Zika virus: A review of literature

Bovine serum albumin nanoparticles containing Poly (I:C) can enhance the neutralizing antibody response induced by envelope protein of Orthoflavivirus zikaense

Since the Orthoflavivirus zikaense (ZIKV) has been considered a risk for Zika congenital syndrome development, developing a safe and effective vaccine has become a high priority. Numerous research groups have developed strategies to prevent ZIKV infection and have identified the domain III of the ZIKV envelope protein (zEDIII) as a promising target. Subunit antigens are often poorly immunogenic, necessitating the use of adjuvants and/or delivery systems to induce optimal immune responses. The subject of nanotechnology has substantial expansion in recent years in terms of research and applications. Nanoparticles could be used as drug delivery systems and to increase the immunogenicity and stability of a given antigen. This work aims to characterize and validate the potential of a vaccine formulation composed of domain zEDIII and bovine serum albumin nanoparticles containing polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (NPPI). NPPI were uptake in vitro by immature bone marrow dendritic cells and histological analysis of the skin of mice treated with NPPI showed an increase in cellularity. Immunization assay showed that mice immunized with zEDIII in the presence of NPPI produced neutralizing antibodies. Through the passive transfer of sera from immunized mice to ZIKV-infected neonatal mice, it was demonstrated that these antibodies provide protection, mitigating weight loss, clinical or neurological signs induced by infection, and significantly increased survival rates. Protection was further substantiated by the reduction in the number of viable infectious ZIKV, as well as a decrease in inflammatory cytokines and tissue alterations in the brains of infected mice. Taken together, data presented in this study shows that NPPI + zEDIII is a promising vaccine candidate for ZIKV.

Protective Effects of Caffeine on Chikungunya and Zika Virus Infections: An in Vitro and in Silico Study

Infection by viruses Chikungunya (CHIKV) and Zika (ZIKV) continue to be serious problems in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Here, we evaluated the antiviral and virucidal activity of caffeine against CHIKV and ZIKV in Vero, A549, and Huh-7 cell lines. Results showed that caffeine displays antiviral properties against both viruses. By pre-and post-infection treatment, caffeine significantly inhibited CHIKV and ZIKV replication in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, caffeine showed a virucidal effect against ZIKV. Molecular docking suggests the possible binding of caffeine with envelope protein and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of CHIKV and ZIKV. This is the first study that showed an antiviral effect of caffeine against CHIKV and ZIKV. Although further studies are needed to better understand the mechanism of caffeine-mediated repression of viral replication, caffeine appears to be a promising compound that could be used for in vivo studies, perhaps in synergy with other compounds present in daily beverages.

The Innate Defense in the Zika-Infected Placenta

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an arthropod-borne virus that belongs to the Flaviviridae family, genus Flavivirus and was first isolated 1947 in Uganda, Africa, from the serum of a sentinel Rhesus monkey. Since its discovery, the virus was responsible for major outbreaks in several different countries, being linked to severe complications in pregnant women, neonatal birth defects and the congenital zika syndrome. Maternal-fetal transmission of ZIKV can occur in all trimesters of pregnancy, and the role of the placenta and its cells in these cases is yet to be fully understood. The decidua basalis and chorionic villi, maternal-fetal components of the placenta, contain a rich immunological infiltrate composed by Hofbauer cells, mastocytes, dendritic cells and macrophages, primary cells of the innate immune response that have a role that still needs to be better investigated in ZIKV infection. Recent studies have already described several histopathological features and the susceptibility and permissiveness of placenta cells to infection by the Zika virus. In this review, we address some of the current knowledge on the innate immune responses against ZIKV, especially in the placenta.

Mosquitoes and Mosquito-Borne Diseases in Vietnam

Mosquito-borne diseases pose a significant threat to humans in almost every part of the world. Key factors such as global warming, climatic conditions, rapid urbanisation, frequent human relocation, and widespread deforestation significantly increase the number of mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases in Vietnam, and elsewhere around the world. In southeast Asia, and notably in Vietnam, national mosquito control programmes contribute to reducing the risk of mosquito-borne disease transmission, however, malaria and dengue remain a threat to public health. The aim of our review is to provide a complete checklist of all Vietnamese mosquitoes that have been recognised, as well as an overview of mosquito-borne diseases in Vietnam. A total of 281 mosquito species of 42 subgenera and 22 genera exist in Vietnam. Of those, Anopheles, Aedes, and Culex are found to be potential vectors for mosquito-borne diseases. Major mosquito-borne diseases in high-incidence areas of Vietnam include malaria, dengue, and Japanese encephalitis. This review may be useful to entomological researchers for future surveys of Vietnamese mosquitoes and to decision-makers responsible for vector control tactics.

Impact of major disease outbreaks in the third millennium on adolescent and youth sexual and reproductive health and rights in low and/or middle-income countries: a systematic scoping review protocol

INTRODUCTION

Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) of young people continue to present a high burden and remain underinvested. This is more so in low and middle-income countries (LMICs), where empirical evidence reveals disruption of SRHR maintenance, need for enhancement of programmes, resources and services during pandemics. Despite the importance of the subject, there is no published review yet combining recent disease outbreaks such as (H1N1/09, Zika, Ebola and SARS-COV-2) to assess their impact on adolescents and youth SRHR in LMICs.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

We will adopt a four-step search to reach the maximum possible number of studies. In the first step, we will carry out a limitedpreliminary search in databases for getting relevant keywords (appendix 1). Second, we will search in four databases: Pubmed, Cochrane Library, Embase and PsycINFO. The search would begin from the inception of the first major outbreak in 2009 (H1N1/09) up to the date of publication of the protocol in early 2022. We will search databases using related keywords, screen title & abstract and review full texts of the selected titles to arrive at the list of eligible studies. In the third stage, we will check their eligibility to the included article's reference list. In the fourth stage, we will check the citations of included papers in phase 2 to complete our study selection. We will include all types of original studies and without any language restriction in our final synthesis. Our review results will be charted for each pandemic separately and include details pertaining to authors, year, country, region of the study, study design, participants (disaggregated by age and gender), purpose and report associated SRHR outcomes. The review will adhere to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews guideline (PRISMA-ScR).

PATIENT AND PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT

Patients or public were not involved in this study.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical assessment is not required for this study. The results of the study will be presented in peer-reviewed publications and conferences on adolescent SRHR.

SARS-CoV-2, Zika viruses and mycoplasma: Structure, pathogenesis and some treatment options in these emerging viral and bacterial infectious diseases

The molecular evolution of life on earth along with changing environmental, conditions has rendered mankind susceptible to endemic and pandemic emerging infectious diseases. The effects of certain systemic viral and bacterial infections on morbidity and mortality are considered as examples of recent emerging infections. Here we will focus on three examples of infections that are important in pregnancy and early childhood: SARS-CoV-2 virus, Zika virus, and Mycoplasma species. The basic structural characteristics of these infectious agents will be examined, along with their general pathogenic mechanisms. Coronavirus infections, such as caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, likely evolved from zoonotic bat viruses to infect humans and cause a pandemic that has been the biggest challenge for humanity since the Spanish Flu pandemic of the early 20th century. In contrast, Zika Virus infections represent an expanding infectious threat in the context of global climate change. The relationship of these infections to pregnancy, the vertical transmission and neurological sequels make these viruses highly relevant to the topics of this special issue. Finally, mycoplasmal infections have been present before mankind evolved, but they were rarely identified as human pathogens until recently, and they are now recognized as important coinfections that are able to modify the course and prognosis of various infectious diseases and other chronic illnesses. The infectious processes caused by these intracellular microorganisms are examined as well as some general aspects of their pathogeneses, clinical presentations, and diagnoses. We will finally consider examples of treatments that have been used to reduce morbidity and mortality of these infections and discuss briefly the current status of vaccines, in particular, against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. It is important to understand some of the basic features of these emerging infectious diseases and the pathogens involved in order to better appreciate the contributions of this special issue on how infectious diseases can affect human pregnancy, fetuses and neonates.

Clinical manifestations and health outcomes associated with Zika virus infections in adults: A systematic review

Background

Zika virus (ZIKV) has generated global interest in the last five years mostly due to its resurgence in the Americas between 2015 and 2016. It was previously thought to be a self-limiting infection causing febrile illness in less than one quarter of those infected. However, a rise in birth defects amongst children born to infected pregnant women, as well as increases in neurological manifestations in adults has been demonstrated. We systemically reviewed the literature to understand clinical manifestations and health outcomes in adults globally.

Methods

This review was registered prospectively with PROPSERO (CRD 42018096558). We systematically searched for studies in six databases from inception to the end of September 2020. There were no language restrictions. Critical appraisal was completed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Tools.

Findings

We identified 73 studies globally that reported clinical outcomes in ZIKV-infected adults, of which 55 studies were from the Americas. For further analysis, we considered studies that met 70% of critical appraisal criteria and described subjects with confirmed ZIKV. The most common symptoms included: exanthema (5,456/6,129; 89%), arthralgia (3,809/6,093; 63%), fever (3,787/6,124; 62%), conjunctivitis (2,738/3,283; 45%), myalgia (2,498/5,192; 48%), headache (2,165/4,722; 46%), and diarrhea (337/2,622; 13%). 36/14,335 (0.3%) of infected cases developed neurologic sequelae, of which 75% were Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS). Several subjects reported recovery from peak of neurological complications, though some endured chronic disability. Mortality was rare (0.1%) and hospitalization (11%) was often associated with co-morbidities or GBS.

Conclusions

The ZIKV literature in adults was predominantly from the Americas. The most common systemic symptoms were exanthema, fever, arthralgia, and conjunctivitis; GBS was the most prevalent neurological complication. Future ZIKV studies are warranted with standardization of testing and case definitions, consistent co-infection testing, reporting of laboratory abnormalities, separation of adult and pediatric outcomes, and assessing for causation between ZIKV and neurological sequelae.

Interest in Zika virus (ZIKV) has increased in the last decade due to its emergence and rapid spread in the Americas. In this review, we examine ZIKV clinical manifestations and sequelae in adults. Among studies reporting subjects with confirmed ZIKV and critical appraisal scores of at least 70%, symptoms reported include exanthema, fever, arthralgia, conjunctivitis, myalgia, headache, and diarrhea. Neurological sequelae in this group occurred in 0.3% of subjects, of which 75% were Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS). Recovery from GBS was variable: some patients returned to health and others endured chronic disability. Mortality was rare (0.1%). Hospitalization (11%) was often associated co-morbidities or GBS; this percentage perhaps reflects studies in which all reported subjects were hospitalized. Synthesizing reported data is challenging given the wide range of case definitions and ZIKV testing practices.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice toward Zika virus among staff of comprehensive health services centers affiliated with Tehran University of Medical Sciences in 2020

AIM

Assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practice of healthcare providers regarding Zika virus, provides information on their ability to prevent its transmission, and emphasizes the necessity of implementing educational programs if their knowledge, attitude, and practice are low. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of the staff of comprehensive health services centers affiliated with Tehran University of Medical Sciences regarding Zika Virus.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 354 staffs of comprehensive health service centers. The researcher-made questionnaire consisted of two sections. The first section of the questionnaire was about demographic and professional characteristics of the participants and the second section was assessment of knowledge, attitude, and practice regarding Zika virus. Data analysis was performed by SPSS 16 software using descriptive and analytical statistics.

RESULTS

In this study, 70.9% of the participants had poor knowledge, 24.1% had moderate knowledge, and only 5% had good knowledge about Zika virus. Regarding attitude, 10.6% of the participants had negative attitude, 45.9% had neutral attitude, and 43.5% had positive attitude toward Zika virus. Moreover, 40.6% of the participants had poor practice, 24.7% had moderate practice, and 34.7% had good practice in Zika virus.

CONCLUSION

The knowledge level in participants about Zika virus was unacceptable and their attitude and practice level was relatively acceptable. Therefore, it is necessary to design and implement educational interventions aimed at promoting knowledge, attitude, and practice of the staff of comprehensive health services centers regarding Zika Virus.

Recent progresses and remaining challenges for the detection of Zika virus

Zika virus (ZIKV) has emerged as a particularly notorious mosquito-borne flavivirus, which can lead to a devastating congenital syndrome in the fetuses of pregnant mothers (e.g., microcephaly, spasticity, craniofacial disproportion, miscarriage, and ocular abnormalities) and cause the autoimmune disorder Guillain-Barre' syndrome of adults. Due to its severity and rapid dispersal over several continents, ZIKV has been acknowledged to be a global health concern by the World Health Organization. Unfortunately, the ZIKV has recently resurged in India with the potential for devastating effects. Researchers from all around the world have worked tirelessly to develop effective detection strategies and vaccines for the prevention and control of ZIKV infection. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the most recent research into ZIKV, including the structural biology and evolution, historical overview, pathogenesis, symptoms, and transmission. We then focus on the detection strategies for ZIKV, including viral isolation, serological assays, molecular assays, sensing methods, reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification, transcription-mediated amplification technology, reverse transcription strand invasion based amplification, bioplasmonic paper-based device, and reverse transcription isothermal recombinase polymerase amplification. To conclude, we examine the limitations of currently available strategies for the detection of ZIKV, and outline future opportunities and research challenges.

Application of carbon nanomaterials in human virus detection

Human-pathogenic viruses are still a chief reason for illness and death on the globe, as epitomized by the COVID-19 pandemic instigated by a coronavirus in 2020. Multiple novel sensors have been invented because diseases must be detected and diagnosed as early as possible, and recognition methods have to be carried out with minimal invasivity. Sensors have been particularly developed focusing on miniaturization by the use of nanomaterials for fabricating nanosensors. The nano-sized nature of nanomaterials and their exclusive optical, electronical, magnetical, and mechanical attributes can enhance patient care through the use of sensors with minimal invasivity and extreme sensitivity. Amongst the nanomaterials utilized for fabricating nano-sensors, carbon-based nanomaterials are promising as these sensors respond better to signals in various sensing settings. This review provides an overview of the recent developments in carbon nanomaterial-based biosensors for viral recognition based on the biomarkers that arise from the infection, the nucleic acids from the viruses, and the entire virus. The role of carbon nanomaterials is highlighted by the improvement of sensor and recognition functionality. The Dengue virus, Ebola virus, Hepatits virus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), influenza virus, Zika virus and Adenovirus are the virus types reviewed to illustrate the implementation of the techniques. Finally, the drawbacks and advantages of carbon nanomaterial-based biosensors for viral recognition are identified and discussed.

Epidemiologic and clinical investigations during a chikungunya outbreak in Rio Grande do Norte State, Brazil

The first autochthonous case of chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection in Brazil was in September 2014 in the State of Amapá, and from there it rapidly spread across the country. The present study was conducted in 2016 in the state of Rio Grande do Norte, and the aims were to describe the epidemiological and the clinical aspects of the CHIKV outbreak. Biological samples from 284 chikungunya suspected cases were screened for CHIKV and Flavivirus (FV) RNA using qRT-PCR. Negative PCR samples were also screened for anti-CHIKV and anti-FVIgM by ELISA. CHIKV RNA were detected in 125 samples mostly occurring from January through March (46%), mainly affecting adults and older adults. We found a gradual decrease in viral RNA over the disease time. Anti-CHIKV IgM was found in 47.5% after negative CHIKV qRT-PCR. Interestingly, 45.0% simultaneously had positive results for CHIKV and FV IgM, suggesting the occurrence of virus co-circulation. The most frequent symptom was fever (91%). Women presented more chance to develop nausea and abdominal pain compared to men. Our data described and allows us to better understand the clinical and epidemiological aspects of the 2016 chikungunya outbreak in Rio Grande do Norte and can help in the early clinical diagnosis of the virus.

Predictors of mortality in patients with COVID-19-a systematic review

Introduction

In the current COVID-19 pandemic, disease diagnosis is essential for optimal management and timely isolation of infected cases in order to prevent further spread. The aim of this study was to systematically review the assessment of risk and model the predictors of mortality in COVID-19 patients.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted of PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases. Variables associated with hospital mortality using bivariate analysis were included as potential independent predictors associated with mortality at the p < 0.05 levels.

Results

We included 114 studies accounting for 310,494 patients from various parts of the world. For the purpose of this analysis, we set a cutoff point of 10% for the mortality percentages. High mortality rates were defined as higher than 10% of confirmed positive cases and were given a score of two, while low mortality (<10%) was assigned the score of one. We then analyzed the associations between 72 variables and the observed mortality rates. These variables included a large range of related variables such as demographics, signs and symptoms and related morbidities, vital signs, laboratory findings, imaging studies, underlying diseases, and the status of countries' income, based on the United Nation's classifications.

Conclusion

Findings suggest that older age, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus conferred a significant increased risk of mortality among patients with COVID-19. In the multivariate analysis, only diabetes mellitus demonstrated an independent relationship with increased mortality. Further studies are needed to ascertain the relationship between possible risk factors with COVID-19 mortality.

Neuroimaging of Emergent and Reemergent Infections

Infectious diseases emerge and reemerge over the years, and many of them can cause neurologic disease. Several factors contribute to the emergence and reemergence of these conditions, including human population growth, an increase in international travel, the geographic expansion of recognized pathogens to areas where they were previously nonendemic, and greater contact with wild animal reservoirs. The antivaccination social movement has played an important role in the reemergence of infectious diseases, especially some viral conditions. The authors review different viral (arboviruses such as dengue, chikungunya, and Zika virus; enterovirus 71; measles; and influenza), bacterial (syphilis, Lyme disease, and listeriosis), and parasitic (Chagas disease) diseases, focusing primarily on their neurologic complications. Although there are several additional infectious diseases with central nervous system manifestations that could be classified as emergent or reemergent, those listed here are the most relevant from an epidemiologic standpoint and are representative of important public health issues on all continents. The infections caused by these pathogens often show a variety of neuroimaging patterns that can be identified at CT and MRI, and radiology is central to the diagnosis and follow-up of such conditions. Given the increasing relevance of emerging and reemerging infections in clinical practice and public health scenarios, radiologists should be familiar with these infections. Online supplemental material is available for this article. ^©RSNA, 2019.

Sero-prevalence of arthropod-borne viral infections among Lukanga swamp residents in Zambia

INTRODUCTION

The re-emergence of vector borne diseases affecting millions of people in recent years has drawn attention to arboviruses globally. Here, we report on the sero-prevalence of chikungunya virus (CHIKV), dengue virus (DENV), mayaro virus (MAYV) and zika virus (ZIKV) in a swamp community in Zambia.

METHODS

We collected blood and saliva samples from residents of Lukanga swamps in 2016 during a mass-cholera vaccination campaign. Over 10,000 residents were vaccinated with two doses of Shanchol™ during this period. The biological samples were collected prior to vaccination (baseline) and at specified time points after vaccination. We tested a total of 214 baseline stored serum samples for IgG antibodies against NS1 of DENV and ZIKV and E2 of CHIKV and MAYV on ELISA. We defined sero-prevalence as the proportion of participants with optical density (OD) values above a defined cut-off value, determined using a finite mixture model.

RESULTS

Of the 214 participants, 79 (36.9%; 95% CI 30.5-43.8) were sero-positive for Chikungunya; 23 (10.8%; 95% CI 6.9-15.7) for Zika, 36 (16.8%; 95% CI 12.1-22.5) for Dengue and 42 (19.6%; 95% CI 14.5-25.6) for Mayaro. Older participants were more likely to have Zika virus whilst those involved with fishing activities were at greater risk of contracting Chikungunya virus. Among all the antigens tested, we also found that Chikungunya saliva antibody titres correlated with baseline serum titres (Spearman's correlation coefficient = 0.222; p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

Arbovirus transmission is occurring in Zambia. This requires proper screening tools as well as surveillance data to accurately report on disease burden in Zambia.

Zika virus infection from a newborn point of view. TORCH or TORZiCH?

Zika virus (ZIKV) belongs to the group of viruses called arboviruses. Congenital Zika syndrome is a new disease with infectious teratogenic aetiology. The clinical symptoms are divided into morphological and functional. Most severe complication is the foetal brain disruption sequence that includes severe microcephaly, anomalies of the eyes and congenital contractions of joints. The aim of this paper was to review available facts about Zika virus infection from a newborn point of view in a form of the summary of all important information. Zika virus infection is a problem of past, present and future. Epidemics may occur because of global climate changes, also in countries where natural conditions for life of mosquitos are not present. This clearly indicates the need to continue developing of vaccines and specific antiviral drugs. Until this happens, we must adhere individual preventive measures. Zika virus has proven to us how it can affect the health of adults and neonates but also thinking of healthy people. Newborns with microcephaly on the front pages of the media caused in 2015 panic and fear around the world – for this reason education of people is necessary. Due to serious congenital disorders associated with ZIKV infection and global impact of virus we suggest modifying old acronym TORCH for new TORZiCH to accent the position of Zika virus.

Zika virus: Molecular responses and tissue tropism in the mammalian host

Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreaks have raised alarm because of reports of congenital Zika virus syndrome in infants. The virus is also known to cause the debilitating Guillain-Barré syndrome in adults. As a result, extensive research has been carried out on the virus over the past few years. To study the molecular responses of viral infectivity in mammals, in vitro two-dimensional and three-dimensional cellular models have been employed. The in vivo models of mouse, pig, chicken, and nonhuman primates are primarily used to investigate the teratogenicity of the virus, to study effects of the virus on specific tissues, and to study the systemic effects of a proposed antiviral agent. The virus exhibits wide tissue tropism in the mammalian host. The major host tissues of viral persistence and propagation are neural tissue, ocular tissue, testicular tissue and placental tissue. An understanding of the function of viral components, viral replication cycle, and the molecular responses elicited in the host tissues is imperative for designing antiviral treatment strategies and for development of vaccines. This review provides an update on ZIKV research models and mammalian host responses with respect to ZIKV tissue infection.

Dose Optimization of Chloroquine by Pharmacokinetic Modeling During Pregnancy for the Treatment of Zika Virus Infection

The insidious nature of Zika virus (ZIKV) infections can have a devastating consequence for fetal development. Recent reports have highlighted that chloroquine (CQ) is capable of inhibiting ZIKV endocytosis in brain cells. We applied pharmacokinetic modeling to develop a predictive model for CQ exposure to identify an optimal maternal/fetal dosing regimen to prevent ZIKV endocytosis in brain cells. Model validation used 13 nonpregnancy and 3 pregnancy clinical studies, and a therapeutic CQ plasma window of 0.3-2 μM was derived. Dosing regimens used in rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and malaria were assessed for their ability to target this window. Dosing regimen identified that weekly doses used in malaria were not sufficient to reach the lower therapeutic window; however, daily doses of 150 mg achieved this therapeutic window. The impact of gestational age was further assessed and culminated in a final proposed regimen of 600 mg on day 1, 300 mg on day 2 and 3, and 150 mg thereafter until the end of trimester 2, which resulted in maintaining 65% and 94% of subjects with a trough plasma concentration above the lower therapeutic window on day 6 and at term, respectively.

History of ZIKV Infections in India and Management of Disease Outbreaks

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging arbovirus infection endemic in multiple countries spread from Asia, Africa to the Americas and Europe. Previously known to cause rare and fairly benign human infections, ZIKV has become a major international public health emergency after being linked to unexpected neurological complications, that includes fetal brain damage/death and microcephaly in babies born to infected mothers and Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) in adults. It appears that a single genetic mutation in the ZIKV genome, likely acquired during explosive ZIKV outbreak in French Polynesia (2013), made virus causing mild disease to target fetus brain. The Aedes mosquitoes are found to be the main carrier of ZIKV, passing the virus to humans. Originally isolated from patients in Africa in 1954 (African lineage), virus disseminated to Southeast Asia (Asian lineage), establishing new endemic foci, including one in India. Numerous cases of ZIKV infection have been reported in several locations in India and neighboring countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh since mid of the last century, suggesting that the virus reached this part of Asia soon after it was first discovered in Uganda in 1947. Although, the exact means by which ZIKV was introduced to India remains unknown, it appears that the ZIKV strain circulating in India possibly belongs to the "Asian lineage," which has not yet been associated with microcephaly and other neurological disorders. However, there still exists a threat that the contemporary ZIKV virulent strain from South America, carrying a mutation can return to Asia, posing a potential crisis to newborns and adult patients. Currently there is no specific vaccine or antiviral medication to combat ZIKV infection, thus, vector control and continuous monitoring of potential ZIKV exposure is essential to prevent the devastating consequences similar to the ones experienced in Brazil. However, the major obstacle faced by Indian healthcare agencies is that most cases of ZIKV infection have been reported in rural areas that lack access to rapid diagnosis of infection. In this review, we attempt to present a comprehensive analysis of what is currently known about the ZIKV infection in India and the neighboring countries.

Zika virus epidemiology: from Uganda to world pandemic, an update

Zika virus (ZIKV) infection is an emergent worldwide public health problem. Historically, 84 countries have reported vector-borne ZIKV transmission, 61 of which report on-going transmission. It is a Flavivirus transmitted through arthropods belonging to the Aedes genus. Since 2015, ZIKV infections have increased dramatically; with 1.3 million people infected during 2015 in Brazil alone. This paper's objective is to highlight the conjectural epidemiological points of the virus' dissemination. The digital archives Pubmed, MEDLINE, EMBASE and Cochrane were searched for papers that assessed aspects of ZIKV transmission and epidemiology. The first isolation occurred in Uganda in 1947. Since then, important outbreaks were documented globally. Consequently, an emergent public health problem arose from a rapidly increasing incidence and its association with the development of neurological diseases such as microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome. Key factors in the successful containment of outbreaks include surveillance of mosquitos in the neighbourhood, an early mosquito control treatment, an assertive information campaign, and the involvement of the local population and healthcare workers. As such, while ZIKV seems to be spreading globally in a similar manner to other arboviruses, such as Dengue and Chikungunya viruses, it can also be rapidly contained due to the pre-existing availability of necessary resources and regulatory tools as control measures. This review aims to provide a description of those characteristics of ZIKV infection that may be useful in the construction of effective outbreak control strategies.

The medicinal chemistry of Chikungunya virus

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are an important threat to human and animal health globally. Among these, zoonotic diseases account for billions of cases of human illness and millions of deaths every year, representing an increasing public health problem. Chikungunya virus belongs to the genus Alphavirus of the family Togariridae, and is transmitted mainly by the bite of female mosquitoes of the Aedes aegypti and/or A. albopictus species. The focus of this review will be on the medicinal chemistry of Chikungunya virus, including synthetic and natural products, as well as rationally designed compounds.

Identification of potential inhibitors against the Zika virus using consensus scoring

The Zika virus (ZIKV) is a life threatening pathogen of zoonotic importance with prevalence in some parts of Africa and America. Unfortunately, there is yet to be a single approved vaccine or antiviral drug to treat the diseases and deformations being caused by the Zika virus infection. In this study, about 36 million compounds from MCULE database were virtually screened against a real matured ZIKV protein using a consensus scoring method to get improved hit rates. The consensus scoring method combined the result from the 25 top ranked molecules from both MCULE and Drug Score eXtended (DSX) docking programs which led to the selection of two hit compounds. The inhibition constant (Ki) values of 0.08 and 0.30μm were obtained for the two selected compounds MCULE-8830369631-0-1 and MCULE-9236850811-0-1 respectively, to remark them as hit compounds. The molecular interactions of the two selected hit compounds with the amino acids (ALA 48, ILE 49, ILE 468 and LEU 472) present in the ZIKV protein indicated that they both have similar binding modes. The result of the computationally predicted physicochemical properties including ADMET for the selected compounds showed their great potential in becoming lead compounds upon optimization and thus could be used in treating the Zika virus diseases.