1
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Marín-Sáez J, Hernández-Mesa M, Gallardo-Ramos JA, Gámiz-Gracia L, García-Campaña AM. Assessing human exposure to pesticides and mycotoxins: optimization and validation of a method for multianalyte determination in urine samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:1935-1949. [PMID: 38321180 PMCID: PMC10901940 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05191-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Humans are exposed to an increasing number of contaminants, with diet being one of the most important exposure routes. In this framework, human biomonitoring is considered the gold standard for evaluating human exposure to chemicals. Pesticides and mycotoxins are chemicals of special concern due to their health implications. They constitute the predominant border rejection notifications for food and feed in Europe and the USA. However, current biomonitoring studies are focused on a limited number of compounds and do not evaluate mycotoxins and pesticides together. In this study, an analytical method has been developed for the determination of 30 pesticides and 23 mycotoxins of concern in urine samples. A salting-out liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE) procedure was optimized achieving recoveries between 70 and 120% for almost all the compounds and limits as lower as when QuEChERS was applied. The compounds were then determined by liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Different chromatographic conditions and analytical columns were tested, selecting a Hypersild gold aQ column as the best option. Finally, the method was applied to the analysis of 45 urine samples, in which organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides (detection rates (DR) of 82% and 42%, respectively) and ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol (DR of 51% and 33%, respectively) were the most detected compounds. The proposed analytical method involves the simultaneous determination of a diverse set of pesticides and mycotoxins, including their most relevant metabolites, in human urine. It serves as an essential tool for biomonitoring the presence of highly prevalent contaminants in modern society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Marín-Sáez
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva S/N, 18071, Granada, Spain.
- Research Group "Analytical Chemistry of Contaminants", Department of Chemistry and Physics, Research Centre for Mediterranean Intensive Agrosystems and Agri-Food Biotechnology (CIAIMBITAL), University of Almeria, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence, ceiA3, 04120, Almeria, Spain.
| | - Maykel Hernández-Mesa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva S/N, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Jose A Gallardo-Ramos
- Department of Food Technology, Engineering and Science, Applied Mycology Group, AGROTECNIO-CERCA Center, University of Lleida, 25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - Laura Gámiz-Gracia
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva S/N, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Ana M García-Campaña
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, Campus Fuentenueva S/N, 18071, Granada, Spain.
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2
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Ayeni K, Seki D, Pjevac P, Hausmann B, Krausová M, Braun D, Wisgrill L, Berry D, Warth B, Ezekiel CN. Biomonitoring of Dietary Mycotoxin Exposure and Associated Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Nigerian Infants. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:2236-2246. [PMID: 38252460 PMCID: PMC10851434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c07786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health. Here, we assessed the influence of mycotoxin exposure on the longitudinal development of early life intestinal microbiota of Nigerian neonates and infants (NIs). Human biomonitoring assays based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry were applied to quantify mycotoxins in breast milk (n = 68) consumed by the NIs, their stool (n = 82), and urine samples (n = 15), which were collected longitudinally from month 1-18 postdelivery. Microbial community composition was characterized by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of stool samples and was correlated to mycotoxin exposure patterns. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), FB2, and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) were frequently quantified in stool samples between months 6 and 18. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), AME, and citrinin were quantified in breast milk samples at low concentrations. AFM1, FB1, and ochratoxin A were quantified in urine samples at relatively high concentrations. Klebsiella and Escherichia/Shigella were dominant in very early life stool samples (month 1), whereas Bifidobacterium was dominant between months 3 and 6. The total mycotoxin levels in stool were significantly associated with NIs' gut microbiome composition (PERMANOVA, p < 0.05). However, no significant correlation was observed between specific microbiota and the detection of certain mycotoxins. Albeit a small cohort, this study demonstrates that mycotoxins may influence early life gut microbiome composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolawole
I. Ayeni
- Department
of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo PMB 4003, Ogun State, Nigeria
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and
Toxicology, Währinger
Straße 38, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - David Seki
- Joint
Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University
of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Division
of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Petra Pjevac
- Joint
Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University
of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Department
of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and
Environmental Systems Science, University
of Vienna, Djerassiplatz
1, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Bela Hausmann
- Joint
Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University
of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Division
of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Magdaléna Krausová
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and
Toxicology, Währinger
Straße 38, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and
Toxicology, Währinger
Straße 38, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Lukas Wisgrill
- Division
of Neonatology, Pediatric Intensive Care and Neuropediatrics, Comprehensive
Center for Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna 1090, Austria
- Exposome
Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Node, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - David Berry
- Joint
Microbiome Facility of the Medical University of Vienna and the University
of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Department
of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, Centre for Microbiology and
Environmental Systems Science, University
of Vienna, Djerassiplatz
1, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- University
of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and
Toxicology, Währinger
Straße 38, Vienna 1090, Austria
- Exposome
Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Node, Vienna 1090, Austria
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department
of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo PMB 4003, Ogun State, Nigeria
- University
of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Department of
Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), Institute for Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-LorenzStr. 20, Tulln 3430, Austria
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3
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Abdul Rahman S, Ahmad NI, Mohd Salim RJ, Muhamad NJ, Omar Hamdan AS, Leong YH. A Scoping Review on Fungus and Mycotoxin Studies in the Building's Environment: Mycotoxin Analysis by Mass Spectrometry. Int J Anal Chem 2024; 2024:8581029. [PMID: 38312506 PMCID: PMC10838203 DOI: 10.1155/2024/8581029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
It has been well-established that mycotoxins are poisonous chemical metabolites secreted by certain molds. Some of them significantly affect the health of humans and livestock. Increasing attention is now being paid to uncovering and identifying mycotoxins' presence in the building's environment. However, the main challenge remains in suitable and reliable analytical methods for their identification and detection in infected structures. GC-MS and LC-MS/MS techniques have been used extensively for mycotoxin analysis, and advancement in these techniques enabled a more comprehensive range of mycotoxins to be detected. As such, this study aimed to address a brief overview of various phenomena of existing sample collection, preparation, and analysis to detect mycotoxins in the building's environment. This scoping review includes articles from 2010 to 2020 available from PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, Wiley, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Duplicate articles were removed, and exclusion criteria were applied to eliminate unrelated studies, resulting in 14 eligible articles. The present study provides an overview of mycotoxin analysis by GC-MS and LC-MS/MS in buildings. Many techniques are available for analyzing and detecting multiple mycotoxins using these methods. Future efforts would focus on rapid assays and tools enabling measuring a broader range of mycotoxins in a single matrix and lower detection limits. In addition, it would assist future findings on new techniques and mycotoxins that existed in the building's environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salina Abdul Rahman
- Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, No. 1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nurul Izzah Ahmad
- Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, No. 1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Roshan Jahn Mohd Salim
- Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, No. 1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nur Jannaim Muhamad
- Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, No. 1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Shah Alam 40170, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Anis Syuhada Omar Hamdan
- National Poison Centre of Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Georgetown 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Yin-Hui Leong
- National Poison Centre of Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Georgetown 11800, Penang, Malaysia
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Ayeni KI, Jamnik T, Fareed Y, Flasch M, Braun D, Uhl M, Hartmann C, Warth B. The Austrian children's biomonitoring survey 2020 Part B: Mycotoxins, phytotoxins, phytoestrogens and food processing contaminants. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 182:114173. [PMID: 37925015 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
This study assessed the levels of environment and food-related exposures in urine of Austrian school children aged six to ten (n = 85) focusing on mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and food processing by-products using two multi-analyte LC-MS/MS methods. Out of the 55 biomarkers of exposure reported in this study, 22 were quantified in the first void urine samples. Mycotoxins frequently quantified included zearalenone (detection rate 100%; median 0.11 ng/mL), deoxynivalenol (99%; 15 ng/mL), alternariol monomethyl ether (75%; 0.04 ng/mL), and ochratoxin A (19%; 0.03 ng/mL). Several phytoestrogens, including genistein, daidzein, and its metabolite equol, were detected in all samples at median concentrations of 22 ng/mL, 43 ng/mL, and 14 ng/mL, respectively. The food processing by-product 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP), was detected in 4% of the samples (median 0.016 ng/mL). None of the investigated samples contained the tested phytotoxins that were rarely considered for human biomonitoring previously (pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, aristolochic acids). When relating estimated exposure to current health-based guidance values, 22% of the children exceeded the tolerable daily intake for deoxynivalenol, and the estimated MOE for OTA indicates possible health risks for some children. The results clearly demonstrate frequent low-level (co-)exposure and warrant further exposome-scale exposure assessments, especially in susceptible sub-populations and longitudinal settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolawole I Ayeni
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria; Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Thomas Jamnik
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Yasmin Fareed
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Mira Flasch
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dominik Braun
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria Uhl
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria; Exposome Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Node, Austria
| | - Christina Hartmann
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria; Exposome Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Node, Austria.
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5
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Ali S, Freire LGD, Rezende VT, Noman M, Ullah S, Abdullah, Badshah G, Afridi MS, Tonin FG, de Oliveira CAF. Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Foods: Unraveling the Knowledge Gaps on Their Persistence in Food Production Systems. Foods 2023; 12:4314. [PMID: 38231751 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
In this review, the intricate issue about the occurrence levels of mycotoxins in foods is discussed aiming to underline the main knowledge gaps on the persistence of these toxicants in the food production system. Mycotoxins have been a key challenge to the food industry, economic growth, and consumers' health. Despite a breadth of studies over the past decades, the persistence of mycotoxins in foods remain an overlooked concern that urges exploration. Therefore, we aimed to concisely underline the matter and provide possible biochemical and metabolic details that can be relevant to the food sector and overall public health. We also stress the application of computational modeling, high-throughput omics, and high-resolution imaging approaches, which can provide insights into the structural and physicochemical characteristics and the metabolic activities which occur in a stored cereal grain's embryo and endosperm and their relationship with storage fungi and mycotoxins on a cellular level. In addition, there is a need for extensive collaborative network and funding, which will play a key role in finding effective solutions against the persistence of mycotoxins at the genetic and molecular to metabolic levels in the food system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sher Ali
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering (FZEA), University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Lucas Gabriel Dionisio Freire
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering (FZEA), University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Theodoro Rezende
- Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Science (FMVZ), University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Muhammad Noman
- Plant Molecular Physiology, Department of Biology, Federal University of Lavras (UFLA), Lavras 37200-000, MG, Brazil
| | - Sana Ullah
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering (FZEA), University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Abdullah
- Department of Health and Biological Sciences, Abasyn University Peshawar (AUP), Peshawar 25000, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Gul Badshah
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81530-000, PR, Brazil
| | - Muhammad Siddique Afridi
- Department of Plant Pathology, Federal University of Lavras (UFLA), Lavras 37200-900, MG, Brazil
| | - Fernando Gustavo Tonin
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering (FZEA), University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos Augusto Fernandes de Oliveira
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Animal Science and Food Engineering (FZEA), University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga 13635-900, SP, Brazil
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6
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Comprehensive review of liquid chromatography methods for fumonisin determination, a 2006-2022 update. ARAB J CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2023.104716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023] Open
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7
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Degen GH, Reinders J, Kraft M, Völkel W, Gerull F, Burghardt R, Sievering S, Engelmann J, Chovolou Y, Hengstler JG, Fromme H. Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:26. [PMID: 36668846 PMCID: PMC9862099 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin known to exert nephrotoxicity, is a contaminant in food and feed. Since CIT contamination is not regularly analyzed, data on its occurrence and especially levels in food commodities are insufficient for conducting a conventional exposure assessment. Yet, human biomonitoring, i.e., an analysis of CIT and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) in urine samples allows to estimate exposure. This study investigated CIT exposure in young (2-14 years) and adult (24-61 years) residents of three federal states in Germany. A total of 179 urine samples from children and 142 from adults were collected and analyzed by a targeted LC-MS/MS based method for presence of CIT and DH-CIT. At least one of the biomarkers was detected and quantified in all urines, which indicated a widespread dietary exposure to the mycotoxin in Germany. Interestingly, the biomarker concentrations of CITtotal (sum of CIT and DH-CIT) were higher in children's urine (range 0.05-7.62 ng/mL; median of 0.54 ng/mL) than in urines from adults (range 0.04-3.5 ng/mL; median 0.3 ng/mL). The biomarker levels (CITtotal) of individual urines served to calculate the probable daily CIT intake, for comparison to a value of 0.2 µg/kg bw/day defined as 'level of no concern for nephrotoxicity' by the European Food Safety Authority. The median exposure of German adults was 0.013 µg/kg b.w., with only one urine donor exceeding this provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) for CIT. The median exposure of children was 0.05 µg/kg bw per day (i.e., 25% of the pTDI); however, CIT exposure in 12 individuals (6.3% of our study group) exceeded the limit value, with a maximum intake of 0.46 µg/kg b.w. per day. In conclusion, these results show evidence for non-negligible exposure to CIT in some individuals in Germany, mainly in children. Therefore, further biomonitoring studies and investigations aimed to identify the major sources of CIT exposure in food commodities are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela H. Degen
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystrasse 67, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany; (J.R.); (J.G.H.)
| | - Jörg Reinders
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystrasse 67, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany; (J.R.); (J.G.H.)
| | - Martin Kraft
- State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, Germany; (M.K.); (S.S.); (J.E.); (Y.C.)
| | - Wolfgang Völkel
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Department of Chemical Safety, Toxicology and Exposure Monitoring, Pfarrstraße 3, D-80538 München, Germany;
| | - Felicia Gerull
- Landeslabor Berlin-Brandenburg, Fachbereich IV-4, Umweltbezogener Gesundheitsschutz, Rudower Chaussee 39, D-12489 Berlin, Germany; (F.G.); (R.B.)
| | - Rafael Burghardt
- Landeslabor Berlin-Brandenburg, Fachbereich IV-4, Umweltbezogener Gesundheitsschutz, Rudower Chaussee 39, D-12489 Berlin, Germany; (F.G.); (R.B.)
| | - Silvia Sievering
- State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, Germany; (M.K.); (S.S.); (J.E.); (Y.C.)
| | - Jennifer Engelmann
- State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, Germany; (M.K.); (S.S.); (J.E.); (Y.C.)
| | - Yvonni Chovolou
- State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North-Rhine Westphalia, Department of Environmental Medicine, Wallneyer Straße 6, D-45133 Essen, Germany; (M.K.); (S.S.); (J.E.); (Y.C.)
| | - Jan G. Hengstler
- Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo), Ardeystrasse 67, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany; (J.R.); (J.G.H.)
| | - Hermann Fromme
- Institut und Poliklinik für Arbeits-, Sozial- und Umweltmedizin, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Ziemssenstraße 1, D-80336 München, Germany;
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8
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Fliszár-Nyúl E, Ungvári O, Dombi Á, Özvegy-Laczka C, Poór M. Interactions of Mycotoxin Alternariol with Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and OATP Transporters. Metabolites 2022; 13:metabo13010045. [PMID: 36676970 PMCID: PMC9862037 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is an emerging mycotoxin produced by Alternaria strains. The acute toxicity of the mycotoxin is low; however, chronic exposure to AOH may result in the development of endocrine disruptor and/or carcinogenic effects. The toxicokinetic properties of AOH have barely been characterized. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to investigate its interactions with CYP (1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4) enzymes and OATP (1A2, 1B1, 1B3, and 2B1) transporters employing in vitro enzyme assays and OATP overexpressing cells, respectively. Our results demonstrated that AOH is a strong inhibitor of CYP1A2 (IC50 = 0.15 μM) and CYP2C9 (IC50 = 7.4 μM). Based on the AOH depletion assays in the presence of CYP enzymes, CYP1A2 is mainly involved, while CYP2C19 is moderately involved in the CYP-catalyzed biotransformation of the mycotoxin. AOH proved to be a strong inhibitor of each OATP transporter examined (IC50 = 1.9 to 5.4 μM). In addition, both direct and indirect assays suggest the involvement of OATP1B1 in the cellular uptake of the mycotoxin. These findings promote the deeper understanding of certain toxicokinetic interactions of AOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Orsolya Ungvári
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
- Doctoral School of Biology, Institute of Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány P. stny. 1/C, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ágnes Dombi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Csilla Özvegy-Laczka
- Drug Resistance Research Group, Institute of Enzymology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Miklós Poór
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Rókus u. 2, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Food Biotechnology Research Group, János Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 20, H-7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Correspondence:
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9
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Flasch M, Fitz V, Rampler E, Ezekiel CN, Koellensperger G, Warth B. Integrated Exposomics/Metabolomics for Rapid Exposure and Effect Analyses. JACS AU 2022; 2:2548-2560. [PMID: 36465551 PMCID: PMC9709941 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.2c00433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The totality of environmental exposures and lifestyle factors, commonly referred to as the exposome, is poorly understood. Measuring the myriad of chemicals that humans are exposed to is immensely challenging, and identifying disrupted metabolic pathways is even more complex. Here, we present a novel technological approach for the comprehensive, rapid, and integrated analysis of the endogenous human metabolome and the chemical exposome. By combining reverse-phase and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and fast polarity-switching, molecules with highly diverse chemical structures can be analyzed in 15 min with a single analytical run as both column's effluents are combined before analysis. Standard reference materials and authentic standards were evaluated to critically benchmark performance. Highly sensitive median limits of detection (LODs) with 0.04 μM for >140 quantitatively assessed endogenous metabolites and 0.08 ng/mL for the >100 model xenobiotics and human estrogens in solvent were obtained. In matrix, the median LOD values were higher with 0.7 ng/mL (urine) and 0.5 ng/mL (plasma) for exogenous chemicals. To prove the dual-column approach's applicability, real-life urine samples from sub-Saharan Africa (high-exposure scenario) and Europe (low-exposure scenario) were assessed in a targeted and nontargeted manner. Our liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) approach demonstrates the feasibility of quantitatively and simultaneously assessing the endogenous metabolome and the chemical exposome for the high-throughput measurement of environmental drivers of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Flasch
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38-40, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Vienna
Doctoral School of Chemistry, University
of Vienna, Währinger Straße 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Fitz
- Vienna
Doctoral School of Chemistry, University
of Vienna, Währinger Straße 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38-40, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Evelyn Rampler
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38-40, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department
of Microbiology, Babcock University, 121103 Ilishan
Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Gunda Koellensperger
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38-40, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Exposome
Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Hub, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38-40, 1090 Vienna, Austria
- Exposome
Austria, Research Infrastructure and National EIRENE Hub, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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10
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Sabbioni G, Castaño A, Esteban López M, Göen T, Mol H, Riou M, Tagne-Fotso R. Literature review and evaluation of biomarkers, matrices and analytical methods for chemicals selected in the research program Human Biomonitoring for the European Union (HBM4EU). ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 169:107458. [PMID: 36179646 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Humans are potentially exposed to a large amount of chemicals present in the environment and in the workplace. In the European Human Biomonitoring initiative (Human Biomonitoring for the European Union = HBM4EU), acrylamide, mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1), diisocyanates (4,4'-methylenediphenyl diisocyanate, 2,4- and 2,6-toluene diisocyanate), and pyrethroids were included among the prioritized chemicals of concern for human health. For the present literature review, the analytical methods used in worldwide biomonitoring studies for these compounds were collected and presented in comprehensive tables, including the following parameter: determined biomarker, matrix, sample amount, work-up procedure, available laboratory quality assurance and quality assessment information, analytical techniques, and limit of detection. Based on the data presented in these tables, the most suitable methods were recommended. According to the paradigm of biomonitoring, the information about two different biomarkers of exposure was evaluated: a) internal dose = parent compounds and metabolites in urine and blood; and b) the biologically effective = dose measured as blood protein adducts. Urine was the preferred matrix used for deoxynivalenol, fumonisin B1, and pyrethroids (biomarkers of internal dose). Markers of the biological effective dose were determined as hemoglobin adducts for diisocyanates and acrylamide, and as serum-albumin-adducts of aflatoxin B1 and diisocyanates. The analyses and quantitation of the protein adducts in blood or the metabolites in urine were mostly performed with LC-MS/MS or GC-MS in the presence of isotope-labeled internal standards. This review also addresses the critical aspects of the application, use and selection of biomarkers. For future biomonitoring studies, a more comprehensive approach is discussed to broaden the selection of compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Sabbioni
- Università della Svizzera Italiana (USI), Research and Transfer Service, Lugano, Switzerland; Institute of Environmental and Occupational Toxicology, Airolo, Switzerland; Walther-Straub-Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.
| | - Argelia Castaño
- National Centre for Environmental Health, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain.
| | - Marta Esteban López
- National Centre for Environmental Health, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain.
| | - Thomas Göen
- Institute and Outpatient Clinic of Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (IPASUM), Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Hans Mol
- Wageningen Food Safety Research, Part of Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Margaux Riou
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Santé publique France, The National Public Health Agency, Saint-Maurice, France.
| | - Romuald Tagne-Fotso
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Santé publique France, The National Public Health Agency, Saint-Maurice, France.
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11
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Development and Validation of LC-Q-TOF-MS Methodology to Determine Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Human Urine. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100651. [PMID: 36287920 PMCID: PMC9612178 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs is a health concern worldwide and monitoring human exposure to mycotoxins is a key concern. Most mycotoxins and their metabolites are excreted in urine, but a reliable detection method is required, considering the low levels present in this biological sample. The aim of this work is to validate a sensitive methodology capable of simultaneously determining ten targeted mycotoxins as well as detecting untargeted ones by using Liquid Chromatography coupled to Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). The targeted mycotoxins were: enniatin A, B, A1, and B1, beauvericine, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2, and ochratoxin A. Several extraction procedures such as liquid-liquid extraction, dilute and shoot, and QuEChERS were assessed. Finally, a modified simple QuEChERS extraction method was selected. Creatinine adjustment and matrix-matched calibration curves are required. The limit of detection and limit of quantification values ranged from 0.1 to 1.5 and from 0.3 to 5 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries achieved were higher than 65% for all mycotoxins. Later, the method was applied to 100 samples of women’s urine to confirm the applicability and determine their internal exposure. The untargeted mycotoxins most found were trichothecenes, zearalenones, and ochratoxins.
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12
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Franco LT, Oliveira CAF. Assessment of occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers to mycotoxins in rural areas from São Paulo, Brazil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 837:155763. [PMID: 35561905 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In the current study, the occupational and dietary exposures of feed handling workers (N = 28) to aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), toxins T-2 and HT-2 were assessed for the first time in animal-producing farms and feed factories from São Paulo, Brazil. Mycotoxins in food (n = 244) and airborne dust (n = 27), as well as biomarkers in urine (n = 97) samples were determined by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. FBs were detected in all airborne dust samples, with concentrations ranging from 7.85 to 16,839 ng/m3. The mean probable daily intake (PDI) based on food data were 0.005, 0.769, 0.673 and 0.012 μg/kg of body weight (bw)/day for AFs, FBs, DON and ZEN, respectively. Mean PDI values obtained through urinary biomarkers were 0.29, 0.10, 0.50, 9.72 and 0.10 μg/kg body weight/day for AFB1, DON, OTA, FB1 and ZEN, respectively. The analyses based on urinary biomarkers revealed a potential health concern for OTA and FBs, although no potential health concern was observed with PDI calculated through food data. Results of this trial stress the need for preventive measures to avoid health risks of workers in Brazilian animal-producing farms and feed industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa T Franco
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900 Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A F Oliveira
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900 Pirassununga, SP, Brazil.
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13
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Kyei NNA, Cramer B, Humpf HU, Degen GH, Ali N, Gabrysch S. Assessment of multiple mycotoxin exposure and its association with food consumption: a human biomonitoring study in a pregnant cohort in rural Bangladesh. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:2123-2138. [PMID: 35441239 PMCID: PMC9151532 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03288-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and deoxynivalenol (DON) are mycotoxins that may contaminate diets, especially in low-income settings, with potentially severe health consequences. This study investigates the exposure of 439 pregnant women in rural Bangladesh to 35 mycotoxins and their corresponding health risks and links their exposure to certain foods and local stimulants. Overall, 447 first-morning urine samples were collected from pregnant women between July 2018 and November 2019. Mycotoxin biomarkers were quantified by DaS-HPLC-MS/MS. Urinary concentration of frequently occurring mycotoxins was used to estimate dietary mycotoxin exposure. Median regression analyses were performed to investigate the association between the consumption of certain foods and local stimulants, and urinary concentration of frequently occurring mycotoxins. Only in 17 of 447 urine samples (4%) were none of the investigated mycotoxins detected. Biomarkers for six major mycotoxins (AFs, CIT, DON, FB1, OTA, and ZEN) were detected in the urine samples. OTA (95%), CIT (61%), and DON (6%) were most frequently detected, with multiple mycotoxins co-occurring in 281/447 (63%) of urine samples. Under the lowest exposure scenario, dietary exposure to OTA, CIT, and DON was of public health concern in 95%, 16%, and 1% of the pregnant women, respectively. Consumption of specific foods and local stimulants-betel nut, betel leaf, and chewing tobacco-were associated with OTA, CIT, and DON urine levels. In conclusion, exposure to multiple mycotoxins during early pregnancy is widespread in this rural community and represents a potential health risk for mothers and their offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas N A Kyei
- Institute of Public Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Research Department 2, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Member of the Leibniz Association, P. O. Box 60 12 03, 14412, Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstr. 45, 48149, Münster, Germany
| | - Gisela H Degen
- Leibniz-Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo) at the TU Dortmund, Ardeystr. 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Nurshad Ali
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh
| | - Sabine Gabrysch
- Institute of Public Health, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 324, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Research Department 2, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Member of the Leibniz Association, P. O. Box 60 12 03, 14412, Potsdam, Germany
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14
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Development and Validation of an UHPLC-MS/MS Method for the Simultaneous Determination of 11 EU-Regulated Mycotoxins in Selected Cereals. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8070665. [PMID: 35887422 PMCID: PMC9315952 DOI: 10.3390/jof8070665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The availability of reliable sensitive multi-analyte methods for unambiguous determination of mycotoxins is crucial for ensuring food and feed safety, considering their adverse health effects and (co-)occurrence in various foods. Accordingly, a multi-mycotoxin confirmatory method for simultaneous determination of 11 mycotoxins regulated in cereals within the European Union (EU) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was developed and in-house validated to fit the EU legislation requirements for analytical methods. A simple sample preparation was based on a solid−liquid extraction using a solvent mixture acetonitrile/water/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v) and a dilution of raw extract using water/acetonitrile/formic acid (79/20/1, v/v/v) before instrumental analysis. Average recoveries in all three validated cereal crop types (maize, wheat, and barley), spiked at multiple levels, were found acceptable for all analytes when matrix-matched calibration was used, ranging from 63.2% to 111.2% and also showing very good repeatability, with relative standard deviations below 20%. Matrix effect (SSE) evaluation revealed maize as the most complex of the three analyzed cereal matrices, with strong SSE (<50% and >150%) recorded for all 11 analyzed mycotoxins. An additional method verification was performed through successful participation in proficiency testing schemes, with the achieved z-scores generally in the acceptable range of −2 ≤ z ≤ 2. The obtained validation results demonstrated the suitability of the developed confirmatory multi-mycotoxin UHPLC-MS/MS method based on a dilute-and-shoot principle for the simultaneous determination of low concentrations of 11 EU-regulated mycotoxins in cereals, including aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins B1 and B2, zearalenone, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, and ochratoxin A.
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15
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Six Main Contributing Factors to High Levels of Mycotoxin Contamination in African Foods. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050318. [PMID: 35622564 PMCID: PMC9146326 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Africa is one of the regions with high mycotoxin contamination of foods and continues to record high incidences of liver cancers globally. The agricultural sector of most African countries depends largely on climate variables for crop production. Production of mycotoxins is climate-sensitive. Most stakeholders in the food production chain in Africa are not aware of the health and economic effects of consuming contaminated foods. The aim of this review is to evaluate the main factors and their degree of contribution to the high levels of mycotoxins in African foods. Thus, knowledge of the contributions of different factors responsible for high levels of these toxins will be a good starting point for the effective mitigation of mycotoxins in Africa. Google Scholar was used to conduct a systemic search. Six factors were found to be linked to high levels of mycotoxins in African foods, in varying degrees. Climate change remains the main driving factor in the production of mycotoxins. The other factors are partly man-made and can be manipulated to become a more profitable or less climate-sensitive response. Awareness of the existence of these mycotoxins and their economic as well as health consequences remains paramount. The degree of management of these factors regarding mycotoxins varies from one region of the world to another.
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16
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Xia L, Rasheed H, Routledge MN, Wu H, Gong YY. Super-Sensitive LC-MS Analyses of Exposure Biomarkers for Multiple Mycotoxins in a Rural Pakistan Population. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030193. [PMID: 35324690 PMCID: PMC8950642 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
High levels of mycotoxin contamination have been reported in various food commodities in Pakistan, however, there has been no exposure assessment study using multiple mycotoxins’ biomarkers. This study aimed to simultaneously assess the exposure to the five major mycotoxins: aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA) and zearalenone (ZEN) in a Pakistani population using an integrated approach of human biomonitoring. Human urine samples (n = 292) were analyzed by a super-sensitive liquid-chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. Rice and wheat were also collected and analyzed for mycotoxins by the LC-MS/MS method. Food consumption data were collected using a 24 h recall method. A high prevalence of urinary AFM1 (66%, mean ± SD 20.8 ± 41.3 pg/mL) and OTA (99%, 134.7 ± 312.0 pg/mL) were found, whilst urinary DON, FB1 and ZEN levels were low. The probable daily intake (PDI) derived from the urinary biomarkers revealed that 89% of the participants had exposure to OTA exceeding the established tolerable daily intake (TDI = 17 ng/kg bw/day). The average PDI of AFB1 for the studied population was 43 ng/kg bw/day, with rice as the main source of AFB1 exposure. In summary, exposure to AFB1 and OTA are of health concern and require further management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xia
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK;
| | - Hifza Rasheed
- Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan;
| | - Michael N. Routledge
- School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (M.N.R.); (H.W.)
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
- International Joint Research Laboratory of Intelligent Agriculture and Agri-Products Processing, Jiangsu Education Department, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Hang Wu
- School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (M.N.R.); (H.W.)
| | - Yun Yun Gong
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK;
- Correspondence:
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17
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High-Throughput Determination of Major Mycotoxins with Human Health Concerns in Urine by LC-Q TOF MS and Its Application to an Exposure Study. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14010042. [PMID: 35051019 PMCID: PMC8780005 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14010042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Human biomonitoring constitutes a suitable tool to assess exposure to toxins overcoming the disadvantages of traditional methods. Urine constitutes an accessible biological matrix in biomonitoring studies. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced naturally by filamentous fungi that produce a wide range of adverse health effects. Thus, the determination of urinary mycotoxin levels is a useful tool for assessing the individual exposure to these food contaminants. In this study, a suitable methodology has been developed to evaluate the presence of aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin (AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), ochratoxin B (OTB), zearalenone (ZEA), and α-zearalenol (α-ZOL) in urine samples as exposure biomarkers. For this purpose, different extraction procedures, namely, the Solid Phase Extraction (SPE); Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction (DLLME); and Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe (QuEChERS) methods were assessed, followed by Liquid Chromatography coupled to Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry with Electrospray Ionization (LC-ESI-QTOF-MS) determination. Then, the proposed methodology was applied to determine mycotoxin concentrations in 56 human urine samples from volunteers and to estimate the potential risk of exposure. The results obtained revealed that 55% of human urine samples analyzed resulted positive for at least one mycotoxin. Among all studied mycotoxins, only AFB2, AFG2, and OTB were detected with incidences of 32, 41, and 9%, respectively, and levels in the range from <LOQ to 69.42 µg/L. Risk assessment revealed a potential health risk, obtaining MoE values < 10,000. However, it should be highlighted that few samples were contaminated, and that more data about mycotoxin excretion rates and their BMDL10 values are needed for a more accurate risk assessment.
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18
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Ezekiel CN, Abia WA, Braun D, Šarkanj B, Ayeni KI, Oyedele OA, Michael-Chikezie EC, Ezekiel VC, Mark BN, Ahuchaogu CP, Krska R, Sulyok M, Turner PC, Warth B. Mycotoxin exposure biomonitoring in breastfed and non-exclusively breastfed Nigerian children. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 158:106996. [PMID: 34991256 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A multi-specimen, multi-mycotoxin approach involving ultra-sensitive LC-MS/MS analysis of breast milk, complementary food and urine was applied to examine mycotoxin co-exposure in 65 infants, aged 1-18 months, in Ogun state, Nigeria. Aflatoxin M1 was detected in breast milk (4/22 (18%)), while six other classes of mycotoxins were quantified; including dihydrocitrinone (6/22 (27%); range: 14.0-59.7 ng/L) and sterigmatocystin (1/22 (5%); 1.2 ng/L) detected for the first time. Seven distinct classes of mycotoxins including aflatoxins (9/42 (21%); range: 1.0-16.2 µg/kg) and fumonisins (12/42 (29%); range: 7.9-194 µg/kg) contaminated complementary food. Mycotoxins covering seven distinct classes with diverse structures and modes of action were detected in 64/65 (99%) of the urine samples, demonstrating ubiquitous exposure. Two aflatoxin metabolites (AFM1 and AFQ1) and FB1 were detected in 6/65 (9%), 44/65 (68%) and 17/65 (26%) of urine samples, respectively. Mixtures of mycotoxin classes were common, including 22/22 (100%), 14/42 (33%) and 56/65 (86%) samples having 2-6, 2-4, or 2-6 mycotoxins present, for breast milk, complementary food and urine, respectively. Aflatoxin and/or fumonisin was detected in 4/22 (18%), 12/42 (29%) and 46/65 (71%) for breast milk, complimentary foods and urine, respectively. Furthermore, the detection frequency, median concentrations and occurrence of mixtures were typically greater in urine of non-exclusively breastfed compared to exclusively breastfed infants. The study provides novel insights into mycotoxin co-exposures in early-life. Albeit a small sample set, it highlights transition to higher levels of infant mycotoxin exposure as complementary foods are introduced, providing impetus to mitigate during this critical early-life period and encourage breastfeeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chibundu N Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria; University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria.
| | - Wilfred A Abia
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; Queen's University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK; Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde I, P.O. Box 812, Yaounde, Cameroon
| | - Dominik Braun
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Str. 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; Department of Food Technology, University North, Center Koprivnica, Trg dr. Zarka Dolinara 1, HR, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia
| | - Kolawole I Ayeni
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | | | - Emmanuel C Michael-Chikezie
- Clifford University, Owerrinta (Ihie Campus), Abia State, Nigeria; Benjamin Carson (Snr.) School of Medicine, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | | | - Beatrice N Mark
- Department of Community Health, Babcock University Teaching Hospital, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Chinonso P Ahuchaogu
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Babcock University Teaching Hospital, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; Queen's University Belfast, School of Biological Sciences, Institute for Global Food Security, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Michael Sulyok
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Agrobiotechnology, IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Konrad-Lorenz-Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria
| | - Paul C Turner
- MIAEH, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Str. 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria.
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19
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Braun D, Abia WA, Šarkanj B, Sulyok M, Waldhoer T, Erber AC, Krska R, Turner PC, Marko D, Ezekiel CN, Warth B. Mycotoxin-mixture assessment in mother-infant pairs in Nigeria: From mothers' meal to infants' urine. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 287:132226. [PMID: 34826919 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to food and environmental contaminants is a global environmental health issue. In this study, innovative LC-MS/MS approaches were applied to investigate mycotoxin co-exposure in mother-infant pairs (n = 23) by analyzing matched plate-ready food, breast milk and urine samples of mothers and their exclusively breastfed infants. The study revealed frequent co-occurrence of two to five mycotoxins. Regulated (e.g. aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A) and emerging mycotoxins (e.g. alternariol monomethyl ether and beauvericin) were frequently detected (3 %-89 % and 45 %-100 %), in at least one specimen. In addition, a moderate association of ochratoxin A in milk to urine of mothers (r = 0.47; p = 0.003) and infants (r = 0.52; p = 0.019) but no other significant correlations were found. Average concentration levels in food mostly did not exceed European maximum residue limits, and intake estimates demonstrated exposure below tolerable daily intake values. Infants were exposed to significantly lower toxin levels compared to their mothers, indicating the protective effect of breastfeeding. However, the transfer into milk and urine and the resulting chronic low-dose exposure warrant further monitoring. In the future, occurrence of mycotoxin-mixtures, and their combined toxicological effects need to be comprehensively considered and implemented in risk management strategies. These should aim to minimize early-life exposure in critical developmental stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Braun
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wilfred A Abia
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430, Tulln, Austria; Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaounde I, P.O. Box 812, Yaounde, Cameroon; Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, University Road, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Bojan Šarkanj
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430, Tulln, Austria; Department of Food Technology, University Centre Koprivnica, University North, Trg dr. Žarka Dolinara 1, HR-48000, Koprivnica, Croatia
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - Thomas Waldhoer
- Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Astrid C Erber
- Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health, Medical University of Vienna, Austria; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, New Richards Building, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7LG, UK
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430, Tulln, Austria; Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, University Road, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Paul C Turner
- MIAEH, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Doris Marko
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Chibundu N Ezekiel
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430, Tulln, Austria; Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
| | - Benedikt Warth
- University of Vienna, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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20
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Krausová M, Ayeni KI, Wisgrill L, Ezekiel CN, Braun D, Warth B. Trace analysis of emerging and regulated mycotoxins in infant stool by LC-MS/MS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 414:7503-7516. [PMID: 34932144 PMCID: PMC9482899 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03803-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Infants are sensitive to negative effects caused by food contaminants such as mycotoxins. To date, analytical methods assessing mycotoxin mixture exposure in infant stool are absent. Herein, we present a novel multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS assay capable of detecting 30+ analytes including the regulated mycotoxin classes (aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, zearalenone, citrinin), emerging Alternaria and Fusarium toxins, and several key metabolites. Sample preparation consisted of a ‘dilute, filter, and shoot’ approach. The method was in-house validated and demonstrated that 25 analytes fulfilled all required criteria despite the high diversity of chemical structures included. Extraction recoveries for most of the analytes were in the range of 65–114% with standard deviations below 30% and limits of detection between 0.03 and 11.3 ng/g dry weight. To prove the methods’ applicability, 22 human stool samples from premature Austrian infants (n = 12) and 12-month-old Nigerian infants (n = 10) were analyzed. The majority of the Nigerian samples were contaminated with alternariol monomethyl ether (8/10) and fumonisin B1 (8/10), while fumonisin B2 and citrinin were quantified in some samples. No mycotoxins were detected in any of the Austrian samples. The method can be used for sensitive human biomonitoring (HBM) purposes and to support exposure and, potentially, risk assessment of mycotoxins. Moreover, it allows for investigating potential associations between toxicant exposure and the infants’ developing gut microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdaléna Krausová
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kolawole I Ayeni
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Lukas Wisgrill
- Division of Neonatology, Pediatric Intensive Care and Neuropediatrics, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Chibundu N Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Dominik Braun
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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21
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Fan K, Guo W, Huang Q, Meng J, Yao Q, Nie D, Han Z, Zhao Z. Assessment of Human Exposure to Five Alternaria Mycotoxins in China by Biomonitoring Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110762. [PMID: 34822546 PMCID: PMC8625692 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate the concentration levels of five Alternaria mycotoxins in urine samples from 269 healthy volunteers living in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), tenuazonic acid (TeA) and tentoxin (TEN) were detected in 38.3%, 48.7%, 63.9% and 23.4% of urine samples with the concentrations ranging from 0.057 to 45.8 ng/mL, 0.020 to 0.802 ng/mL, 0.050 to 80.6 ng/mL and 0.021 to 0.939 ng/mL, respectively. Altenuene (ALT) was not detected in any urine sample. Based on the urinary concentrations, the probable daily intake (PDI) values of Alternaria mycotoxins were calculated, and 100%, 99.2–100%, 0.372% and 1.12% of participants exceeded the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) values for AOH, AME, TeA and TEN, respectively. This study revealed high potential health risks related to the contaminations of major Alternaria mycotoxins in China and highlighted the necessity for more toxicological studies to provide better basis for further comprehensive risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Fan
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Wenbo Guo
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Qingwen Huang
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Qi Yao
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Medicine and Life Sciences, Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China;
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zheng Han
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (K.F.); (W.G.); (Q.H.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-21-62202875
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22
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Determination of the Personal Nutritional Status of Elderly Populations Based on Basic Foodomics Elements. Foods 2021; 10:foods10102391. [PMID: 34681440 PMCID: PMC8535163 DOI: 10.3390/foods10102391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional status is a series of related parameters collected using different available methods. In order to determine the nutritional status of elderly populations and ensure nutritional support based on an individual approach, the implementation of the increasingly used foodomics approach is available; this approach plays a key role in personalized diets and in the optimization of diets for a population group, such as an elderly population. The Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) method and the Nottingham Screening Tool (NST) form were used on 50 users in a home for the elderly in northwest Croatia. A loss of body mass (BM) was statistically significantly higher for those who had the following: decreased food intake in the last week and users who had complete and partial feeding autonomy. Additionally, the obtained data on drug intake, fluid, individual nutrients, and physical activity are based on an individual approach. The available documentation provides insight into nutritional values and food preparation in an attempt to satisfy a holistic approach in the evaluation of exposure while trying to achieve as many elements of foodomics as possible.
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23
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Ekpakpale DO, Kraak B, Meijer M, Ayeni KI, Houbraken J, Ezekiel CN. Fungal Diversity and Aflatoxins in Maize and Rice Grains and Cassava-Based Flour (Pupuru) from Ondo State, Nigeria. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:635. [PMID: 34436174 PMCID: PMC8397998 DOI: 10.3390/jof7080635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Grains and cassava-based foods serve as major dietary sources for many households in Nigeria. However, these foods are highly prone to contamination by moulds and aflatoxins owing to poor storage and vending practices. Therefore, we studied the fungal diversity in maize, cassava-based flour (pupuru), and rice vended in markets from Ondo state, Nigeria, and assessed their aflatoxin levels using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Molecular analysis of 65 representative fungal isolates recovered from the ground grains and pupuru samples revealed 26 species belonging to five genera: Aspergillus (80.9%), Penicillium (15.4%), and Talaromyces (1.9%) in the Ascomycota; Syncephalastrum (1.2%) and Lichtheimia (0.6%) in Mucoromycota. Aspergillus flavus was the predominant species in the ground grains and pupuru samples. Aflatoxins were found in 73.8% of the 42 representative food samples and 41.9% exceeded the 10 μg/kg threshold adopted in Nigeria for total aflatoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniella O. Ekpakpale
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo 121103, Ogun State, Nigeria; (D.O.E.); (K.I.A.)
| | - Bart Kraak
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan, 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands; (B.K.); (M.M.); (J.H.)
| | - Martin Meijer
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan, 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands; (B.K.); (M.M.); (J.H.)
| | - Kolawole I. Ayeni
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo 121103, Ogun State, Nigeria; (D.O.E.); (K.I.A.)
| | - Jos Houbraken
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan, 3584 Utrecht, The Netherlands; (B.K.); (M.M.); (J.H.)
| | - Chibundu N. Ezekiel
- Department of Microbiology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo 121103, Ogun State, Nigeria; (D.O.E.); (K.I.A.)
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24
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Ayeni KI, Atanda OO, Krska R, Ezekiel CN. Present status and future perspectives of grain drying and storage practices as a means to reduce mycotoxin exposure in Nigeria. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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25
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Aichinger G, Del Favero G, Warth B, Marko D. Alternaria toxins-Still emerging? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:4390-4406. [PMID: 34323368 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Alternaria molds are known to cause the contamination of food with their secondary metabolites, a chemically very heterogeneous group of compounds. Yet, after decades of research on the occurrence and the toxicity of Alternaria toxins in academia, no regulation has been implemented yet, thus leaving these potential food contaminants in the status of so-called "emerging mycotoxins". However, research on this topic has been far from static, leading to the European Food Safety Authority repeatedly calling for more data on the occurrence and toxicity of genotoxic metabolites such as alternariol (AOH) and its monomethyl ether (AME). To give an overview on recent developments in the field, this comprehensive review summarizes published data and addresses current challenges arising from the chemical complexity of Alternaria's metabolome, mixture effects and the emergence of novel biological targets like cell membranes or the interaction with different receptors. Besides toxicodynamics, we review recent research on toxicokinetics, including the first in vivo studies which incorporated the rarely investigated-but highly genotoxic-perylene quinones. Furthermore, a particular focus lies on the advances of liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based analytical tools for determining a broader spectrum of Alternaria toxins including modified/masked forms and assessing exposure via human biomonitoring (HBM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Aichinger
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Wien, Austria
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26
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Assessment of Human Exposure to Deoxynivalenol, Ochratoxin A, Zearalenone and Their Metabolites Biomarker in Urine Samples Using LC-ESI-qTOF. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13080530. [PMID: 34437401 PMCID: PMC8402433 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13080530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Human are exposed to a wide range of mycotoxins through dietary food intake, including processed food. Even most of the mycotoxin exposure assessment studies are based on analysis of foodstuffs, and evaluation of dietary intake through food consumption patterns and human biomonitoring methods are rising as a reliable alternative to approach the individual exposures, overcoming the limitations of the indirect dietary assessment. In this study, human urine samples were analyzed, seeking the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), and their metabolites. For this purpose, 40 urine samples from female and male adult residents in the city of Valencia (Spain) were evaluated by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-qTOF) after salting-out liquid–liquid extraction. Analytical data showed that 72.5% of analyzed samples were contaminated by at least one mycotoxin at variable levels. The most prevalent mycotoxins were de-epoxy DON (DOM-1) (53%), ZEA (40%), and α-zearalenol (αZOL) (43%), while OTA was only detected in one sample. The mean concentrations in positive samples were DON (9.07 ng/mL), DOM-1 (20.28 ng/mL), ZEA (6.70 ng/mL), ZEA-14 glucoside (ZEA-14-Glc) (12.43 ng/mL), αZOL (27.44 ng/mL), αZOL-14 glucoside (αZOL-14-Glc) (12.84 ng/mL), and OTA (11.73 ng/mL). Finally, probable daily intakes (PDIs) were calculated and compared with the established tolerable daily intakes (TDIs) to estimate the potential risk of exposure to the studied mycotoxins. The calculated PDI was below the TDI value established for DON in both female and male adults, reaching a percentage up to 30%; however, this percentage increased up to 92% considering total DON (DON + DOM-1). On the other hand, the PDI obtained for ZEA and its metabolites were higher than the TDI value fixed, but the low urine excretion rate (10%) considered should be highlighted. Finally, the PDI calculated in the detected positive sample for OTA exceeded the TDI value. The findings of the present study confirm the presence of the studied mycotoxins and their metabolites as some of the most prevalent in urine.
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27
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Coppa CFSC, Cirelli AC, Gonçalves BL, Barnabé EMB, Petta T, Franco LT, Javanmardi F, Khaneghah AM, Lee SHI, Corassin CH, Oliveira CAF. Mycotoxin occurrence in breast milk and exposure estimation of lactating mothers using urinary biomarkers in São Paulo, Brazil. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 279:116938. [PMID: 33751942 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the occurrence of aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN) and some of their metabolites were assessed in breast milk and urine of lactating women (N = 74) from Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil. Exposure estimations through urinary mycotoxin biomarkers was also performed. Samples were collected in four sampling times (May and August 2018, February and July 2019) and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was not detected in breast milk. However, two samples (3%) presented FB1 at 2200 and 3400 ng/L, while 4 samples (5%) had OTA at the median level of 360 ng/L. In urine, AFM1 and aflatoxin P1 (AFP1) were found in 51 and 11% of samples, respectively (median levels: 0.16 and 0.07 ng/mg creatinine, respectively). Urinary DON (median level: 38.59 ng/mg creatinine), OTA (median level: 2.38 ng/mg creatinine) and ZEN (median level: 0.02 ng/mg of creatinine) were quantified in 18, 8 and 10% of the samples, respectively. Mean probable daily intake (PDI) values based on urinary biomarkers were 1.58, 1.09, 5.07, and 0.05 μg/kg body weight/day for AFM1, DON, OTA, and ZEN, respectively. Although a low mycotoxin occurrence was detected in breast milk, the PDI for the genotoxic AFs was much higher than those reported previously in Brazil, while PDI values obtained for OTA and DON were higher than recommended tolerable daily intakes. These outcomes warrant concern on the exposure of lactating women to these mycotoxins in the studied area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina F S C Coppa
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Amanda C Cirelli
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Bruna L Gonçalves
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Eliana M B Barnabé
- Maternal and Child Unit, Pirassununga Medical Specialities Center, Antônio Joaquim Mendes, 1017, CEP 13634-502, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Tânia Petta
- Actinobac Agrosciences. Supera - Parque de Inovação e Tecnologia de Ribeirão Preto, Av. Dra. Nadir Águiar, 1805, CEP 14056-680, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Larissa T Franco
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Fardin Javanmardi
- Department of Food Science and Technology, National Nutrition & Food Technology Research Institute, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences & Food Technology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sarah H I Lee
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos H Corassin
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A F Oliveira
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Av. Duque de Caxias Norte, 225, CEP 13635-900, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil.
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28
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Schmidt J, Cramer B, Turner PC, Stoltzfus RJ, Humphrey JH, Smith LE, Humpf HU. Determination of Urinary Mycotoxin Biomarkers Using a Sensitive Online Solid Phase Extraction-UHPLC-MS/MS Method. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060418. [PMID: 34208182 PMCID: PMC8230879 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the course of assessing the human exposure to mycotoxins, biomarker-based approaches have proven to be important tools. Low concentration levels, complex matrix compositions, structurally diverse analytes, and the large size of sample cohorts are the main challenges of analytical procedures. For that reason, an online solid phase extraction-ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (online SPE-UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed, allowing for the sensitive, robust, and rapid analysis of 11 relevant mycotoxins and mycotoxin metabolites in human urine. The included spectrum of analytes comprises aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), altenuene (ALT), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), citrinin (CIT) and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) as well as α- and β-zearalenol (α- and β-ZEL). Reliable quantitation was achieved by means of stable isotope dilution, except for ALT, AME and AOH using matrix calibrations. The evaluation of method performance displayed low limits of detection in the range of pg/mL urine, satisfactory apparent recovery rates as well as high accuracy and precision during intra- and interday repeatability. Within the analysis of Zimbabwean urine samples (n = 50), the applicability of the newly developed method was shown. In addition to FB1 being quantifiable in all analyzed samples, six other mycotoxin biomarkers were detected. Compared to the occurrence rates obtained after analyzing the same sample set using an established dilute and shoot (DaS) approach, a considerably higher number of positive samples was observed when applying the online SPE method. Owing to the increased sensitivity, less need of sample handling, and low time effort, the herein presented online SPE approach provides a valuable contribution to human biomonitoring of mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Schmidt
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.S.); (B.C.)
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.S.); (B.C.)
| | - Paul C. Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA;
| | - Rebecca J. Stoltzfus
- Goshen College, 1700 S. Main Street, Goshen, IN 46526, USA;
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Jean H. Humphrey
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA;
| | - Laura E. Smith
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA;
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany; (J.S.); (B.C.)
- Correspondence:
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29
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Narváez A, Izzo L, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ritieni A. Citrinin Dietary Exposure Assessment Approach through Human Biomonitoring High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry-Based Data. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:6330-6338. [PMID: 34060319 PMCID: PMC9131448 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c01776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Citrinin (CIT) is a scarcely studied mycotoxin within foodstuffs, so the biomonitoring of this toxin and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) in biological samples represents the main alternative to estimate the exposure. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the presence of CIT and DH-CIT in 300 urine samples from Italian individuals in order to assess the exposure. Quantification was performed through an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS)-based methodology. CIT was quantified in 47% of samples (n = 300) up to 4.0 ng/mg Crea (mean = 0.29 ng/mg Crea), whereas DH-CIT was quantified in 21% of samples up to 2.5 ng/mg Crea (mean = 0.39 ng/mg Crea). Considering different age groups, average exposure ranged from 8% to 40% of the provisional tolerable daily intake, whereas four individuals surpassed the limits suggested by the European Food Safety Authority. These results revealed non-negligible exposure levels to CIT, encouraging further investigation in foodstuffs monitoring studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Narváez
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Naples “Federico II”, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Luana Izzo
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Naples “Federico II”, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory
of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Burjassot, València 46100, Spain
| | - Alberto Ritieni
- Department
of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Naples “Federico II”, Via Domenico Montesano 49, Naples 80131, Italy
- UNESCO
Chair on Health Education and Sustainable Development, “Federico II” University, Naples 80131, Italy
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Marín S, Ramos AJ, Sanchis V, Cano-Sancho G. An overview of mycotoxin biomarker application in exposome-health studies. Curr Opin Food Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2020.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Brunmair J, Bileck A, Stimpfl T, Raible F, Del Favero G, Meier-Menches SM, Gerner C. Metabo-tip: a metabolomics platform for lifestyle monitoring supporting the development of novel strategies in predictive, preventive and personalised medicine. EPMA J 2021; 12:141-153. [PMID: 34188726 PMCID: PMC8192631 DOI: 10.1007/s13167-021-00241-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Exposure to bioactive compounds from nutrition, pharmaceuticals, environmental contaminants or other lifestyle habits may affect the human organism. To gain insight into the effects of these influences, as well as the fundamental biochemical mechanisms behind them, individual molecular profiling seems to be a promising tool and may support the further development of predictive, preventive and personalised medicine. METHODS We developed an assay, called metabo-tip for the analysis of sweat, collected from fingertips, using mass spectrometry-by far the most comprehensive and sensitive method for such analyses. To evaluate this assay, we exposed volunteers to various xenobiotics using standardised protocols and investigated their metabolic response. RESULTS As early as 15 min after the consumption of a cup of coffee, 50 g of dark chocolate or a serving of citrus fruits, significant changes in the sweat composition of the fingertips were observed, providing relevant information in regard to the ingested substances. This included not only health-promoting bioactive compounds but also potential hazardous substances. Furthermore, the identification of metabolites from orally ingested medications such as metamizole indicated the applicability of this assay to observe specific enzymatic processes in a personalised fashion. Remarkably, we found that the sweat composition fluctuated in a diurnal rhythm, supporting the hypothesis that the composition of sweat can be influenced by endogenous metabolic activities. This was further corroborated by the finding that histamine was significantly increased in the metabo-tip assay in individuals with allergic reactions. CONCLUSION Metabo-tip analysis may have a large number of practical applications due to its analytical power, non-invasive character and the potential of frequent sampling, especially regarding the individualised monitoring of specific lifestyle and influencing factors. The extraordinarily rich individualised metabolomics data provided by metabo-tip offer direct access to individual metabolic activities and will thus support predictive preventive personalised medicine. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13167-021-00241-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Brunmair
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrea Bileck
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Joint Metabolome Facility, University and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Stimpfl
- Joint Metabolome Facility, University and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Florian Raible
- Max F. Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Research Platform “Rhythms of Life”, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giorgia Del Favero
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Samuel M. Meier-Menches
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christopher Gerner
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Joint Metabolome Facility, University and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Research Platform “Rhythms of Life”, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Critical Assessment of Mycotoxins in Beverages and Their Control Measures. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050323. [PMID: 33946240 PMCID: PMC8145492 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that contaminate food products such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, and other agricultural commodities. Their occurrence in the food chain, especially in beverages, can pose a serious risk to human health, due to their toxicity, even at low concentrations. Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes (TCs), zearalenone (ZEN), and the alternaria toxins including alternariol, altenuene, and alternariol methyl ether have largely been identified in fruits and their derived products, such as beverages and drinks. The presence of mycotoxins in beverages is of high concern in some cases due to their levels being higher than the limits set by regulations. This review aims to summarize the toxicity of the major mycotoxins that occur in beverages, the methods available for their detection and quantification, and the strategies for their control. In addition, some novel techniques for controlling mycotoxins in the postharvest stage are highlighted.
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Case-Control Study of Nodding Syndrome in Acholiland: Urinary Multi-Mycotoxin Screening. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050313. [PMID: 33925470 PMCID: PMC8145943 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This case-control study adds to the growing body of knowledge on the medical, nutritional, and environmental factors associated with Nodding Syndrome (NS), a seizure disorder of children and adolescents in northern Uganda. Past research described a significant association between NS and prior history of measles infection, dependence on emergency food and, at head nodding onset, subsistence on moldy maize, which has the potential to harbor mycotoxins. We used LC-MS/MS to screen for current mycotoxin loads by evaluating nine analytes in urine samples from age-and-gender matched NS cases (n = 50) and Community Controls (CC, n = 50). The presence of the three mycotoxins identified in the screening was not significantly different between the two groups, so samples were combined to generate an overall view of exposure in this community during the study. Compared against subsequently run standards, α-zearalenol (43 ± 103 µg/L in 15 samples > limit of quantitation (LOQ); 0 (0/359) µg/L), T-2 toxin (39 ± 81 µg/L in 72 samples > LOQ; 0 (0/425) µg/L) and aflatoxin M1 (4 ± 10 µg/L in 15 samples > LOQ; 0 (0/45) µg/L) were detected and calculated as the average concentration ± SD; median (min/max). Ninety-five percent of the samples had at least one urinary mycotoxin; 87% were positive for two of the three compounds detected. While mycotoxin loads at NS onset years ago are and will remain unknown, this study showed that children with and without NS currently harbor foodborne mycotoxins, including those associated with maize.
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Predicted Aflatoxin B 1 Increase in Europe Due to Climate Change: Actions and Reactions at Global Level. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13040292. [PMID: 33924246 PMCID: PMC8074758 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13040292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Climate change (CC) is predicted to increase the risk of aflatoxin (AF) contamination in maize, as highlighted by a project supported by EFSA in 2009. We performed a comprehensive literature search using the Scopus search engine to extract peer-reviewed studies citing this study. A total of 224 papers were identified after step I filtering (187 + 37), while step II filtering identified 25 of these papers for quantitative analysis. The unselected papers (199) were categorized as “actions” because they provided a sounding board for the expected impact of CC on AFB1 contamination, without adding new data on the topic. The remaining papers were considered as “reactions” of the scientific community because they went a step further in their data and ideas. Interesting statements taken from the “reactions” could be summarized with the following keywords: Chain and multi-actor approach, intersectoral and multidisciplinary, resilience, human and animal health, and global vision. In addition, fields meriting increased research efforts were summarized as the improvement of predictive modeling; extension to different crops and geographic areas; and the impact of CC on fungi and mycotoxin co-occurrence, both in crops and their value chains, up to consumers.
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Low dose of zearalenone elevated colon cancer cell growth through G protein-coupled estrogenic receptor. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7403. [PMID: 33795755 PMCID: PMC8016995 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86788-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Colon cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death worldwide. It is widely believed that environmental factors contribute to colon cancer development. Zearalenone (ZEA) is non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin that is widely found in the human diet and animal feeds. Most cancer studies of ZEA focused on estrogen sensitive cancers, while few focused on other types, such as colon cancer; despite the gastrointestinal tract being the first barrier exposed to food contaminants. This study investigated the stimulatory effects of ZEA on colon cancer cell lines and their underlying molecular mechanisms. ZEA promoted anchorage independent cell growth and cell cycle progression through promoting G1-to-S phase transition. Proliferative marker, cyclin D1 and Ki67 were found to be upregulated upon ZEA treatment. G protein-coupled estrogenic receptor 1 (GPER) protein expression was promoted upon ZEA treatment suggesting the involvement of GPER. The growth promoting effect mediated through GPER were suppressed by its antagonist G15. ZEA were found to promote the downstream parallel pathway, MAPK signaling pathway and Hippo pathway effector YAP1. Altogether, our observations suggest a novel mechanism by which ZEA could promote cancer growth and provide a new perspective on the carcinogenicity of ZEA.
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Mirón-Mérida VA, Gong YY, Goycoolea FM. Aptamer-based detection of fumonisin B1: A critical review. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1160:338395. [PMID: 33894965 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination is a current issue affecting several crops and processed products worldwide. Among the diverse mycotoxin group, fumonisin B1 (FB1) has become a relevant compound because of its adverse effects in the food chain. Conventional analytical methods previously proposed to quantify FB1 comprise LC-MS, HPLC-FLD and ELISA, while novel approaches integrate different sensing platforms and fluorescently labelled agents in combination with antibodies. Nevertheless, such methods could be expensive, time-consuming and require experience. Aptamers (ssDNA) are promising alternatives to overcome some of the drawbacks of conventional analytical methods, their high affinity through specific aptamer-target binding has been exploited in various designs attaining favorable limits of detection (LOD). So far, two aptamers specific to FB1 have been reported, and their modified and shortened sequences have been explored for a successful target quantification. In this critical review spanning the last eight years, we have conducted a systematic comparison based on principal component analysis of the aptamer-based techniques for FB1, compared with chromatographic, immunological and other analytical methods. We have also conducted an in-silico prediction of the folded structure of both aptamers under their reported conditions. The potential of aptasensors for the future development of highly sensitive FB1 testing methods is emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yun Yun Gong
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.
| | - Francisco M Goycoolea
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.
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Fayed A, Elsayed H, Ali T. Packaging fortified with Natamycin nanoparticles for hindering the growth of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin production in Romy cheese. J Adv Vet Anim Res 2021; 8:58-63. [PMID: 33860013 PMCID: PMC8043338 DOI: 10.5455/javar.2021.h485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study assessed the effect of cellulose sheets fortified with Natamycin-loaded alginate nanoparticles on the growth of toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin production on the superficial layer of Egyptian Romy cheese after 12 weeks of maturation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Toxigenic A. flavus (GenBank accession No. MT645073) was inoculated into the outer surface of Egyptian Romy cheese (at 5 log CFU/gm) and wrapped with a cellulose sheet fortified with Natamycin-loaded alginate nanoparticles. Unwrapped control contaminated Romy wheels were made as well as non-contaminated wrapped cheese wheels for sensory evaluation. Romy cheese wheels were stored at a temperature similar to commercial methods for 12 weeks. Fungal counts were enumerated during this time, and enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay detected aflatoxin after the 4th week of maturation storage. RESULTS In cheese samples covered with cellulose sheets containing Natamycin-loaded alginate nanoparticles, the fungal count was reduced by 2 log approximately in contrast to control samples after the 2nd week of storage. However, within the 8th week of storage, the greatest significant reduction (p < 0.05) was seen where fungal growth was hindered entirely to the end of the ripening period. The mean values for taste, color, flavor, and overall acceptability were 4, 4.7, 4.09, and 4.3, respectively. Furthermore, in the treated samples, the total aflatoxin concentration was decreased by 78.6% relative to the untreated control one. CONCLUSION Using cellulose sheets fortified with Natamycin-loaded alginate nanoparticles in Egyptian Romy cheese wrapping could be an effective way of controlling A. flavus and subsequent aflatoxin production without influencing the typical taste, color, flavor, and overall appearance of traditional Romy cheese.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa Fayed
- Reference Lab for Safety Analysis of Food of Animal Origin, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt
| | - Huda Elsayed
- Reference Lab for Safety Analysis of Food of Animal Origin, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt
| | - Taghreed Ali
- Reference Lab for Safety Analysis of Food of Animal Origin, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt
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Dried urine spots as sampling technique for multi-mycotoxin analysis in human urine. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:129-140. [PMID: 33638099 PMCID: PMC8163710 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-021-00423-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A simple and effective approach for HPLC-MS/MS based multi-mycotoxin analysis in human urine samples was developed by application of dried urine spots (DUS) as alternative on-site sampling strategy. The newly developed method enables the detection and quantitation of 14 relevant mycotoxins and mycotoxin metabolites, including citrinin (CIT), dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), T-2 Toxin (T-2), HT-2 Toxin (HT-2), ochratoxin A (OTA), 2′R-ochratoxin A (2′R-OTA), ochratoxin α (OTα), tenuazonic acid and allo-tenuazonic acid (TeA + allo-TeA), zearalenone (ZEN), zearalanone (ZAN), α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZEL). Besides the spotting procedure, sample preparation includes enzymatic cleavage of glucuronic acid conjugates and stable isotope dilution analysis. Method validation revealed low limits of detection in the range of pg/mL urine and excellent apparent recovery rates for most analytes. Stability investigation of DUS displayed no or only slight decrease of the analyte concentration over a period of 28 days at room temperature. The new method was applied to the analysis of a set of urine samples (n = 91) from a Swedish cohort. The four analytes, DH-CIT, DON, OTA, and TeA + allo-TeA, could be detected and quantified in amounts ranging from 0.06 to 0.97 ng/mL, 3.03 to 136 ng/mL, 0.013 to 0.434 ng/mL and from 0.36 to 47 ng/mL in 38.5%, 70.3%, 68.1%, and 94.5% of the samples, respectively. Additional analysis of these urine samples with an established dilute and shoot (DaS) approach displayed a high consistency of the results obtained with both methods. However, due to higher sensitivity, a larger number of positive samples were observed using the DUS method consequently providing a suitable approach for human biomonitoring of mycotoxin exposure.
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Huang Q, Jiang K, Tang Z, Fan K, Meng J, Nie D, Zhao Z, Wu Y, Han Z. Exposure Assessment of Multiple Mycotoxins and Cumulative Health Risk Assessment: A Biomonitoring-Based Study in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:103. [PMID: 33535530 PMCID: PMC7912756 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The extensive exposure to multiple mycotoxins has been demonstrated in many countries; however, realistic assessments of the risks related to cumulative exposure are limited. This biomonitoring study was conducted to investigate exposure to 23 mycotoxins/metabolites and their determinants in 227 adults (aged 20-88 years) in the Yangtze River Delta, China. Eight mycotoxins were detected in 110 urine samples, and multiple mycotoxins co-occurred in 51/227 (22.47%) of urine samples, with deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and zearalenone (ZEN) being the most frequently occurring. For single mycotoxin risk assessment, FB1, ZEN, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and ochratoxin A (OTA) all showed potential adverse effects. However, for the 12 samples containing DON and ZEN, in which none had a hazard risk, the combination of both mycotoxins in two samples was considered to pose potential endocrine disrupting risks to humans by hazard index (HI) method. The combined margin of exposure (MOET) for AFB1 and FB1 could constitute a potential health concern, and AFB1 was the main contributor. Our approach provides a blueprint for evaluating the cumulative risks related to different types of mycotoxins and opens a new horizon for the accurate interpretation of epidemiological health outcomes related to multi-mycotoxin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingwen Huang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Q.H.); (K.J.)
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Keqiu Jiang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Q.H.); (K.J.)
| | - Zhanmin Tang
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Kai Fan
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Jiajia Meng
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Dongxia Nie
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Zhihui Zhao
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Yongjiang Wu
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; (Q.H.); (K.J.)
| | - Zheng Han
- Institute for Agro-Food Standards and Testing Technology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Protected Horticultural Technology, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Shanghai), Ministry of Agriculture, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China; (Z.T.); (K.F.); (J.M.); (D.N.); (Z.Z.)
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Ndaw S, Jargot D, Antoine G, Denis F, Melin S, Robert A. Investigating Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in Occupational Settings: A Biomonitoring and Airborne Measurement Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:54. [PMID: 33450876 PMCID: PMC7828332 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigating workplace exposure to mycotoxins is of the utmost importance in supporting the implementation of preventive measures for workers. The aim of this study was to provide tools for measuring mycotoxins in urine and airborne samples. A multi-class mycotoxin method was developed in urine for the determination of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, ochratoxin α, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, fumonisin B1, HT2-toxin and T2-toxin. Analysis was based on liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Sample pre-treatments included enzymatic digestion and an online or offline sample clean-up step. The method was validated according to the European Medicines Agency guidance procedures. In order to estimate external exposure, air samples collected with a CIP 10 (Capteur Individuel de Particules 10) personal dust sampler were analyzed for the quantification of up to ten mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisin B1 and HT-2 toxin and T-2 toxin. The method was validated according to standards for workplace exposure to chemical and biological agents EN 482. Both methods, biomonitoring and airborne mycotoxin measurement, showed good analytical performances. They were successfully applied in a small pilot study to assess mycotoxin contamination in workers during cleaning of a grain elevator. We demonstrated that this approach was suitable for investigating occupational exposure to mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Ndaw
- Toxicology and Biomonitoring Department, INRS—French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases, 54500 Vandoeuvre-Lés-Nancy, France; (G.A.); (F.D.); (A.R.)
| | - Daniele Jargot
- Pollutant Metrology Department, INRS—French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases, 54500 Vandoeuvre-Lés-Nancy, France; (D.J.); (S.M.)
| | - Guillaume Antoine
- Toxicology and Biomonitoring Department, INRS—French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases, 54500 Vandoeuvre-Lés-Nancy, France; (G.A.); (F.D.); (A.R.)
| | - Flavien Denis
- Toxicology and Biomonitoring Department, INRS—French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases, 54500 Vandoeuvre-Lés-Nancy, France; (G.A.); (F.D.); (A.R.)
| | - Sandrine Melin
- Pollutant Metrology Department, INRS—French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases, 54500 Vandoeuvre-Lés-Nancy, France; (D.J.); (S.M.)
| | - Alain Robert
- Toxicology and Biomonitoring Department, INRS—French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases, 54500 Vandoeuvre-Lés-Nancy, France; (G.A.); (F.D.); (A.R.)
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Ropejko K, Twarużek M. Zearalenone and Its Metabolites-General Overview, Occurrence, and Toxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:35. [PMID: 33418872 PMCID: PMC7825134 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi and represent one of the most common groups of food contaminants with low molecular weight. These toxins are considered common and can affect the food chain at various stages of production, harvesting, storage and processing. Zearalenone is one of over 400 detected mycotoxins and produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium; it mainly has estrogenic effects on various organisms. Contaminated products can lead to huge economic losses and pose risks to animals and humans. In this review, we systemize information on zearalenone and its major metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Chodkiewicza 30, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland;
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Zinedine A, Ben Salah-Abbes J, Abbès S, Tantaoui-Elaraki A. Aflatoxin M1 in Africa: Exposure Assessment, Regulations, and Prevention Strategies - A Review. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 258:73-108. [PMID: 34611756 DOI: 10.1007/398_2021_73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are the most harmful mycotoxins causing health problems to human and animal. Many acute aflatoxin outbreaks have been reported in Africa, especially in Kenya and Tanzania. When ingested, aflatoxin B1 is converted by hydroxylation in the liver into aflatoxin M1, which is excreted in milk of dairy females and in urine of exposed populations. This review aims to highlight the AFM1 studies carried out in African regions (North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa), particularly AFM1 occurrence in milk and dairy products, and in human biological fluids (breast milk, serum, and urine) of the populations exposed. Strategies for AFM1 detoxification will be considered, as well as AFM1 regulations as compared to the legislation adopted worldwide and the assessment of AFM1 exposure of some African populations. Egypt, Kenya, and Nigeria have the highest number of investigations on AFM1 in the continent. Indeed, some reports showed that 100% of the samples analyzed exceeded the EU regulations (50 ng/kg), especially in Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Sudan, and Egypt. Furthermore, AFM1 levels up to 8,000, 6,999, 6,900, and 2040 ng/kg have been reported in milk from Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, and Nigeria, respectively. Data on AFM1 occurrence in human biological fluids have also shown that exposure of African populations is mainly due to milk intake and breastfeeding, with 85-100% of children being exposed to high levels. Food fermentation in Africa has been tried for AFM1 detoxification strategies. Few African countries have set regulations for AFM1 in milk and derivatives, generally similar to those of the Codex alimentarius, the US or the EU standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdellah Zinedine
- Faculty of Sciences, BIOMARE Laboratory, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnologies, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida, Morocco.
| | - Jalila Ben Salah-Abbes
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorization, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Samir Abbès
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorization, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
- Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Béja, University of Jendouba, Jendouba, Tunisia
| | - Abdelrhafour Tantaoui-Elaraki
- Retired, Department of Food Sciences, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine - Rabat, Rabat-Instituts, Témara, Morocco
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Macri AM, Pop I, Simeanu D, Toma D, Sandu I, Pavel LL, Mintas OS. The Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Nuts and Dry Nuts Packed in Four Different Plastic Packaging from the Romanian Market. Microorganisms 2020; 9:E61. [PMID: 33379317 PMCID: PMC7823895 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various fungi. A very important category of mycotoxins are aflatoxins, considered to be the most dangerous in humans. Aflatoxin B1, well known as a favorable factor in the occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma in humans, is the most controversial of all mycotoxins. Aflatoxins, found in naturally contaminated food, are resistant to degradation by heat. Current food processing practices and conventional storage conditions do not completely eliminate aflatoxin contamination from the food supply chain. Long storage food products-such as peanuts, pistachio, nuts in general, and dried fruits-are susceptible to aflatoxins contamination. The type of plastic material can influence the concentration of aflatoxins during storage due to the permeability to gas and moisture exchange with the external milieu. Nuts in general and dried fruits are consumed in large quantities worldwide. Therefore, herein we investigated the effect of plastic material on the total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 content in 64 samples of nuts and dried fruits packed and stored in low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The method consisted in a cleanup procedure using immunoaffinity columns coupled with RIDASCREEN FAST immunoenzymatic competitive assays based on the ELISA technique. Collected data were subjected to statistical analysis and multiple comparisons tests were applied. From the total analyzed samples, 14.06% exceeded the maximum admitted European levels for total aflatoxins. The highest concentrations of total aflatoxins were obtained from samples packed in LDPE, followed by PP, PE, and PET. Aflatoxin B1 was detected in all samples packed in LDPE, PP, and PE. Most of the samples packed in PET had concentrations <1 µg/kg. These results indicate that nuts in general packed and stored in LDPE are more prone to contamination with aflatoxins, while PET is more suitable for maintaining the quality and safety of these products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Maximilian Macri
- Department of Animal Production and Food Safety, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 3-5 Calea Manastur Street, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Ioana Pop
- Department of Land Measurements and Exact Sciences, Faculty of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 3-5 Calea Manastur Street, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Daniel Simeanu
- Department of Fundamental Sciences in Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Sciences, Ion Ionescu de la Brad University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi, 3 Mihail Sadoveanu Alley, 700490 Iasi, Romania
| | - Diana Toma
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology of Agri-Food Products, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 64 Calea Floresti Street, 400509 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Ion Sandu
- Academy of Romanian Scientists (AOSR), 54 Splaiul Independentei St., Sect. 5, 050094 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Conservation of Cultural Heritage, Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, ARHEOINVEST Centrum, 11 Carol I, Bld., 700506 Iasi, Romania
- Romanian Inventors Forum, Str. Sf. P. Movila 3, 700089 Iasi, Romania
| | - Liliana Lacramioara Pavel
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Str. Domneasca, nr. 47, 800008 Galati, Romania;
| | - Olimpia Smaranda Mintas
- Department of Animal Science and Agritourism, Faculty of Environmental Protection, University of Oradea, 1 University Street, 410087 Oradea, Romania;
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Silva LJG, Pereira AMPT, Pena A, Lino CM. Citrinin in Foods and Supplements: A Review of Occurrence and Analytical Methodologies. Foods 2020; 10:E14. [PMID: 33374559 PMCID: PMC7822436 DOI: 10.3390/foods10010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Citrinin (CIT) deserves attention due to its known toxic effects in mammalian species and its widespread occurrence in food commodities, often along with ochratoxin A, another nephrotoxic mycotoxin. Human exposure, a key element in assessing risk related to food contaminants, depends upon mycotoxin contamination levels in food and on food consumption. Commercial supplements, commonly designated as red rice, usually used in daily diets in Asiatic countries due to their medicinal properties, may pose a health problem as a result of high CIT levels. In addition to the worldwide occurrence of CIT in foods and supplements, a wide range of several analytical and detection techniques with high sensitivity, used for evaluation of CIT, are reviewed and discussed in this manuscript. This review addresses the scientific literature regarding the presence of CIT in foods of either vegetable or animal origin, as well as in supplements. On what concerns analytical methodologies, sample extraction methods, such as shaking extraction and ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE), clean-up methods, such as liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), solid phase extraction (SPE) and Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuECHERS), and detection and quantification methods, such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis (CE), biosensors, and ELISA, are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana J. G. Silva
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Sta Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.M.P.T.P.); (A.P.); (C.M.L.)
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Lu Q, Qin JA, Fu YW, Luo JY, Lu JH, Logrieco AF, Yang MH. Modified mycotoxins in foodstuffs, animal feed, and herbal medicine: A systematic review on global occurrence, transformation mechanism and analysis methods. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.116088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Ali N, Manirujjaman M, Rana S, Degen GH. Determination of aflatoxin M 1 and deoxynivalenol biomarkers in infants and children urines from Bangladesh. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:3775-3786. [PMID: 32880717 PMCID: PMC7603468 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02857-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxins aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are found worldwide in crops and dietary staples. The prevalence and levels of these contaminants can vary greatly, and data in Bangladeshi food commodities are scarce. To characterize human exposure, we have conducted biomonitoring, analyzing AFM1 (a metabolite of AFB1) and DON levels in urines of adult cohorts in Bangladesh. Yet, AFM1 and DON occurrence has not been studied in the very young population of this country. Thus, the same methods, HPLC-FD for AFM1 and LC-MS/MS for DON analysis, were now applied to determine these biomarkers in urines of infants (n = 49) and young children (n = 105) in Rajshahi and Dhaka district. Overall, AFM1 and DON detection frequency was 43.5% and 33.4%, with 34.7% and 11.5% in infant and 47.6% and 39.4% in children urines, respectively. The mean AFM1 levels in all infants (9.1 ± 14.3, max 55.6 pg/mL) and children (8.8 ± 12.9, max 75.3 pg/mL) were not significantly different. The AFM1 mean level was slightly higher in Dhaka (9.4 ± 12.4) compared to Rajshahi (8.5 ± 13.9 pg/mL) district. The average DON level was about 2-fold higher in infant (3.8 ± 2.9, max 6.8 ng/mL) than children urines (1.6 ± 1.8, max 8.6 ng/mL), and higher in Rajshahi (2.1 ± 2.3 ng/mL) than Dhaka (1.4 ± 1.6 ng/mL) district. The biomarker-based estimated average daily DON intake (29.6 ± 108.3 ng/kg bw in infants and 36.4 ± 81.8 ng/kg bw in children) or the maximum exposure (560 ng/kg bw) do not exceed the current maximum provisional tolerable daily intake value of 1 µg/kg bw for DON, although DON exposure in infants and children is higher than that of Bangladeshi adults. The AFM1 urine levels in young children are somewhat lower than those found previously in adult cohorts in Bangladesh, but the frequent detection of this biomarker for AFB1 exposure raises further concerns, also for this vulnerable part of the population. Therefore, continuous surveillance for aflatoxins in Bangladeshi food commodities is clearly required, first to identify major sources of intake and then to reduce exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurshad Ali
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Sylhet, 3114 Bangladesh
| | - M. Manirujjaman
- Department of Biochemistry, Gonoshasthaya Samaj Vittik Medical College, Gono University, Savar, Dhaka, 1344 Bangladesh
| | - Sohel Rana
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Science, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, 6205 Bangladesh
| | - Gisela H. Degen
- Leibniz-Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors (IfADo) at the TU Dortmund, Ardeystr. 67, 44139 Dortmund, Germany
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Adaku Chilaka C, Mally A. Mycotoxin Occurrence, Exposure and Health Implications in Infants and Young Children in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review. Foods 2020; 9:E1585. [PMID: 33139646 PMCID: PMC7693847 DOI: 10.3390/foods9111585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Infants and young children (IYC) remain the most vulnerable population group to environmental hazards worldwide, especially in economically developing regions such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). As a result, several governmental and non-governmental institutions including health, environmental and food safety networks and researchers have been proactive toward protecting this group. Mycotoxins, toxic secondary fungal metabolites, contribute largely to the health risks of this young population. In SSA, the scenario is worsened by socioeconomic status, poor agricultural and storage practices, and low level of awareness, as well as the non-establishment and lack of enforcement of regulatory limits in the region. Studies have revealed mycotoxin occurrence in breast milk and other weaning foods. Of concern is the early exposure of infants to mycotoxins through transplacental transfer and breast milk as a consequence of maternal exposure, which may result in adverse health effects. The current paper presents an overview of mycotoxin occurrence in foods intended for IYC in SSA. It discusses the imperative evidence of mycotoxin exposure of this population group in SSA, taking into account consumption data and the occurrence of mycotoxins in food, as well as biomonitoring approaches. Additionally, it discusses the health implications associated with IYC exposure to mycotoxins in SSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Adaku Chilaka
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Versbacher Straβe 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany;
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He T, Zhou T, Wan H, Han Q, Ma Y, Tan T, Wan Y. One-step deep eutectic solvent strategy for efficient analysis of aflatoxins in edible oils. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2020; 100:4840-4848. [PMID: 32483821 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Aflatoxins, a kind of carcinogen, have attracted increasing attention due to their toxicity and harmfulness to human health. Traditional methods for aflatoxins analysis usually involve tedious extraction steps with a subsequent derivatization process. Herein, a simple and efficient liquid-phase microextraction method based on deep eutectic solvents (DESs) for direct analysis of aflatoxins was developed. RESULTS Adopting DESs as the extractant, we surprisingly found out that DESs could either achieve good extraction performance or play a similar role to the derivatization agent, achieving an enhancement of fluorescence intensity for direct analysis of aflatoxins by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with fluorescent detection. Under optimal conditions obtained by response surface methodology, the method provided satisfactory linear ranges (0.01-0.75 μg kg-1 for AFB1 and AFG1, 0.003-0.25 μg kg-1 for AFB2 and AFG2) with good determination coefficients (R2 > 0.9988), a low detection limit (0.0005-0.003 μg kg-1 ), and good recovery rates (72.05-113.54%). CONCLUSION These results highlighted superiorities of the one-step DES strategy for analysis of aflatoxins in edible oils, providing insights for future development of efficient methods in food analysis. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting He
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P. R. China
| | - Tong Zhou
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Nanchang University, Nanchang, P. R. China
| | - Hao Wan
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Quanbin Han
- School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
| | - Yaqian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Ting Tan
- Center of Analysis and Testing, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yiqun Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- Center of Analysis and Testing, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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Xia L, Routledge MN, Rasheed H, Ismail A, Dong Y, Jiang T, Gong YY. Biomonitoring of Aflatoxin B 1 and Deoxynivalenol in a Rural Pakistan Population Using Ultra-Sensitive LC-MS/MS Method. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E591. [PMID: 32932694 PMCID: PMC7551319 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There are limited data on exposure to mycotoxins in Pakistan. Here, we measured exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON), a common contaminant of wheat, and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a known contaminant of rice, using biomarkers of exposure. Wheat (n = 195) and rice (n = 62) samples were analyzed for AFB1 and DON levels, and the corresponding urinary biomarkers were analyzed in urine samples from a rural population (n = 264, aged 4-80 years, male 58%) using ultra-sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. AFB1 was detected in 66% of rice (5.04 ± 11.94 µg/kg) and 3% of wheat samples. AFM1 (hydroxylated form of AFB1)was detected in 69% of urine samples, mean 0.023 ± 0.048 ng/mL and DON was detected in 20% of urine samples, mean 0.170 ± 0.129 ng/mL. The maximum probable daily intake for DON derived from the urinary biomarker was 59.8 ng/kg b.w./day, which is below the Joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Expert Committee on Food Additives' tolerable daily intake (1000 ng/kg b.w./day). However, for aflatoxin, the derived margin of exposure (MoE) of (13.2) was well below the safe MoE (10,000) suggested by the European Food Safety Authority. The calculated aflatoxin-associated cancer risk of 0.514/105 individuals/year suggests that measures should be taken to reduce the AFB1 contamination in food, particularly rice, in Pakistan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Xia
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (L.X.); (Y.D.); (T.J.)
| | - Michael N. Routledge
- School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK;
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hifza Rasheed
- Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad 44080, Pakistan;
| | - Amir Ismail
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60000, Pakistan;
| | - Yao Dong
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (L.X.); (Y.D.); (T.J.)
| | - Tao Jiang
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (L.X.); (Y.D.); (T.J.)
| | - Yun Yun Gong
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK; (L.X.); (Y.D.); (T.J.)
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Zhang S, Zhou S, Gong YY, Zhao Y, Wu Y. Human dietary and internal exposure to zearalenone based on a 24-hour duplicate diet and following morning urine study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 142:105852. [PMID: 32563773 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone is a widespread mycotoxin with high estrogenic activity. This study aimed to characterize the exposure of ZEN in a Chinese population during harvest season in 2016. Exposure to ZEN was measured using both duplicate diet method and human biomonitoring approaches. Duplicate diet samples from 199 individuals (4-80 years old) and their following morning urine samples were collected and analyzed using LC-MS/MS methods sensitive for ZEN, ZAN, α/β-ZEL and α/β-ZAL. ZEN was detected in 59.8% of the food samples at a mean level of 1.21 ± 2.15 μg/kg. The estimated daily intake (EDI) of ZEN was calculated from food contamination and consumption data at a mean level of 25.6 ± 38.6 ng/kg bw/day, representing 10.2% of the tolerable daily intake (TDI) set by EFSA and 5.1% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) set by JECFA, respectively. Wheat appears to be the main diet source of ZEN exposure, contributing over 80% of the mean EDI. Children had the highest EDI at 37.5 ± 56.3 ng/kg bw/day (p < 0.05). Urine samples were analyzed both before and after enzymatic hydrolysis to determine the free and total amounts of ZEN biomarkers. The majority of ZEN was excreted as conjugates with the mean fZEN/tBM ratio of 25.4%. Adolescents had the highest excretion of ZEN biomarkers among all age groups (p < 0.05). Probable daily intake (PDI) was calculated from ZEN biomarkers and an excretion rate of 36.8%, giving a mean value of 41.6 ± 65.5 ng/kg bw/day. Significant correlation between internal and external exposure measurement was evidenced in this study (r = 0.344, p < 0.01). Although the mean PDI was approximately 1.6 times the mean EDI, these two approaches resulted in similar calculated degrees of ZEN exposure, both markedly below the health-based guidance value. This study is the first to compare ZEN exposure in a same population based on both diet study and human biomonitoring approaches. Significant differences of PDI/EDI ratios were found in different age groups (p < 0.05), possibly indicative of diversified excretion capabilities and metabolism patterns within the population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Shuang Zhou
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Yun Yun Gong
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China; School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Yunfeng Zhao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Yongning Wu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China
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