes in management practices to reduce the spread of infection and the use of therapeutic agents to treat affected animals. The development of vaccines against parasites is desirable but their development so far has been very limited. One notable exception is the vaccination of calves against infection by Dictyocaulus viviparous (lungworm) which has proved to be very effective. In domestic animals, the total market for anti-parasitic agents (both ecto- and endo-parasites) is in excess of a billion U.S. dollars. In humans there are serious problems ofmorbidity and mortality associated with parasite infections. 1.6 billion People throughout the world are infected with ascariasis (Fig. 1A) and/or hookworm. Approximately one-third of the world's population is suffering from the effects of intestinal nematode parasites, causing low growth-rates in infants, ill-thrift, diarrhea and in 2% of cases, loss of life. Despite the huge number of affected individuals, the market for anti-parasitic drugs for humans is not big enough to foster the development of anthelmintics because most infestations that occur are in undeveloped countries that lack the ability to pay for the development of these drugs. The major economic motivator then, is for the development of animal anthelmintics. In both domestic animals and now in humans, there is now a level of resistance to the available anthelmintic compounds. The resistance is either: constitutive, where a given species of parasite has never been sensitive to the compound; or acquired, where the resistance has developed through Darwinian selection fostered by the continued exposure to the anti-parasitic drugs. The continued use of all anthelmintics has and will, continue to increase the level of resistance. Cure rates are now often less than 100% and resistance of parasites to agents acting on the neuromuscular systems is present in a wide range of parasites of animals and humans hosts. In the face of this resistance the development of novel and effective agents is an urgent and imperative need. New drugs which act on the neuromuscular system have an advantage for medication for animals and humans because they have a rapid therapeutic effect within 3 hours of administration. The effects on the neuromuscular system include: spastic paralysis with drugs like levamisole and pyrantel; flaccid paralysis as with piperazine; or disruption of other vital muscular activity as with ivermectin. Figure 1 B and C, illustrates an example ofa spastic effect oflevamisole on infectious L3 larvae of Ostertagia ostertagiae, a parasite of pigs. The effect was produced within minutes of the in vitro application oflevamisole. In this chapter we comment on the properties of existing agents that have been used to control nematode parasites and that have an action on neuromuscular systems. We then draw attention to resistance that has developed to these compounds and comment on their toxicity and spectra of actions. We hope that some of the lessons that the use of these compounds has taught us may to be applied to any novel neuropeptide ligand that may be introduced. Our aim is then is to provide some warning signs for recognized but dangerous obstacles.

Structural and functional characterisation of the fork head transcription factor-encoding gene, Hc-daf-16, from the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus (Strongylida)

Despite their phylogenetic diversity, parasitic nematodes share attributes of longevity and developmental arrest (=hypobiosis) with free-living nematodes at key points in their life cycles, particularly in larval stages responsible for establishing infection in the host. Insulin-like signalling plays crucial roles in the regulation of life span and arrest (=dauer formation) in the free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. Insulin-like signalling in C. elegans negatively regulates the fork head boxO (FoxO) transcription factor encoded by daf-16, which is linked to initiating a dauer-specific pattern of gene expression. Orthologues of daf-16 have been identified in several species of parasitic nematode. Although function has been demonstrated for an orthologue from the parasitic nematode Strongyloides stercoralis (Rhabditida), the functional capabilities of homologues/orthologues in bursate nematodes (Strongylida) are unknown. In the present study, we used a genomic approach to determine the structures of two complete daf-16 orthologues (designated Hc-daf-16.1 and Hc-daf-16.2) and their transcripts in the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus, and assessed their function(s) using C. elegans as a genetic surrogate. Unlike the multiple isoforms of Ce-DAF-16 and Ss-DAF-16, which are encoded by a single gene and produced by alternative splicing, mRNAs encoding the proteins Hc-DAF-16.1 and Hc-DAF-16.2 are transcribed from separate and distinct loci. Both orthologues are transcribed in all developmental stages and both sexes of H. contortus, and the inferred proteins (603 and 556 amino acids) each contain a characteristic, highly conserved fork head domain. In spite of distinct differences in genomic organisation compared with orthologues in C. elegans and S. stercoralis, genetic complementation studies demonstrated here that Hc-daf-16.2, but not Hc-daf-16.1, could restore daf-16 function to a C. elegans strain carrying a null mutation at this locus. These findings are consistent with previous results for S. stercoralis and demonstrate functional conservation of the daf-16b orthologue between key parasitic nematodes from two different taxonomic orders and C. elegans. We conclude from these experiments that the fork head transcription factor DAF-16 and, by inference, other insulin-like signalling elements, are conserved in H. contortus, a parasitic nematode of paramount economic importance. We demonstrate that functionality is sufficiently conserved in Hc-DAF-16.2 that it can replace Ce-DAF-16 in promoting dauer arrest in C. elegans.

Determination of genomic DNA sequences for beta-tubulin isotype 1 from multiple species of cyathostomin and detection of resistance alleles in third-stage larvae from horses with naturally acquired infections

Background

Genetic resistance against benzimidazole (BZ) anthelmintics is widespread in cyathostomins, the commonest group of intestinal parasitic nematodes of horses. Studies of BZ-resistant nematodes of sheep, particularly Haemonchus contortus, have indicated that an anthelmintic resistance-conferring T/A polymorphism, encoding an F (phenylalanine) to Y (tyrosine) substitution, in beta-tubulin isotype 1 is present at two loci, codons 167 and 200 (F167Y, F200Y). Recent studies using complementary (c) DNA derived from BZ-susceptible and -resistant cyathostomins identified statistical differences in the frequency of the BZ-resistant A allele at these loci. However, the lack of high-throughput genomic DNA-based detection of polymorphisms limits the study of eggs or larvae from field isolates. In the present study, we report genomic DNA sequences for beta-tubulin isotype 1 from multiple cyathostomin species, thus facilitating the development of pyrosequencing assays to genetically characterize third-stage larvae (L3s) of cyathostomins from mixed-species field isolates.

Results

Sequence analysis of the beta-tubulin isotype 1 gene in a common species, Cylicocyclus nassatus, indicates a revised genomic structure to published data, revealing that codons 167 and 200 are located on separate exons. A consensus sequence was generated from 91 and 76 individual cyathostomins for the regions spanning codons 167 and 200, respectively. A multi-species genomic DNA-based assay was established to directly pyrosequence individual L3 from field samples of unknown species and BZ sensitivity in a 96-well plate. In this format, the assay to detect F167Y gave a 50-90% success rate. The optimisation of the assay at codon 200 is currently underway. Subsequently, the genotype at F167Y was determined for 241 L3s, collected prior to and after BZ treatment. These results demonstrated a reduction in the heterozygous genotype, TTC/TAC, and an increase in the homozygous resistant genotype TAC/TAC in post-treatment samples. However, the differences in allele frequencies determined before and after BZ treatment were not statistically significant.

Conclusion

Extensive genomic DNA sequence, spanning codons 167 and 200 of the beta-tubulin isotype 1 gene, was generated from multiple cyathostomin species. The data facilitated the development of a pyrosequencing assay, capable of detecting the genotype of individual cyathostomin L3s derived from mixed-species field samples. Differences in codon 167 allele frequencies were observed in L3s isolated pre- and post-BZ treatment.

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers for benzimidazole resistance in veterinary nematodes

Resistance to the benzimidazole class of anthelmintics in nematodes of veterinary importance has a long history. Research into the mechanisms responsible for this resistance is subsequently at a more advanced stage than for other classes of anthelmintics. The principal mechanism of resistance to benzimidazoles is likely to involve changes in the primary structure of β-tubulins, the building blocks of microtubules. Specifically, point mutations in the β-tubulin isotype 1 gene leading to amino acid substitutions in codons 167, 198, and 200 of the protein have been associated with resistance in nematodes. These single nucleotide polymorphisms offer a means of detecting the presence of resistance within populations. In this mini-review, we focus on the prevalence and importance of these polymorphisms in three groups of nematodes: trichostrongylids, cyathostomins, and hookworms. A brief overview of existing strategies for genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms is also presented. The CARS initiative hopes to exploit these known polymorphisms to further our understanding of the phenomenon of BZ resistance.

Classical ligands interact with native and recombinant tubulin from Onchocerca volvulus with similar rank order of magnitude

The alpha- and beta-tubulin genes from Onchocerca volvulus were individually expressed for the first time in Escherichia coli (DH5alpha). The recombinant tubulins were purified, renatured and reconstituted into oligomers, probably dimers, which were competent to bind three classical tubulin ligands: mebendazole (MBZ), taxol (TAX) and vinblastine (VBN). A new charcoal-dependent binding assay allowed accurate discrimination between specific and non-specific ligand binding in crude cell extracts. To compare the magnitude of binding of both native and recombinant forms of tubulin, we developed an ELISA assay for estimating the amount of tubulin in soluble protein extracts of O. volvulus. Binding assays were performed; both the maximum binding at saturating ligand concentrations (B(max)) and the equilibrium dissociation constants (K(d)) were determined. The B(max) values of the different ligands were significantly different from one another (P<0.05), but the order of the B(max) and K(d) for each drug were VBN > TAX > MBZ for both native and recombinant tubulin. Indeed, B(max) values for MBZ with native and recombinant tubulins were similar. On average, native tubulin had higher or similar binding capacity (B(max)) but a consistently higher affinity (lower K(d)) than the recombinant tubulin. We conclude that at least some of the recombinant molecules form receptors that are similar to those in native tubulin dimers. These data suggest that recombinant tubulin can be used to develop a molecular screen for novel anti-tubulin ligands to develop into drugs against onchocerciasis.

Molecular diagnosis of anthelmintic resistance

Conventional and real time polymerase chain reaction-based tests have been developed for the diagnosis of anthelmintic resistance (AR) in populations of several small and large ruminant as well as horse gastro-intestinal nematode species. To date, molecular markers that correlate well with AR are available only for the detection of benzimidazole resistance. Recently, however, a single nucleotide polymorphism was found in vitro to be of functional relevance for reduced drug efficacy to macrocylic lactones. The focus of the present review, therefore, is the molecular mechanism of action of these two drug classes and potential applications of this knowledge to the diagnosis of AR. It is argued that a prerequisite for future molecular diagnosis will be tests providing reliable and exact quantification of resistance related alleles in DNA extracted from representative pools of parasites.

RNA interference in Haemonchus contortus: Suppression of beta-tubulin gene expression in L3, L4 and adult worms in vitro

We have used RNAi to target two beta-tubulin genes in the parasitic stages of Haemonchus contortus in vitro. Soaking exsheathed-L3, L4 and adult worms in medium containing dsRNA resulted in a significant decrease (greater than 1000-fold in some cases) in the expression of the specific beta-tubulin transcript, as measured by quantitative PCR. During the initial 24h exposure to the dsRNA, the gene suppression effect was quite specific to the targeted gene. Six days after initial exposure to dsRNA, treated L3 worms were less able to migrate through a filter mesh, indicating decreased motility, and showed less development to the L4 stage than control larvae. The gene suppression effect occurs in exsheathed L3 larvae despite the fact that this life stage does not have functioning mouthparts, indicating that uptake of dsRNA does not depend on its ingestion. Suppression occurred with dsRNA presented in 'naked' or liposome-encapsulated forms, indicating that a liposome formulation was not necessary for uptake to occur. Adult worms also showed significant gene suppression, however, they did not show any reduced motility compared to controls over a 3-day period. Adult worms treated with ivermectin to paralyse their pharynx, still showed significant gene suppression, again suggesting that uptake of dsRNA does not require ingestion. We have shown that soaking in dsRNA is an effective method for RNAi with the parasitic stages of H. contortus, and, hence, may offer significant potential as a tool for studying gene function in this parasite species.

Isolation and characterisation of a beta tubulin isotype 2 gene from two species of cyathostomin

This study describes the isolation and characterisation of beta tubulin isotype 2 cDNA sequences from two common species of cyathostomin, Cylicocyclus nassatus and Cyathostomum catinatum. The full-length cDNAs for these species were 1709 and 1753 bp in length, respectively, including 1350 bp of sequence inferred to encode 450 amino acids of peptide sequence. They had greatest identity with previously characterised isotype 2 sequences from Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Cooperia oncophora and Haemonchus contortus (96% for C. nassatus and 95% for C. catinatum), and grouped together with these sequences in phylogenetic analysis. Both cyathostomin beta tubulin isotype 2 sequences contained the isotype-specific carboxyl terminal region described previously in other nematode species. Alignment with beta tubulin isotype 1 proteins from other trichostrongyloids, indicated 95 and 94% identity for the isotype 2 sequences of C. nassatus and C. catinatum, respectively. This comparison revealed 14 isotype-specific amino acid substitutions. Also, 2605 bp of beta tubulin isotype 2 genomic DNA sequence were isolated from C. nassatus. Comparison with the previously published isotype 1 gene of C. nassatus indicated differences in genomic organisation between the two isotypes. Reverse transcriptase (RT)-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed constitutive temporal expression of beta tubulin isotype 1, whilst isotype 2 appeared to be developmentally expressed, with transcripts detected only in RNA derived from adult parasites.

A possible model of benzimidazole binding to beta-tubulin disclosed by invoking an inter-domain movement

Although it is well established that benzimidazole (BZMs) compounds exert their therapeutic effects through binding to helminth beta-tubulin and thus disrupting microtubule-based processes in the parasites, the precise location of the benzimidazole-binding site on the beta-tubulin molecule has yet to be determined. In the present study, we have used previous experimental data as cues to help identify this site. Firstly, benzimidazole resistance has been correlated with a phenylalanine-to-tyrosine substitution at position 200 of Haemonchus contortus beta-tubulin isotype-I. Secondly, site-directed mutagenesis studies, using fungi, have shown that other residues in this region of the protein can influence the interaction of benzimidazoles with beta-tubulin. However, the atomic structure of the alphabeta-tubulin dimer shows that residue 200 and the other implicated residues are buried within the protein. This poses the question: how might benzimidazoles interact with these apparently inaccessible residues? In the present study, we present a mechanism by which those residues generally believed to interact with benzimidazoles may become accessible to the drugs. Furthermore, by docking albendazole-sulphoxide into a modelled H. contortus beta-tubulin molecule we offer a structural explanation for how the mutation conferring benzimidazole resistance in nematodes may act, as well as a possible explanation for the species-specificity of benzimidazole anthelmintics.

Benzimidazole-resistant beta-tubulin alleles in a population of parasitic nematodes (Cooperia oncophora) of cattle

Three anthelmintic classes with distinct mechanisms of action are commercially available. Selection of nematode populations resistant to all these drugs has occurred, particularly in trichostrongyloid parasites of sheep. Anthelmintic resistance in cattle parasites has only recently been recognized and appears to be less pronounced, even though very similar species infect both hosts. To understand the bases for differences in the rate of resistance development in sheep versus cattle parasites, it is important to first demonstrate that the same kinds of resistance alleles exist in both. The benzimidazoles (BZ), which have been used for more than 40 years, were chosen as an example. BZ-sensitive (BZ(S)) and BZ-resistant (BZ(R)) nematodes that parasitize sheep have been distinguished at the molecular level by a single nucleotide change in the codon for amino acid 200 of a beta-tubulin gene, a switch from TTC (phenylalanine) to TAC (tyrosine). PCR primers were designed to completely conserved regions of trichostrongyloid beta-tubulin genes and were used to amplify DNA fragments from Haemonchus contortus (cDNA from a BZ(S) and a BZ(R) library) as positive controls. The technique was then extended to the cattle parasites, Cooperia oncophora and Ostertagia ostertagi (from genomic DNA). Sequence analysis proved the presence of amplified BZ(S) alleles in all three species and BZ(R) alleles in the BZ(R) population of H. contortus. Based on these data, nested PCR primers using the diagnostic T or A as the most 3' nucleotide were designed for each species. Conditions for selective PCR were determined. To demonstrate feasibility, genomic DNA was recovered from individual H. contortus L(3) larvae from both BZ(S) and BZ(R) populations. Genomic DNA was also isolated from >70 individual adult male C. oncophora collected from a cattle farm in New Zealand with reported BZ resistance. Allele-specific PCR discriminated among heterozygotes and homozygotes in both species. This method could find utility in studying the molecular epidemiology of BZ resistance in cattle parasites and for defining the variables that limit the development and spread of anthelmintic resistance in this host.

Investigation of diversity and isotypes of the beta-tubulin cDNA in several small strongyle (Cyathostominae) species

The diversity of the beta-tubulin cDNAs of the cyathostominae and the occurrence of further isotypes were examined in adult worms isolated from an anthelmintic-naïve horse. cDNAs encoding beta-tubulin from Cyathostomum catinatum, Cylicocyclus nassatus, Cylicocyclus insigne, Cylicocyclus radiatus, Cylicocyclus elongatus, Cyathostomum coronatum, and Cyathostomum pateratum were characterized using specific primers developed from the cDNA sequence of Cc. nassatus. The cDNA sequences span 1,429 bp and show identities ranging from 95.6 to 100%. The deduced protein sequences span 448 amino acids and were 98-100% identical. The amino acid sequences of the 7 species varied within and between species at 10 positions. A 3' Rapid Amplification of cDNA ends using a degenerate forward primer was carried out with cDNA from Cy. pateratum, Cy. coronatum, Cy. catinatum, and Cc. nassatus to investigate the occurrence of further beta-tubulin isotypes. The expected polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product of 400 bp, including 306 bp of coding sequence, was amplified, as was an additional fragment of 600 nucleotides in the case of Cy. pateratum, Cy. coronatum, and Cy. catinatum. Sequencing of the PCR products revealed no evidence for the existence of a second beta-tubulin isotype in cyathostomes. The variation in size was caused by a length polymorphism within the 3' untranslated region, and 2 functional mRNAs seem to be transcribed from the same gene.

Molecular approaches to studying benzimidazole resistance in trichostrongylid nematode parasites of small ruminants

Molecular techniques are of growing importance in the study of anthelmintic resistance in trichostrongylid worm populations. A knowledge of the genetic determinants of benzimidazole (BZ) resistance has made it possible to construct a molecular tool for genotyping individual worms, in respect of mutation of the beta-tubulin gene responsible for BZ resistance. This tool offers new possibilities in the diagnosis of BZ resistance, and also in the study of anthelmintic use and other breeding management factors that can affect the selection of BZ-resistant alleles in worm populations. New molecular methods have also made it possible to study the origin and diversity of BZ-resistant alleles in trichostrongylid populations. The results demonstrate the value of a multidisciplinary approach to the study of anthelmintic resistance, combining molecular, ecological and epidemiological techniques.

Applications of single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) to taxonomy, diagnosis, population genetics and molecular evolution of parasitic nematodes

The analysis of genetic variation in parasitic nematodes has important implications for studying aspects of taxonomy, diagnosis, population genetics, drug resistance and molecular evolution. This article highlights some applications of PCR-based single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) for the analysis of sequence variation in individual parasites (and their populations) to address some of these areas. It also describes the principles and advantages of SSCP, and provides some examples for future applications in parasitology.

Characterisation of a beta-tubulin gene from the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica

This study represents the first beta-tubulin sequence from a trematode parasite, namely, the liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica. PCR of genomic DNA showed that at least one beta-tubulin gene from F. hepatica contains no introns. A number of amino acids in the primary sequence of fluke tubulin are different from those described previously in various nematode species and the cestode, Echinococcus multilocularis. beta-Tubulin is an important target for benzimidazole anthelmintics, although (with the exception of triclabendazole) they show limited activity against F. hepatica. The amino acid differences in fluke beta-tubulin are discussed in relation to the selective toxicity of benzimidazoles against helminths and the mechanism of drug resistance.

The role of molecular biology in veterinary parasitology

The tools of molecular biology are increasingly relevant to veterinary parasitology. The sequencing of the complete genomes of Caenorhabditis elegans and other helminths and protozoa is allowing great advances in studying the biology, and improving diagnosis and control of parasites. Unique DNA sequences provide very high levels of specificity for the diagnosis and identification of parasite species and strains, and PCR allows extremely high levels of sensitivity. New techniques, such as the use of uniquely designed molecular beacons and DNA microarrays will eventually allow rapid screening for specific parasite genotypes and assist in diagnostic and epidemiological studies of veterinary parasites. The ability to use genome data to clone and sequence genes which when expressed will provide antigens for vaccine screening and receptors and enzymes for mechanism-based chemotherapy screening will increase our options for parasite control. In addition, DNA vaccines can have desirable characteristics, such as sustained stimulation of the host immune system compared with protein based vaccines. One of the greatest threats to parasite control has been the development of drug resistance in parasites. Our knowledge of the basis of drug resistance and our ability to monitor its development with highly sensitive and specific DNA-based assays for 'resistance'-alleles will help maintain the effectiveness of existing antiparasitic drugs and provide hope that we can maintain control of parasitic disease outbreaks.

Assessment of benzimidazole binding to individual recombinant tubulin isotypes from Haemonchus contortus

One a- and 2 beta-tubulin isotypes (isotypes 1 and 2) from the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus were artificially expressed in E. coli and purified to obtain tubulin that was capable of polymerizing into microtubules. Binding of [14C] mebendazole (MBZ), a benzimidazole compound, to each individual unpolymerized isotype and to microtubules polymerized from recombinant alpha- and beta-tubulin was assessed and Kd and Bmax values determined. Mebendazole bound to the individual tubulin isotypes with a stoichiometry of 1:1. Binding occurred with highest affinity to alpha-tubulin followed by beta-tubulin isotype 2 and beta-tubulin isotype 1 indicating that alpha-tubulin may play a role in benzimidazole binding to microtubules. Upon polymerization of alpha- and beta-tubulin isotype 2 into microtubules the stoichiometry of binding increased to 2:1 (mebendazole : tubulin) while binding affinity remained the same. Mebendazole binding to alpha/beta-isotype 1 microtubules remained unchanged following polymerization. The increase in the number of benzimidazole receptors on alpha/beta-isotype 2 microtubules suggests the formation of a new benzimidazole receptor upon polymerization.

Individual expression of recombinant alpha- and beta-tubulin from Haemonchus contortus: polymerization and drug effects

Three tubulin isotypes from the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus were individually expressed in Escherichia coli, purified, and induced to polymerize into microtubules in the absence of microtubule-associated proteins. The effect of different conditions on the rate of polymerization of pure tubulin was assessed. This is the first time that recombinant alpha-tubulin has been shown to be capable of polymerization into microtubule-like structures when incubated with recombinant beta-tubulin. In addition, the present study has shown that: (1) microtubule-associated proteins are not required for tubulin polymerization; and (2) pure beta-tubulin isotype, beta12-16, alone was capable of forming microtubule-like structures in the absence of alpha-tubulin. Polymerization of the recombinant invertebrate tubulin, as measured by a spectrophotometric assay, was found to be enhanced by a concentration of tubulin >0.25 mg/mL; temperature > or =20 degrees C; 2 mM GTP; glycerol; EGTA; and Mg(2+). Polymerization was inhibited by GTP (>2 mM) and albendazole. Calcium ions and a pH range of 6 to 8.5 had no measurable effect on polymerization. Individual isotypes of tubulin polymerized to approximately the same extent as an alpha-/beta-tubulin mixture. Samples of tubulin assembled under the above conditions for 60 min were also examined under a transmission electron microscope. Although the spectrophotometric assay indicated polymerization, it did not predict the structure of the polymer. In many cases tubulin sheets, folded sheets, and rings were observed in addition to, or instead of, microtubule-like structures.

Genomic and genetic research on bursate nematodes: significance, implications and prospects

Molecular genetic research on parasitic nematodes (order Strongylida) is of major significance for many fundamental and applied areas of medical and veterinary parasitology. The advent of gene technology has led to some progress for this group of nematodes, particularly in studying parasite systematics, drug resistance and population genetics, and in the development of diagnostic assays and the characterisation of potential vaccine and drug targets. This paper gives an account of the molecular biology and genetics of strongylid nematodes, mainly of veterinary socio-economic importance, indicates the implications of such research and gives a perspective on genome research for this important parasite group, in light of recent technological advances and knowledge of the genomes of other metazoan organisms.

Characterisation of the beta-tubulin gene of Cylicocyclus nassatus?

mRNA and genomic DNA were isolated from adult Cylicocyclus nassatus, and the mRNA was reverse transcribed. The cDNA was PCR amplified using degenerate primers designed according to the alignment of the beta-tubulin amino acid sequences of other species. To complete the coding sequence, the 3' end was amplified with the 3' RACE, and for amplification of the 5' end the SL1-primer was used. The cDNA of the beta-tubulin gene of C. nassatus spans 1429 bp and encodes a protein of 448 amino acids. Specific primers were developed from the cDNA sequence to amplify the genomic DNA sequence and to analyse the genomic organisation of the beta-tubulin gene. The complete sequence of the genomic DNA of the beta-tubulin gene of C. nassatus has a size of 2652 bp and is organised into nine exons and eight introns. The identities with the exons of the gru-1 beta-tubulin gene of Haemonchus contortus range between 79% and 97%.

Frontiers in anthelmintic pharmacology

Research in anthelmintic pharmacology faces a grim future. The parent field of veterinary parasitology has seemingly been devalued by governments, universities and the animal industry in general. Primarily due to the success of the macrocyclic lactone anthelmintics in cattle, problems caused by helminth infections are widely perceived to be unimportant. The market for anthelmintics in other host species that are plagued by resistance, such as sheep and horses, is thought to be too small to sustain a discovery program in the animal health pharmaceutical industry. These attitudes are both alarming and foolish. The recent history of resistance to antibiotics provides more than adequate warning that complacency about the continued efficacy of any class of drugs for the chemotherapy of an infectious disease is folly. Parasitology remains a dominant feature of veterinary medicine and of the animal health industry. Investment into research on the basic and clinical pharmacology of anthelmintics is essential to ensure chemotherapeutic control of these organisms into the 21st century. In this article, we propose a set of questions that should receive priority for research funding in order to bring this field into the modern era. While the specific questions are open for revision, we believe that organized support of a prioritized list of research objectives could stimulate a renaissance in research in veterinary helminthology. To accept the status quo is to surrender.

Multiple forms of tubulin: different gene products and covalent modifications

Tubulin, the subunit protein of microtubules, is an alpha/beta heterodimer. In many organisms, both alpha and beta exist in numerous isotypic forms encoded by different genes. In addition, both alpha and beta undergo a variety of posttranslational covalent modifications, including acetylation, phosphorylation, detyrosylation, polyglutamylation, and polyglycylation. In this review the distribution and possible functional significance of the various forms of tubulin are discussed. In analyzing the differences among tubulin isotypes encoded by different genes, some appear to have no functional significance, some increase the overall adaptability of the organism to environmental challenges, and some appear to perform specific functions including formation of particular organelles and interactions with specific proteins. Purified isotypes also display different properties in vitro. Although the significance of all the covalent modification of tubulin is not fully understood, some of them may influence the stability of modified microtubules in vivo as well as interactions with certain proteins and may help to determine the functional role of microtubules in the cell. The review also discusses isotypes of gamma-tubulin and puts various forms of tubulin in an evolutionary context.

Application of molecular biology in veterinary parasitology

The number of applications of molecular biology in veterinary parasitology is increasing rapidly. The techniques used with eukaryotic cells are generally applicable to the study of parasites and their hosts. The polymerase chain reaction is particularly important for identification and diagnosis of parasites, as well as for many other applications. With species and type specific probes or primers, sensitivities and specificities unheard of with conventional techniques can be achieved. The accumulation of more information on the DNA sequences of parasites will reveal many more unique sequences which can be used for identification, diagnosis, molecular epidemiology, vaccine development and for studying the evolutionary biology and the physiology of parasites and the host-parasite relationship. Similarly, the completion of genome projects on host organisms will greatly assist efforts to select for hosts that are genetically resistant to parasite infection. The study of the molecular biology of antiparasitic drug receptors, potential targets for chemotherapy, and the molecular genetics of drug resistance will allow molecular screens to be used with combinatorial chemistry in the search for new antiparasitic drugs, improvements to existing chemotherapeutic families and better diagnosis and monitoring of drug resistance. While there is a proliferation of molecular biology techniques, the availability of simple kits and of automated techniques and services for sequencing, library construction and oligonucleotide synthesis and other procedures is making it easier for non-specialists to apply many of the common techniques of molecular biology. Molecular biology and the benefits from its application are relevant for veterinary parasitologists in developing countries as well as developed countries and we should introduce aspects of molecular biology to the teaching and training of veterinary parasitologists.

p-Azidosalicyl-5-amino-6-phenoxybenzimidazole photolabels the N-terminal 63-103 amino acids of Haemonchus contortus beta-tubulin 1

Benzimidazoles (BZ) are broad spectrum anthelmintics thought to exert their effects by interacting with and disrupting the functions of microtubules. However, direct biochemical evidence for binding between BZ and tubulin has not been shown nor is it known what sequences in tubulin interact with BZ. In this study, a photoactive analogue of 2-acetamido-5-(3-aminophenoxy)benzimidaz ole that has biological activity similar to other benzimidazoles was synthesized and used to photoaffinity label cell lysates from the parasitic nematode of sheep Haemonchus contortus. The photoactive analogue, 2-acetamido-5-[3-(4-azido-3-125I-salicyl amido)phenoxy]benzimida zol e or 125I-ASA-BZ, was shown to photolabel a 54-kDa protein that was specifically immunoprecipitated with anti-tubulin monoclonal antibodies. Tubulin photoaffinity labeling by 125I-ASA-BZ was also inhibited with molar excess of various BZ analogues and colchicine. Interestingly, 125I-ASA-BZ photoaffinity-labeled the beta- and not the alpha-subunits of tubulin. Proteolytic digestion of 125I-ASA-BZ-labeled tubulin with Staphylococcus aureus V8 proteinase revealed one major peptide with an apparent molecular mass of 3.5 kDa. Exhaustive digestion of 125I-ASA-BZ-labeled beta-tubulin with trypsin resulted in two fractions containing radioactive peptides. Protein sequencing of the high performance liquid chromatography-purified tryptic ASA-BZ-photolabeled peptides identified the N-terminal 63-77 and 78-103 sequences as the BZ binding domain.

Monoclonal anti-dipeptide antibodies cross-react with detyrosinated and glutamylated forms of tubulins

Two monoclonal antibodies, GLU-1 and A1.6, raised against gamma-L-glutamyl-L-glutamic acid dipeptide (Glu-Glu) and Ca(2+)-dependent ATPase from Paramecium, respectively, recognized the dipeptide Glu-Glu sequence. Whereas the antibodies immunofluorescently stained very few, if any, cytoskeletal fibers in cultured mammalian cells, almost all interphase as well as mitotic spindle microtubules became visible after treatment of cells with carboxypeptidase A. Immunoblot analysis demonstrated intense cross-reaction of the antibodies to the alpha-tubulin subunit. alpha-Tubulin isotypes produced as fusion proteins in bacteria were labeled by both the antibodies only when the proteins did not contain a tyrosine residue at the C terminus, indicating that GLU-1 and A1.6 specifically recognize the detyrosinated form of alpha-tubulin. When microtubule protein purified from brain was probed, not only alpha-but also, to a lesser extent, beta-tubulin were revealed by the dipeptide antibodies. A synthetic tripeptide YED containing one glutamyl group linked to the second residue of the peptide via the gamma position was also recognized by the antibodies. Since this peptide sequence corresponds to the amino acid sequence of polyglutamyated class III beta isotype at amino acid position 437 to 439, it is suggested that GLU-1 and A1.6 are able to recognize the glutamylated form of beta-tubulin. These results indicate that the C-terminal Glu-Glu sequence displays strong antigenicity, and the antibodies recognize the sequence present in the C terminus of the detyrosinated form of alpha-tubulin and the glutamyl side chain of beta-tubulin. Particularly strong immunoreaction was detected with ciliary and flagellar microtubules; thus, stable axonemal microtubules appear to be rich in post-translationally modified tubulin subunits.

Anthelmintic resistance

Anthelmintic resistance is widespread in nematode parasites of sheep, goats and horses. Resistance is also developing in nematode parasites of cattle and has been detected in pig parasites. Benzimidazole, levamisole/morantel and ivermectin resistances occur in nematodes of sheep and goats and closantel resistance has been found in Haemonchus contortus. Anthelmintic resistance is likely to develop wherever anthelmintics are frequently used and be detected if it is investigated. Worm count or egg count reduction after treatment are useful for the detection of all types of anthelmintic resistances. More economical, faster and more sensitive in vitro assays for the detection of anthelmintic resistance have been developed. Some, such as the egg hatch assay are specific for a particular class of anthelmintic, whilst others such as larval development assays can be used with most anthelmintics. Improvements in our understanding of the biochemistry and molecular genetics of anthelmintic actions should lead to the development of more sensitive assays for the detection of anthelmintic resistance in individual nematodes. Levamisole/morantel resistance appears to be associated with alterations in cholinergic receptors in resistant nematodes. Ivermectin appears to act by binding to a glutamate receptor of a membrane chloride channel. This receptor has been expressed in vitro so that further studies of the interaction of ivermectin with this receptor and its possible alteration in ivermectin resistance will be feasible. Benzimidazole resistance in nematodes and fungi appears to be associated with an alteration in beta-tubulin genes which reduces or abolishes the high affinity binding of benzimidazoles for tubulin in these organisms. This knowledge can be exploited for DNA probes for benzimidazole resistance/susceptibility in individual organisms.